Prediction of Performance of University Hockey Players in Relation ...
Transcript of Prediction of Performance of University Hockey Players in Relation ...
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CHAPTER ndash II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A Physical Education teacher or a coach must have the
knowledge of hisher particular game or sport as well as the
knowledge of sports sciences for getting the top position in the
modern competitions In the modern fast pacer competitions
anthropometric physical fitness measurements and sports
performance have gained much importance Anthropometric
physical fitness and sports performance depends upon the
fitness level by improving technique and tactics in different
games
There cannot be two opinions about the need of review of
related literature In the very beginning it helps in a careful and
methodical perusal of the study at hand It not only serves to
solve the problems but enormously helps in broadening
deepening and understanding of the published research work in
the related field Review of the concerned literature helps to
ascertain that the same has not been put to scrutiny before
The review cited in this chapter has definitely helped the
researcher to imbibe his awareness and understanding of
various techniques available for conducting such a study and
formulating ideas that profoundly contributed to the overall
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rational and interpretation of the data gleaned and compiled
with great effort In the process of conducting the study the
researcher was bound to be zealous and meticulous which in
turn brought about awareness of the peripheral issues that
undoubtedly helped him in framing scientific references
The review enlisted in this chapter was based on various
sources viz-a-viz journals periodicals encyclopedia
newspapers unpublished thesis etc which were available in
various libraries The libraries which the scholar consulted were
Panjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala N S
NIS Patiala LNIPE Gwalior GNDU Amritsar The
relevant literature pertaining to the present study has been
abstracted in this chapter to provide the background material to
evaluate the significance of this study as well as to interpret its
findings
The literature thus collected has been classified into two
sections
(A) Studies on Anthropometric measurements and performance
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
(A) Studies on Anthropometric measurements and performance
Singh AB (2012) The purpose of the study was to assess the
selected anthropometric measurements among the boys aged 6
through 9 years For this purpose a coca of 200 boys aged 6 through
9 years were selected randomly (50 boys in each age group)The
anthropometric variables selected were weight height waist
circumference and hip circumference To find out t h e relationship
between BMI (Body Mass Index) and WHR (Waist- Hip Ratio) for each
age group namely- 6 7 8 and 9 year tribal boys and product
moment correlation was calculated at 005 level of significance
There were significant relationship between BMI and WHR in 9 year
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tribal boys whereas no significant relationship were obtained in 6yr
7yr and 8yr age group tribal boys
KrishnaRYadav Sudheer Rao K Sundar Raj Urs (2012)The
purpose of the study was to compare the Anthropometric
Characteristics Body composition and Somatotype in male
intercollegiate Basketball players and Volleyball players of the
Karnatak University Dharwad st Karnataka Sixty three players
(volleyball N=36 and basketball N=27) of age group 18-25 years were
selected from different colleges affiliated to Karnatak University
Dharwad stKarnataka India All the participants were assessed for
height weight breadths girths and skin fold thickness An
independent samples t-test revealed that basketball players had
significantly higher height (plt001) weight (plt001) and body surface
area (plt001) as compared to volleyball players The basketball
players were also found to have significantly greater biceps (plt001)
and suprailliac (plt001) skin fold thicknesses calf circumference
(plt005) percent body fat (plt001) total body fat(plt001) fat free
mass (plt005) and endomorphic component (plt005) as compared to
volleyball players Volleyball players had significantly greater body
density (plt001) as compared to basketball players It is concluded
that in most of the parameters there were significant differences
between basketball and volleyball players The basketball players
showed better anthropometric Measurements and somatotyping
scores
Tarverdizadeh B Azarbayjani MA (2012) The purpose of
this research was to determine the relationships between selected
anthropometric with physical and motor fitness measures in elite
Iranian soccer players Among the players of national team 60 elite
men were selected voluntary as an overall sample The anthropometric
measures included body mass index (BMI) fat weight lean body
mass height and also chest leg and thigh circumferences and body
composition from total of 60 elite players Also measurements
(sectioned as skin folds girths lengths and breadths) were made for
each player The procedure involved three measures at each site to
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calculate a mean value and used to relate with fitness variables The
physical and motor fitness tests used were ergo jump vertical jump
agility flexibility speed and reaction time Mean calculated scores for
all players were obtained Regression analyses indicated significant
correlation between certain variables of Fitness tests and variables of
anthropometric estimation statistics Knowing these relationships
provides us with valuable predictive information about player‟s
Capabilities in sport Results showed between have less body mass
index (BMI) less fat greater lean body mass great leg and thigh
circumferences were significantly related to better speed agility ergo
jump and vertical jump Also observed greater height with vertical
jump(p lt 005) and relationships between agility and flexibility to less
fat observed too Regression analysis for all variables demonstrated a
significant relationship between some parameters These findings
suggest that we can predict some variables of anthropometric or
physical and motor fitness by other parameters
DixitKPateSPandeyU(2011) The study was concluded
in order to determine the relationship of selected anthropometric and
biomechanical variables with the performance of players in off spin
bowling Five male cricketers players who represent lakshmibai
National Institute of physical education Gwalior were selected as
subjected for the study The help of digital photography was used to
film the subjects is saggital plane of off spin bowling Joint point
method was used in order to obtain the values of selected angular
kinematics variables from develop stick figures The performance of off
spin bowling of each selected subjects was recorded on the basis of
twenty point scale 5 point awarded in run up 5 point awarded in
placement of foot 10 point awarded in Execution 10 point awarded in
Trajectory and 20 point awarded in line length and spin which was
obtained by using three point scales by the three judge To determine
the degree of relationship of selected anthropometric and
biomechanical variables with the performance of players in off spin
bowling Pearson‟s product Moment Correlation Method was used The
obtained value of coefficient of correlation of selected anthropometric
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variables at the moment release Only the height and leg length have
significant relationship with the performance of subjects in off spin
bowling In case of biomechanical variables none of the biomechanical
variable has exhibited significant relationship with the performance of
players in off spin bowling It may be because of small size of the
sample It is a known fact that greater rotation creates greater
momentum but angle at elbow joint bowling arm did not exhibit
significant relationship which may be due to other reasons
Gall F CarlingC William Mreilly T(2010) We compared
anthropometric and fitness performance data from graduate male
youth players from an elite soccer academy who on leaving the
institution were either successful or not in progressing to higher
standards of play Altogether 161 players were grouped according to
whether they achieved international or professional status or
remained amateur Measures were taken across three age categories
(under 14 15 and 16 years of age) Players were assessed using
standard measures of anthropometric and fitness characteristics The
skeletal age of players was also measured to determine maturity
status Multivariate analysis (MANCOVA) identified a significant
(p lt 0001) effect for playing status Univariate analysis revealed a
significant difference in maturity status in amateurs and professionals
versus internationals (p lt 005) in body mass in professionals versus
amateurs (d = 056 p lt 005) in height (d = 085 p lt 001) and
maximal anaerobic power (d = 079 p lt 001) in both professionals
and internationals versus amateurs There was also a significant
difference in counter-movement jump (d = 053 p lt 005) and 40-m
sprint time (d = 050 p lt 005) in internationals versus amateurs as
well as a significant main effect for age and playing position
(p lt 0001) Significant differences were reported for maturity status
body mass height peak concentric torque maximal anaerobic power
and sprint and jump performance with results dependant on age
category and playing position These results suggest that
anthropometric and fitness assessments of elite youth soccer players
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can play a part in determining their chances of proceeding to higher
achievement levels
MannaI KhannaG Chandra DharaP (2010) The aim of
study was to investigate the effect of training on selected
anthropometric physiological and biochemical variables of elite field
hockey players A total of 30 Indian male field hockey players (age
2300-3000 yrs) volunteered for this study The training sessions
were divided into 2 phases (a) Preparatory Phase (PP 8 weeks) and (b)
Competitive Phase (CP 4 weeks) The training programme consist of
aerobic anaerobic and skill development and were completed 4
hrsday 5 daysweek Selected variables were measured at zero level
(baseline data BD) and at the end of PP and CP A significant increase
(Plt005)in LBM back and hand grip strength serum level of urea
uric acid and HDLC and a significant decrease(Plt005) in body fat
sub-maximal exercise heart rate and recovery heart rate
haemoglobin total cholesterol triglyceride and LDLC were noted in PP
and CP of training when compare to BD No significant change was
noted in stature body mass HR max resting heart rate VO2max and
anaerobic power of the players after the training Since the data on
field hockey players are limited in India the present study may
provide useful information to the coaches to develop their training
programme
Carvalho H M (2009) Explosive muscle strength and
muscular balance of the knee joint are important parameters to
succeed in basketball Isokinetic testing has been consistently used
for assessment of concentric and eccentric strength of the knee joint
musculature The literature is more abundant for soccer players
(Sangnier amp Tourny-Chollet J Strength Cond Res 22 2008) than for
other team sports in general and basketball in particular In
addition isokinetic assessment has not been systematically
considered in adolescent basketball players taking into account
growth characteristics The present study examines the isokinetic
parameters of the knee joint musculature in 14-to 15-yearold
basketball players by playing position A total of 51 basketball players
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(140-159 yrs 2-11 years of training) were categorized as guards
(n=16) forwards (n=21) and centers (n=14) Anthropometry included
those measurements needed for estimation of leg volumes (Jones amp
Pearson J Physiology 204 1969) plus stature and body mass After
a 5-min warm-up at 60 rpm in a cycle-ergo meter (Monark) and
stretching subjects performed five maximum knee extensions (KE)
and flexions (KF) in the isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex system 3
Biodex Corporation Shirley NY USA) programmed at 60 degreess
(modes CON and ECC in both legs Moments were corrected for the
effect of gravity and the highest moment from the five trials for each
contraction mode was retained for analysis Parameters for analysis
were absolute peak torque (PT) relative peak torque (PT per kg of body
mass) ‟functional‟ and ‟conventional‟ hamstrings to quadriceps (HQ)
ratios and bilateral differences (Aagaard et al Am J Sports Med 26
1998) Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test position-related
variation in body size and strength parameters Significance level was
set at pamp8804005 As expected centers were taller (F=12251 p lt
001) and heavier (F=11021 p lt 001) than guards and forwards
whereas forwards had similar stature and body mass as guards in this
age group Results in PT showed differences from centers to both
forwards and guards in mean ECCKF in the dominant leg (F=3979
plt005) Also in the non-dominant leg differences revealed in mean
ECCKF (F=4203 plt005) and ECCKE (F=4392 plt005) No
differences were found in mean CON PT as well as HQ ratios and
bilateral differences The present studies showed a significant
position-related variation of body size and absolute peak torque When
expressing isokinetic strength per unit of body mass the effect of
playing position was not anymore significant Future research
including maturational assessments is needed during pubertal years
It would also be of interest to investigate the effect of playing position
in players accumulating more years of basketball practice The
current ongoing project will report the relationship between isokinetic
outputs and concurrent anaerobic tests
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Chauhan et al (2009) The purpose of this study is to
develop the regression equation for the prediction of sprinting
ability of secondary school boys The data was collected from the
boys of age range between 16 to 18 years(X=17) by anthrop
meter skin fold calliper venire calliper and steel tape The
Pearson product movement method for correlations Wherry Do
Little method for calculation multiple correlation and
development of regression equation were utilized Linear
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length thigh length and foot length girth measurements ie
shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh and calf body diameters
ie biacromial bicirstal and ankle diameters subscapular and
thigh skinfolds fat weight and lean body mass body weight and
age has significant and negative correlations with sprinting
ability The multiple correlation of a selected combination of
variables ie length biacromial diameter and lean body mass
with sprinting ability have been found highly significant The
developed multiple correlations are of sufficient size and the
regression equation can be put in the prediction of sprinting
ability of secondary school boys
Latt E (2009) The present study analyzed the development of
the anthropometrical parameters and body composition in young
swimmers and assessed the effect of these parameters on swimming
performance during biological maturation During the 2-year follow-up
study period the age height body mass fat free mass (FFM) bone
mineral mass (BM) arm span and biological maturation values for all
swimmers body mass index (BMI) and spine BMD for boys and body
fat and total BMD for girls significantly increased during each year
(plt005) Partial correlation analysis revealed that 400-m swimming
performance time was elated (plt005) to body height (rgt-0468) and
arm span (rgt-0397) values VO2 was related to body height (rgt0395)
and arm span (rgt0394) at all three measurements after controlling for
age and pubertal status in boys In addition the Cs of the 400-metre
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swimming performance was related (plt005) to the body mass
(rgt0411) BMI (rgt0412) and spine BMD (rgt0500) values at all three
measurement points in girls Tracking of the measured physical
characteristics over the two year study period was very high for boys
(rgt0880) and relatively high for girls (rgt0694)
Gil SM et al (2007) Physiological and anthropometric
characteristics of young soccer players according to their playing
position Relevance for the selection process J Strength Cond
Res 21(2)438-445 2007-The aim of this study was to establish
the anthropometric and physiological profiles of young non elite
soccer players according to their playing position and to
determine their relevance for the selection process Two hundred
forty-one male soccer players who were members of the Getxo
Arenas Club (Bizkaia) participated in this study Players age
1731 (plusmn 264) years range 14-21 years were classified into the
following groups forwards (n = 56) midfielders (n = 79)
defenders (n = 77) and goalkeepers (n = 29) Anthropometric
variables of participants (height weight body mass index 6
skinfolds 4 diameters and 3 perimeters) were measured Also
their somatotype and body composition (weights and percentages
of fat bone and muscle) were calculated Participants performed
the Astrand test to estimate their absolute and relative O2max
an endurance test sprint tests (30 meters flat and 30 meters
with 10 cones) and 3 jump tests (squat jump counter movement
jump and drop jump) Forwards were the leanest presenting the
highest percentage of muscle They were the best performers in
all the physiological tests including endurance velocity agility
and power In contrast goalkeepers were found to be the tallest
and the heaviest players They also had the largest fat skinfolds
and the highest fat percentage but their aerobic capacity was
the lowest In the selection process agility and the jump tests
were the most discriminating for forwards In contrast agility
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height and endurance were the key factors for midfielders The
defenders group was characterized by a lower quantity of fat
Thus we may conclude that anthropometric and physiological
differences exist among soccer players who play in different
positions These differences fit with their different workload in a
game Therefore training programs should include specific
sessions for each positional role
Bayius et al (2006) Conducted a study on
anthropometric body composition and smototype differences of
Greek elite female basketball volleyball and handball players
Their mean scores were compared and it was found that elite
female players varied among sports
Chauhan(2006) The purpose of the study is to determine
the relationship between anthropometric variables and the
middle distance running performance and also to develop
regression equation for the prediction of performance of the
athletes between the age range of 18 and 30 years The data was
collected from 1500 meters middle distance runners as subjects
of the study by using anthropometer skinfold caliper vernier
calliper and steel tape The product movement method for
correlation and wherry do little method for calculating multiple
correlation and development of regression equation were utilized
Linear measurements ie height leg length thigh length total
arm length girth measurements ie biacromial and ankle
diameter thigh(negative) and calf skinfold lean body mass and
age have positive and significant correlations with middle
distance running performance The multiple correlation of
selected combination of variables(ie height thigh girth
biacromial diameter and thigh skinfold) with middle distance
running performance have been found significant but the
multiple correlation is not of sufficient size (so the regression
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equation developed cannot be put in the prediction of middle
distance running performance)
Chauhan and Chauhan (2005) - The purpose of the study
was to explore the possible ingredients of anthropometric
variables which are essential for the execution of explosive arm
strength for volleyball players Since the game of volleyball
involves explosive strength for the execution of important skills
ie smashing blocking serving and receiving the ball in the
playing situations hence arm strength is essential ingredient
which determines the efficiency of players To achieve the
objectives of this study various body measurements on 40
volleyball players selected as subjects were taken Product
movement method for correlations and developing Regression
Equation were used Linear measurements ie height sitting
height trunk length leg length lower leg length total arm
length upper arm and forearm length foot length body girth
ie shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh body diameters ie
biacromial bitrochantric femur bicodylar and skinfolds ie
biceps triceps subscapular suprailliar mid auxiliary sum of
four skinfolds and body composition variables ie fat
percentage fat weight and lean body mass has positive and
significant correlations which explosive arm strength of
volleyball players Multiple correlation of height biacromial and
elbow diameter lean body mass taken together with explosive
arm strength has been found significant 1 level The size of the
multiple correlation is sufficiently large hence regression
equation developed is useful for the prediction of the explosive
arm strength of volleyball players
Monsma and Malina (2005) conducted a study on
anthropometric and smototype of competitive female figure
skates (11-22 years) by level of competition and discipline The
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results suggested that figure skating favours lightness high
mesomorphy and lower endomorphy at elite levels
Porcari JP et al (2005) studied the effects of self-
administered neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) on
changes in strength endurance selected anthropometric
measures and subjects perceived shape and satisfaction of the
abdominal wall Twenty-four adults (experimental group)
stimulated their abdominals 5 days per week (20-40 minutes per
session) for 8 weeks and refrained from engaging in any
additional exercise during the study A control group (N=16)
refrained from exercising the abdominals or engaging in any
other exercise training during the study Subjects were tested at
the beginning mid-point and end of the study Isometric
strength of the abdominal muscles was tested using a isokinetic
dynamometer endurance was measured using the ACSM curl-up
test abdominal circumference was measured using a steel tape
measure and body shape and satisfaction were assessed via
questionnaire The stimulation group had a 58 increase in
abdominal strength whereas the control group did not change
The stimulation group also had a 100 increase in abdominal
endurance versus a 28 increase in the control group Waist
circumference decreased by of 35 cm in the stimulation group
compared to no significant change in the control group All 24
subjects in the stimulation group felt that their midsections were
more toned and firmed and 1324 (54) felt that their
posture had improved as a result of the stimulation None of the
control group subjects reported changes in these parameters
There were no significant differences in body weight BMI or
skinfold thickness over the course of the study in either group
NMES as used in the current study resulted in significant
improvements in the muscular strength and endurance of the
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abdominal region as well as subjects perceived shape and
satisfaction of the mid-section
Uth N (2005) the present study compared the
anthropometry of sprinters and people belonging to the normal
population The height and body mass (BM) distribution of
sprinters (42 men and 44 women) were statistically compared to
the distributions of American and Danish normal populations
The main results showed that there was significantly less BM
and height variability (measured as standard deviation) among
male sprinters than among the normal male population (US and
Danish) while female sprinters showed less BM variability than
the US and Danish normal female populations On average the
American normal population was shorter than the sprinters
There was no height difference between the sprinters and the
Danish normal population All female groups had similar height
variability Both male and female sprinters had lower body mass
index (BMI) than the normal populations It is likely that there is
no single optimal height for sprinters but instead there is an
optimum range that differs for males and females This range in
height appears to exclude people who are very tall or very short
in stature Sprinters are generally lighter in BM than normal
populations Also the BM variation among sprinters is less than
the variation among normal populations These anthropometric
characteristics typical of sprinters might be explained in part
by the influence the anthropometric characteristics have on
relative muscle strength and step length
Chauhan (2004) The purpose of the study was to develop
the regression equation for the prediction performance of
University Throwers in relation to their anthropometrics
measurements To achieve the objectives of the study thirty
throwers were selected as subjects from the University Athletic
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meet of Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra Thirty two body
measurements were taken with the help of anthropometer steel
tape Vernier calliper and skin fold calliper according to the
instruction of Weiner and Lourie (1969) The throwing
performance of the subjects was measured in terms of
performance in putting the shot Product moment method for
inter correlation and wherry do little method for calculating
multiple correlation and development of regression equation for
the prediction of performance were applied The linears
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length upper and fore arm length circumference ie shoulders
chest abdomen hip and arm body diameters ie biacromial
bicristal and elbow diameters and skinfold measurements ie
biceps sub ndash scapular supra-illiac and calf skin fold have been
found to possess positive and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 1 and 5 levels respectively Among
body composition variables ie fat percentage fat weight and
lean body mass have positive and significant correlations but
body density has negative and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 5 level The multiple correlation of
body weight height and total arm length with throwing
performance is positive and highly significant (R = 935) The size
of the multiple correlation is quite sufficient and hence the
regression equation developed can be used for the prediction of
throwing performance of the athletes
Elferink-Gemser MT et al (2004) To determine the
relationship between multidimensional performance characteristics
and level of performance in talented youth field hockey players elite
youth players (n = 38 mean age 132 years sd = 13) were compared
with sub-elite youth players (n = 88 mean age 142 years sd = 13) on
anthropometric physiological technical tactical and psychological
characteristics Multivariate analyses with performance level and
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gender as factors and age as the covariate showed that the elite
youth players scored better than the sub-elite youth players on
technical (dribble performance in a peak and repeated shuttle run)
tactical (general tactics tactics for possession and non-possession of
the ball) and psychological variables (motivation) (p lt 005) The most
discriminating variables were tactics for possession of the ball
motivation and performance in a slalom dribble Age discriminated
between the two groups indicating that the elite youth players were
younger than the sub-elite players In the guidance of young talented
players to the top as well as in the detection of talented players more
attention has to be paid to tactical qualities motivation and specific
technical skills
Singal et al (2002) Studied anthropometrically 697 athletes
and 699 controls to assess their body fat and lean body mass All the
body components increased from 10 to 18 years in both boys and girls
of sports group and controls The body fat is lesser in athletes boys
and girls The lean body mass is large in athlete boys only 14 years of
age While studying sex differences it has been noticed that athletes
as well as control girls have significantly more fat and lesser lean
body mass as compared to male athletes and male controls The
magnitude of increase in fat as well as lean body mass is more in boys
as compared to girls
Singh (2002) conducted a study on anthropometric motor
fitness and motor skill determinants of performance in inter-college
level handball players Total 102 players were selected as subjects
The players securing first three places in inter-college matches of
Punjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Guru
Nanak Dev University Amritsar were considered as the subjects for
the study The playing ability of subjects was measured by the panel
of three expert judges during inter-college competition on 5 point
scale on the basis of there all round performance The averages of
scores given by three judges were considered as final score The
following variables for anthropometric measurements were selected
namely age height weight shoulder width biacromial width arm
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length upper arm length forearm length leg length calf
circumference sitting height supra-iliac skinfold thigh skinfold sub-
scapular skinfold calf skinfold biceps skinfold triceps skinfold
Motor fitness measurements were done by applying following tests
speed 5030 meters sprint agility- shuttle runzig-zag run arms
power-hand ball throwpull-ups leg power-standing broad
jumpsargent jump cardio-vascular endurance- 12 minute runwalk
grip strength dominant hand grip strengthnon dominant hand grip
strength Motor skill was measured by applying test items namely
Dribbling-AAHPERD control dribble test item Passing-AAHPERD test
item Defence-AAHPERD defensive movement test item Throwing
Accuracy-Service placement test Throwing Ability-Wall Volley test
Handball Throw for distance-handball throw
A study of Asian gold medallist Kabaddi players (N-45) for linear
body measurements circumferences skinfolds was conducted by
Kaur et al (2001a) Kabaddi players are 17526 cm tall with 7667
Kg mean weight They have also developed bones and muscles (Bone
mass was 1187 Kg and muscle mass was 3439 Kg) But with 1714
body fat players are towards higher side Somatotype of their players
was found to be 267-546-194
Paduraru D (2000) Biological development and body
composition was evaluated by measuring physical parameters of the
best male wrestlers (Greek-Roman) from the Romanian Olympic team
This anthropometric study was made to estimate a number of
anthropometric markers of training of 25 male wrestlers of top level
who were studied following ISAK protocols using a formulae and the
result were statistically analysed The participant‟s physica l
characteristics height (Ht) weight (Wt) perimeters skinfolds (SF)
abdominal (ASF) suprailiac (SISF) subscapular (SSK) triceps (TSF)
thigh (TISF) were measured by an accredited anthropometrist Bodyfat
mass was calculated using the formulae put forward by
BROZECKampKEYS (1951)
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After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
30
rational and interpretation of the data gleaned and compiled
with great effort In the process of conducting the study the
researcher was bound to be zealous and meticulous which in
turn brought about awareness of the peripheral issues that
undoubtedly helped him in framing scientific references
The review enlisted in this chapter was based on various
sources viz-a-viz journals periodicals encyclopedia
newspapers unpublished thesis etc which were available in
various libraries The libraries which the scholar consulted were
Panjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala N S
NIS Patiala LNIPE Gwalior GNDU Amritsar The
relevant literature pertaining to the present study has been
abstracted in this chapter to provide the background material to
evaluate the significance of this study as well as to interpret its
findings
The literature thus collected has been classified into two
sections
(A) Studies on Anthropometric measurements and performance
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
(A) Studies on Anthropometric measurements and performance
Singh AB (2012) The purpose of the study was to assess the
selected anthropometric measurements among the boys aged 6
through 9 years For this purpose a coca of 200 boys aged 6 through
9 years were selected randomly (50 boys in each age group)The
anthropometric variables selected were weight height waist
circumference and hip circumference To find out t h e relationship
between BMI (Body Mass Index) and WHR (Waist- Hip Ratio) for each
age group namely- 6 7 8 and 9 year tribal boys and product
moment correlation was calculated at 005 level of significance
There were significant relationship between BMI and WHR in 9 year
31
tribal boys whereas no significant relationship were obtained in 6yr
7yr and 8yr age group tribal boys
KrishnaRYadav Sudheer Rao K Sundar Raj Urs (2012)The
purpose of the study was to compare the Anthropometric
Characteristics Body composition and Somatotype in male
intercollegiate Basketball players and Volleyball players of the
Karnatak University Dharwad st Karnataka Sixty three players
(volleyball N=36 and basketball N=27) of age group 18-25 years were
selected from different colleges affiliated to Karnatak University
Dharwad stKarnataka India All the participants were assessed for
height weight breadths girths and skin fold thickness An
independent samples t-test revealed that basketball players had
significantly higher height (plt001) weight (plt001) and body surface
area (plt001) as compared to volleyball players The basketball
players were also found to have significantly greater biceps (plt001)
and suprailliac (plt001) skin fold thicknesses calf circumference
(plt005) percent body fat (plt001) total body fat(plt001) fat free
mass (plt005) and endomorphic component (plt005) as compared to
volleyball players Volleyball players had significantly greater body
density (plt001) as compared to basketball players It is concluded
that in most of the parameters there were significant differences
between basketball and volleyball players The basketball players
showed better anthropometric Measurements and somatotyping
scores
Tarverdizadeh B Azarbayjani MA (2012) The purpose of
this research was to determine the relationships between selected
anthropometric with physical and motor fitness measures in elite
Iranian soccer players Among the players of national team 60 elite
men were selected voluntary as an overall sample The anthropometric
measures included body mass index (BMI) fat weight lean body
mass height and also chest leg and thigh circumferences and body
composition from total of 60 elite players Also measurements
(sectioned as skin folds girths lengths and breadths) were made for
each player The procedure involved three measures at each site to
32
calculate a mean value and used to relate with fitness variables The
physical and motor fitness tests used were ergo jump vertical jump
agility flexibility speed and reaction time Mean calculated scores for
all players were obtained Regression analyses indicated significant
correlation between certain variables of Fitness tests and variables of
anthropometric estimation statistics Knowing these relationships
provides us with valuable predictive information about player‟s
Capabilities in sport Results showed between have less body mass
index (BMI) less fat greater lean body mass great leg and thigh
circumferences were significantly related to better speed agility ergo
jump and vertical jump Also observed greater height with vertical
jump(p lt 005) and relationships between agility and flexibility to less
fat observed too Regression analysis for all variables demonstrated a
significant relationship between some parameters These findings
suggest that we can predict some variables of anthropometric or
physical and motor fitness by other parameters
DixitKPateSPandeyU(2011) The study was concluded
in order to determine the relationship of selected anthropometric and
biomechanical variables with the performance of players in off spin
bowling Five male cricketers players who represent lakshmibai
National Institute of physical education Gwalior were selected as
subjected for the study The help of digital photography was used to
film the subjects is saggital plane of off spin bowling Joint point
method was used in order to obtain the values of selected angular
kinematics variables from develop stick figures The performance of off
spin bowling of each selected subjects was recorded on the basis of
twenty point scale 5 point awarded in run up 5 point awarded in
placement of foot 10 point awarded in Execution 10 point awarded in
Trajectory and 20 point awarded in line length and spin which was
obtained by using three point scales by the three judge To determine
the degree of relationship of selected anthropometric and
biomechanical variables with the performance of players in off spin
bowling Pearson‟s product Moment Correlation Method was used The
obtained value of coefficient of correlation of selected anthropometric
33
variables at the moment release Only the height and leg length have
significant relationship with the performance of subjects in off spin
bowling In case of biomechanical variables none of the biomechanical
variable has exhibited significant relationship with the performance of
players in off spin bowling It may be because of small size of the
sample It is a known fact that greater rotation creates greater
momentum but angle at elbow joint bowling arm did not exhibit
significant relationship which may be due to other reasons
Gall F CarlingC William Mreilly T(2010) We compared
anthropometric and fitness performance data from graduate male
youth players from an elite soccer academy who on leaving the
institution were either successful or not in progressing to higher
standards of play Altogether 161 players were grouped according to
whether they achieved international or professional status or
remained amateur Measures were taken across three age categories
(under 14 15 and 16 years of age) Players were assessed using
standard measures of anthropometric and fitness characteristics The
skeletal age of players was also measured to determine maturity
status Multivariate analysis (MANCOVA) identified a significant
(p lt 0001) effect for playing status Univariate analysis revealed a
significant difference in maturity status in amateurs and professionals
versus internationals (p lt 005) in body mass in professionals versus
amateurs (d = 056 p lt 005) in height (d = 085 p lt 001) and
maximal anaerobic power (d = 079 p lt 001) in both professionals
and internationals versus amateurs There was also a significant
difference in counter-movement jump (d = 053 p lt 005) and 40-m
sprint time (d = 050 p lt 005) in internationals versus amateurs as
well as a significant main effect for age and playing position
(p lt 0001) Significant differences were reported for maturity status
body mass height peak concentric torque maximal anaerobic power
and sprint and jump performance with results dependant on age
category and playing position These results suggest that
anthropometric and fitness assessments of elite youth soccer players
34
can play a part in determining their chances of proceeding to higher
achievement levels
MannaI KhannaG Chandra DharaP (2010) The aim of
study was to investigate the effect of training on selected
anthropometric physiological and biochemical variables of elite field
hockey players A total of 30 Indian male field hockey players (age
2300-3000 yrs) volunteered for this study The training sessions
were divided into 2 phases (a) Preparatory Phase (PP 8 weeks) and (b)
Competitive Phase (CP 4 weeks) The training programme consist of
aerobic anaerobic and skill development and were completed 4
hrsday 5 daysweek Selected variables were measured at zero level
(baseline data BD) and at the end of PP and CP A significant increase
(Plt005)in LBM back and hand grip strength serum level of urea
uric acid and HDLC and a significant decrease(Plt005) in body fat
sub-maximal exercise heart rate and recovery heart rate
haemoglobin total cholesterol triglyceride and LDLC were noted in PP
and CP of training when compare to BD No significant change was
noted in stature body mass HR max resting heart rate VO2max and
anaerobic power of the players after the training Since the data on
field hockey players are limited in India the present study may
provide useful information to the coaches to develop their training
programme
Carvalho H M (2009) Explosive muscle strength and
muscular balance of the knee joint are important parameters to
succeed in basketball Isokinetic testing has been consistently used
for assessment of concentric and eccentric strength of the knee joint
musculature The literature is more abundant for soccer players
(Sangnier amp Tourny-Chollet J Strength Cond Res 22 2008) than for
other team sports in general and basketball in particular In
addition isokinetic assessment has not been systematically
considered in adolescent basketball players taking into account
growth characteristics The present study examines the isokinetic
parameters of the knee joint musculature in 14-to 15-yearold
basketball players by playing position A total of 51 basketball players
35
(140-159 yrs 2-11 years of training) were categorized as guards
(n=16) forwards (n=21) and centers (n=14) Anthropometry included
those measurements needed for estimation of leg volumes (Jones amp
Pearson J Physiology 204 1969) plus stature and body mass After
a 5-min warm-up at 60 rpm in a cycle-ergo meter (Monark) and
stretching subjects performed five maximum knee extensions (KE)
and flexions (KF) in the isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex system 3
Biodex Corporation Shirley NY USA) programmed at 60 degreess
(modes CON and ECC in both legs Moments were corrected for the
effect of gravity and the highest moment from the five trials for each
contraction mode was retained for analysis Parameters for analysis
were absolute peak torque (PT) relative peak torque (PT per kg of body
mass) ‟functional‟ and ‟conventional‟ hamstrings to quadriceps (HQ)
ratios and bilateral differences (Aagaard et al Am J Sports Med 26
1998) Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test position-related
variation in body size and strength parameters Significance level was
set at pamp8804005 As expected centers were taller (F=12251 p lt
001) and heavier (F=11021 p lt 001) than guards and forwards
whereas forwards had similar stature and body mass as guards in this
age group Results in PT showed differences from centers to both
forwards and guards in mean ECCKF in the dominant leg (F=3979
plt005) Also in the non-dominant leg differences revealed in mean
ECCKF (F=4203 plt005) and ECCKE (F=4392 plt005) No
differences were found in mean CON PT as well as HQ ratios and
bilateral differences The present studies showed a significant
position-related variation of body size and absolute peak torque When
expressing isokinetic strength per unit of body mass the effect of
playing position was not anymore significant Future research
including maturational assessments is needed during pubertal years
It would also be of interest to investigate the effect of playing position
in players accumulating more years of basketball practice The
current ongoing project will report the relationship between isokinetic
outputs and concurrent anaerobic tests
36
Chauhan et al (2009) The purpose of this study is to
develop the regression equation for the prediction of sprinting
ability of secondary school boys The data was collected from the
boys of age range between 16 to 18 years(X=17) by anthrop
meter skin fold calliper venire calliper and steel tape The
Pearson product movement method for correlations Wherry Do
Little method for calculation multiple correlation and
development of regression equation were utilized Linear
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length thigh length and foot length girth measurements ie
shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh and calf body diameters
ie biacromial bicirstal and ankle diameters subscapular and
thigh skinfolds fat weight and lean body mass body weight and
age has significant and negative correlations with sprinting
ability The multiple correlation of a selected combination of
variables ie length biacromial diameter and lean body mass
with sprinting ability have been found highly significant The
developed multiple correlations are of sufficient size and the
regression equation can be put in the prediction of sprinting
ability of secondary school boys
Latt E (2009) The present study analyzed the development of
the anthropometrical parameters and body composition in young
swimmers and assessed the effect of these parameters on swimming
performance during biological maturation During the 2-year follow-up
study period the age height body mass fat free mass (FFM) bone
mineral mass (BM) arm span and biological maturation values for all
swimmers body mass index (BMI) and spine BMD for boys and body
fat and total BMD for girls significantly increased during each year
(plt005) Partial correlation analysis revealed that 400-m swimming
performance time was elated (plt005) to body height (rgt-0468) and
arm span (rgt-0397) values VO2 was related to body height (rgt0395)
and arm span (rgt0394) at all three measurements after controlling for
age and pubertal status in boys In addition the Cs of the 400-metre
37
swimming performance was related (plt005) to the body mass
(rgt0411) BMI (rgt0412) and spine BMD (rgt0500) values at all three
measurement points in girls Tracking of the measured physical
characteristics over the two year study period was very high for boys
(rgt0880) and relatively high for girls (rgt0694)
Gil SM et al (2007) Physiological and anthropometric
characteristics of young soccer players according to their playing
position Relevance for the selection process J Strength Cond
Res 21(2)438-445 2007-The aim of this study was to establish
the anthropometric and physiological profiles of young non elite
soccer players according to their playing position and to
determine their relevance for the selection process Two hundred
forty-one male soccer players who were members of the Getxo
Arenas Club (Bizkaia) participated in this study Players age
1731 (plusmn 264) years range 14-21 years were classified into the
following groups forwards (n = 56) midfielders (n = 79)
defenders (n = 77) and goalkeepers (n = 29) Anthropometric
variables of participants (height weight body mass index 6
skinfolds 4 diameters and 3 perimeters) were measured Also
their somatotype and body composition (weights and percentages
of fat bone and muscle) were calculated Participants performed
the Astrand test to estimate their absolute and relative O2max
an endurance test sprint tests (30 meters flat and 30 meters
with 10 cones) and 3 jump tests (squat jump counter movement
jump and drop jump) Forwards were the leanest presenting the
highest percentage of muscle They were the best performers in
all the physiological tests including endurance velocity agility
and power In contrast goalkeepers were found to be the tallest
and the heaviest players They also had the largest fat skinfolds
and the highest fat percentage but their aerobic capacity was
the lowest In the selection process agility and the jump tests
were the most discriminating for forwards In contrast agility
38
height and endurance were the key factors for midfielders The
defenders group was characterized by a lower quantity of fat
Thus we may conclude that anthropometric and physiological
differences exist among soccer players who play in different
positions These differences fit with their different workload in a
game Therefore training programs should include specific
sessions for each positional role
Bayius et al (2006) Conducted a study on
anthropometric body composition and smototype differences of
Greek elite female basketball volleyball and handball players
Their mean scores were compared and it was found that elite
female players varied among sports
Chauhan(2006) The purpose of the study is to determine
the relationship between anthropometric variables and the
middle distance running performance and also to develop
regression equation for the prediction of performance of the
athletes between the age range of 18 and 30 years The data was
collected from 1500 meters middle distance runners as subjects
of the study by using anthropometer skinfold caliper vernier
calliper and steel tape The product movement method for
correlation and wherry do little method for calculating multiple
correlation and development of regression equation were utilized
Linear measurements ie height leg length thigh length total
arm length girth measurements ie biacromial and ankle
diameter thigh(negative) and calf skinfold lean body mass and
age have positive and significant correlations with middle
distance running performance The multiple correlation of
selected combination of variables(ie height thigh girth
biacromial diameter and thigh skinfold) with middle distance
running performance have been found significant but the
multiple correlation is not of sufficient size (so the regression
39
equation developed cannot be put in the prediction of middle
distance running performance)
Chauhan and Chauhan (2005) - The purpose of the study
was to explore the possible ingredients of anthropometric
variables which are essential for the execution of explosive arm
strength for volleyball players Since the game of volleyball
involves explosive strength for the execution of important skills
ie smashing blocking serving and receiving the ball in the
playing situations hence arm strength is essential ingredient
which determines the efficiency of players To achieve the
objectives of this study various body measurements on 40
volleyball players selected as subjects were taken Product
movement method for correlations and developing Regression
Equation were used Linear measurements ie height sitting
height trunk length leg length lower leg length total arm
length upper arm and forearm length foot length body girth
ie shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh body diameters ie
biacromial bitrochantric femur bicodylar and skinfolds ie
biceps triceps subscapular suprailliar mid auxiliary sum of
four skinfolds and body composition variables ie fat
percentage fat weight and lean body mass has positive and
significant correlations which explosive arm strength of
volleyball players Multiple correlation of height biacromial and
elbow diameter lean body mass taken together with explosive
arm strength has been found significant 1 level The size of the
multiple correlation is sufficiently large hence regression
equation developed is useful for the prediction of the explosive
arm strength of volleyball players
Monsma and Malina (2005) conducted a study on
anthropometric and smototype of competitive female figure
skates (11-22 years) by level of competition and discipline The
40
results suggested that figure skating favours lightness high
mesomorphy and lower endomorphy at elite levels
Porcari JP et al (2005) studied the effects of self-
administered neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) on
changes in strength endurance selected anthropometric
measures and subjects perceived shape and satisfaction of the
abdominal wall Twenty-four adults (experimental group)
stimulated their abdominals 5 days per week (20-40 minutes per
session) for 8 weeks and refrained from engaging in any
additional exercise during the study A control group (N=16)
refrained from exercising the abdominals or engaging in any
other exercise training during the study Subjects were tested at
the beginning mid-point and end of the study Isometric
strength of the abdominal muscles was tested using a isokinetic
dynamometer endurance was measured using the ACSM curl-up
test abdominal circumference was measured using a steel tape
measure and body shape and satisfaction were assessed via
questionnaire The stimulation group had a 58 increase in
abdominal strength whereas the control group did not change
The stimulation group also had a 100 increase in abdominal
endurance versus a 28 increase in the control group Waist
circumference decreased by of 35 cm in the stimulation group
compared to no significant change in the control group All 24
subjects in the stimulation group felt that their midsections were
more toned and firmed and 1324 (54) felt that their
posture had improved as a result of the stimulation None of the
control group subjects reported changes in these parameters
There were no significant differences in body weight BMI or
skinfold thickness over the course of the study in either group
NMES as used in the current study resulted in significant
improvements in the muscular strength and endurance of the
41
abdominal region as well as subjects perceived shape and
satisfaction of the mid-section
Uth N (2005) the present study compared the
anthropometry of sprinters and people belonging to the normal
population The height and body mass (BM) distribution of
sprinters (42 men and 44 women) were statistically compared to
the distributions of American and Danish normal populations
The main results showed that there was significantly less BM
and height variability (measured as standard deviation) among
male sprinters than among the normal male population (US and
Danish) while female sprinters showed less BM variability than
the US and Danish normal female populations On average the
American normal population was shorter than the sprinters
There was no height difference between the sprinters and the
Danish normal population All female groups had similar height
variability Both male and female sprinters had lower body mass
index (BMI) than the normal populations It is likely that there is
no single optimal height for sprinters but instead there is an
optimum range that differs for males and females This range in
height appears to exclude people who are very tall or very short
in stature Sprinters are generally lighter in BM than normal
populations Also the BM variation among sprinters is less than
the variation among normal populations These anthropometric
characteristics typical of sprinters might be explained in part
by the influence the anthropometric characteristics have on
relative muscle strength and step length
Chauhan (2004) The purpose of the study was to develop
the regression equation for the prediction performance of
University Throwers in relation to their anthropometrics
measurements To achieve the objectives of the study thirty
throwers were selected as subjects from the University Athletic
42
meet of Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra Thirty two body
measurements were taken with the help of anthropometer steel
tape Vernier calliper and skin fold calliper according to the
instruction of Weiner and Lourie (1969) The throwing
performance of the subjects was measured in terms of
performance in putting the shot Product moment method for
inter correlation and wherry do little method for calculating
multiple correlation and development of regression equation for
the prediction of performance were applied The linears
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length upper and fore arm length circumference ie shoulders
chest abdomen hip and arm body diameters ie biacromial
bicristal and elbow diameters and skinfold measurements ie
biceps sub ndash scapular supra-illiac and calf skin fold have been
found to possess positive and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 1 and 5 levels respectively Among
body composition variables ie fat percentage fat weight and
lean body mass have positive and significant correlations but
body density has negative and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 5 level The multiple correlation of
body weight height and total arm length with throwing
performance is positive and highly significant (R = 935) The size
of the multiple correlation is quite sufficient and hence the
regression equation developed can be used for the prediction of
throwing performance of the athletes
Elferink-Gemser MT et al (2004) To determine the
relationship between multidimensional performance characteristics
and level of performance in talented youth field hockey players elite
youth players (n = 38 mean age 132 years sd = 13) were compared
with sub-elite youth players (n = 88 mean age 142 years sd = 13) on
anthropometric physiological technical tactical and psychological
characteristics Multivariate analyses with performance level and
43
gender as factors and age as the covariate showed that the elite
youth players scored better than the sub-elite youth players on
technical (dribble performance in a peak and repeated shuttle run)
tactical (general tactics tactics for possession and non-possession of
the ball) and psychological variables (motivation) (p lt 005) The most
discriminating variables were tactics for possession of the ball
motivation and performance in a slalom dribble Age discriminated
between the two groups indicating that the elite youth players were
younger than the sub-elite players In the guidance of young talented
players to the top as well as in the detection of talented players more
attention has to be paid to tactical qualities motivation and specific
technical skills
Singal et al (2002) Studied anthropometrically 697 athletes
and 699 controls to assess their body fat and lean body mass All the
body components increased from 10 to 18 years in both boys and girls
of sports group and controls The body fat is lesser in athletes boys
and girls The lean body mass is large in athlete boys only 14 years of
age While studying sex differences it has been noticed that athletes
as well as control girls have significantly more fat and lesser lean
body mass as compared to male athletes and male controls The
magnitude of increase in fat as well as lean body mass is more in boys
as compared to girls
Singh (2002) conducted a study on anthropometric motor
fitness and motor skill determinants of performance in inter-college
level handball players Total 102 players were selected as subjects
The players securing first three places in inter-college matches of
Punjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Guru
Nanak Dev University Amritsar were considered as the subjects for
the study The playing ability of subjects was measured by the panel
of three expert judges during inter-college competition on 5 point
scale on the basis of there all round performance The averages of
scores given by three judges were considered as final score The
following variables for anthropometric measurements were selected
namely age height weight shoulder width biacromial width arm
44
length upper arm length forearm length leg length calf
circumference sitting height supra-iliac skinfold thigh skinfold sub-
scapular skinfold calf skinfold biceps skinfold triceps skinfold
Motor fitness measurements were done by applying following tests
speed 5030 meters sprint agility- shuttle runzig-zag run arms
power-hand ball throwpull-ups leg power-standing broad
jumpsargent jump cardio-vascular endurance- 12 minute runwalk
grip strength dominant hand grip strengthnon dominant hand grip
strength Motor skill was measured by applying test items namely
Dribbling-AAHPERD control dribble test item Passing-AAHPERD test
item Defence-AAHPERD defensive movement test item Throwing
Accuracy-Service placement test Throwing Ability-Wall Volley test
Handball Throw for distance-handball throw
A study of Asian gold medallist Kabaddi players (N-45) for linear
body measurements circumferences skinfolds was conducted by
Kaur et al (2001a) Kabaddi players are 17526 cm tall with 7667
Kg mean weight They have also developed bones and muscles (Bone
mass was 1187 Kg and muscle mass was 3439 Kg) But with 1714
body fat players are towards higher side Somatotype of their players
was found to be 267-546-194
Paduraru D (2000) Biological development and body
composition was evaluated by measuring physical parameters of the
best male wrestlers (Greek-Roman) from the Romanian Olympic team
This anthropometric study was made to estimate a number of
anthropometric markers of training of 25 male wrestlers of top level
who were studied following ISAK protocols using a formulae and the
result were statistically analysed The participant‟s physica l
characteristics height (Ht) weight (Wt) perimeters skinfolds (SF)
abdominal (ASF) suprailiac (SISF) subscapular (SSK) triceps (TSF)
thigh (TISF) were measured by an accredited anthropometrist Bodyfat
mass was calculated using the formulae put forward by
BROZECKampKEYS (1951)
45
After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
31
tribal boys whereas no significant relationship were obtained in 6yr
7yr and 8yr age group tribal boys
KrishnaRYadav Sudheer Rao K Sundar Raj Urs (2012)The
purpose of the study was to compare the Anthropometric
Characteristics Body composition and Somatotype in male
intercollegiate Basketball players and Volleyball players of the
Karnatak University Dharwad st Karnataka Sixty three players
(volleyball N=36 and basketball N=27) of age group 18-25 years were
selected from different colleges affiliated to Karnatak University
Dharwad stKarnataka India All the participants were assessed for
height weight breadths girths and skin fold thickness An
independent samples t-test revealed that basketball players had
significantly higher height (plt001) weight (plt001) and body surface
area (plt001) as compared to volleyball players The basketball
players were also found to have significantly greater biceps (plt001)
and suprailliac (plt001) skin fold thicknesses calf circumference
(plt005) percent body fat (plt001) total body fat(plt001) fat free
mass (plt005) and endomorphic component (plt005) as compared to
volleyball players Volleyball players had significantly greater body
density (plt001) as compared to basketball players It is concluded
that in most of the parameters there were significant differences
between basketball and volleyball players The basketball players
showed better anthropometric Measurements and somatotyping
scores
Tarverdizadeh B Azarbayjani MA (2012) The purpose of
this research was to determine the relationships between selected
anthropometric with physical and motor fitness measures in elite
Iranian soccer players Among the players of national team 60 elite
men were selected voluntary as an overall sample The anthropometric
measures included body mass index (BMI) fat weight lean body
mass height and also chest leg and thigh circumferences and body
composition from total of 60 elite players Also measurements
(sectioned as skin folds girths lengths and breadths) were made for
each player The procedure involved three measures at each site to
32
calculate a mean value and used to relate with fitness variables The
physical and motor fitness tests used were ergo jump vertical jump
agility flexibility speed and reaction time Mean calculated scores for
all players were obtained Regression analyses indicated significant
correlation between certain variables of Fitness tests and variables of
anthropometric estimation statistics Knowing these relationships
provides us with valuable predictive information about player‟s
Capabilities in sport Results showed between have less body mass
index (BMI) less fat greater lean body mass great leg and thigh
circumferences were significantly related to better speed agility ergo
jump and vertical jump Also observed greater height with vertical
jump(p lt 005) and relationships between agility and flexibility to less
fat observed too Regression analysis for all variables demonstrated a
significant relationship between some parameters These findings
suggest that we can predict some variables of anthropometric or
physical and motor fitness by other parameters
DixitKPateSPandeyU(2011) The study was concluded
in order to determine the relationship of selected anthropometric and
biomechanical variables with the performance of players in off spin
bowling Five male cricketers players who represent lakshmibai
National Institute of physical education Gwalior were selected as
subjected for the study The help of digital photography was used to
film the subjects is saggital plane of off spin bowling Joint point
method was used in order to obtain the values of selected angular
kinematics variables from develop stick figures The performance of off
spin bowling of each selected subjects was recorded on the basis of
twenty point scale 5 point awarded in run up 5 point awarded in
placement of foot 10 point awarded in Execution 10 point awarded in
Trajectory and 20 point awarded in line length and spin which was
obtained by using three point scales by the three judge To determine
the degree of relationship of selected anthropometric and
biomechanical variables with the performance of players in off spin
bowling Pearson‟s product Moment Correlation Method was used The
obtained value of coefficient of correlation of selected anthropometric
33
variables at the moment release Only the height and leg length have
significant relationship with the performance of subjects in off spin
bowling In case of biomechanical variables none of the biomechanical
variable has exhibited significant relationship with the performance of
players in off spin bowling It may be because of small size of the
sample It is a known fact that greater rotation creates greater
momentum but angle at elbow joint bowling arm did not exhibit
significant relationship which may be due to other reasons
Gall F CarlingC William Mreilly T(2010) We compared
anthropometric and fitness performance data from graduate male
youth players from an elite soccer academy who on leaving the
institution were either successful or not in progressing to higher
standards of play Altogether 161 players were grouped according to
whether they achieved international or professional status or
remained amateur Measures were taken across three age categories
(under 14 15 and 16 years of age) Players were assessed using
standard measures of anthropometric and fitness characteristics The
skeletal age of players was also measured to determine maturity
status Multivariate analysis (MANCOVA) identified a significant
(p lt 0001) effect for playing status Univariate analysis revealed a
significant difference in maturity status in amateurs and professionals
versus internationals (p lt 005) in body mass in professionals versus
amateurs (d = 056 p lt 005) in height (d = 085 p lt 001) and
maximal anaerobic power (d = 079 p lt 001) in both professionals
and internationals versus amateurs There was also a significant
difference in counter-movement jump (d = 053 p lt 005) and 40-m
sprint time (d = 050 p lt 005) in internationals versus amateurs as
well as a significant main effect for age and playing position
(p lt 0001) Significant differences were reported for maturity status
body mass height peak concentric torque maximal anaerobic power
and sprint and jump performance with results dependant on age
category and playing position These results suggest that
anthropometric and fitness assessments of elite youth soccer players
34
can play a part in determining their chances of proceeding to higher
achievement levels
MannaI KhannaG Chandra DharaP (2010) The aim of
study was to investigate the effect of training on selected
anthropometric physiological and biochemical variables of elite field
hockey players A total of 30 Indian male field hockey players (age
2300-3000 yrs) volunteered for this study The training sessions
were divided into 2 phases (a) Preparatory Phase (PP 8 weeks) and (b)
Competitive Phase (CP 4 weeks) The training programme consist of
aerobic anaerobic and skill development and were completed 4
hrsday 5 daysweek Selected variables were measured at zero level
(baseline data BD) and at the end of PP and CP A significant increase
(Plt005)in LBM back and hand grip strength serum level of urea
uric acid and HDLC and a significant decrease(Plt005) in body fat
sub-maximal exercise heart rate and recovery heart rate
haemoglobin total cholesterol triglyceride and LDLC were noted in PP
and CP of training when compare to BD No significant change was
noted in stature body mass HR max resting heart rate VO2max and
anaerobic power of the players after the training Since the data on
field hockey players are limited in India the present study may
provide useful information to the coaches to develop their training
programme
Carvalho H M (2009) Explosive muscle strength and
muscular balance of the knee joint are important parameters to
succeed in basketball Isokinetic testing has been consistently used
for assessment of concentric and eccentric strength of the knee joint
musculature The literature is more abundant for soccer players
(Sangnier amp Tourny-Chollet J Strength Cond Res 22 2008) than for
other team sports in general and basketball in particular In
addition isokinetic assessment has not been systematically
considered in adolescent basketball players taking into account
growth characteristics The present study examines the isokinetic
parameters of the knee joint musculature in 14-to 15-yearold
basketball players by playing position A total of 51 basketball players
35
(140-159 yrs 2-11 years of training) were categorized as guards
(n=16) forwards (n=21) and centers (n=14) Anthropometry included
those measurements needed for estimation of leg volumes (Jones amp
Pearson J Physiology 204 1969) plus stature and body mass After
a 5-min warm-up at 60 rpm in a cycle-ergo meter (Monark) and
stretching subjects performed five maximum knee extensions (KE)
and flexions (KF) in the isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex system 3
Biodex Corporation Shirley NY USA) programmed at 60 degreess
(modes CON and ECC in both legs Moments were corrected for the
effect of gravity and the highest moment from the five trials for each
contraction mode was retained for analysis Parameters for analysis
were absolute peak torque (PT) relative peak torque (PT per kg of body
mass) ‟functional‟ and ‟conventional‟ hamstrings to quadriceps (HQ)
ratios and bilateral differences (Aagaard et al Am J Sports Med 26
1998) Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test position-related
variation in body size and strength parameters Significance level was
set at pamp8804005 As expected centers were taller (F=12251 p lt
001) and heavier (F=11021 p lt 001) than guards and forwards
whereas forwards had similar stature and body mass as guards in this
age group Results in PT showed differences from centers to both
forwards and guards in mean ECCKF in the dominant leg (F=3979
plt005) Also in the non-dominant leg differences revealed in mean
ECCKF (F=4203 plt005) and ECCKE (F=4392 plt005) No
differences were found in mean CON PT as well as HQ ratios and
bilateral differences The present studies showed a significant
position-related variation of body size and absolute peak torque When
expressing isokinetic strength per unit of body mass the effect of
playing position was not anymore significant Future research
including maturational assessments is needed during pubertal years
It would also be of interest to investigate the effect of playing position
in players accumulating more years of basketball practice The
current ongoing project will report the relationship between isokinetic
outputs and concurrent anaerobic tests
36
Chauhan et al (2009) The purpose of this study is to
develop the regression equation for the prediction of sprinting
ability of secondary school boys The data was collected from the
boys of age range between 16 to 18 years(X=17) by anthrop
meter skin fold calliper venire calliper and steel tape The
Pearson product movement method for correlations Wherry Do
Little method for calculation multiple correlation and
development of regression equation were utilized Linear
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length thigh length and foot length girth measurements ie
shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh and calf body diameters
ie biacromial bicirstal and ankle diameters subscapular and
thigh skinfolds fat weight and lean body mass body weight and
age has significant and negative correlations with sprinting
ability The multiple correlation of a selected combination of
variables ie length biacromial diameter and lean body mass
with sprinting ability have been found highly significant The
developed multiple correlations are of sufficient size and the
regression equation can be put in the prediction of sprinting
ability of secondary school boys
Latt E (2009) The present study analyzed the development of
the anthropometrical parameters and body composition in young
swimmers and assessed the effect of these parameters on swimming
performance during biological maturation During the 2-year follow-up
study period the age height body mass fat free mass (FFM) bone
mineral mass (BM) arm span and biological maturation values for all
swimmers body mass index (BMI) and spine BMD for boys and body
fat and total BMD for girls significantly increased during each year
(plt005) Partial correlation analysis revealed that 400-m swimming
performance time was elated (plt005) to body height (rgt-0468) and
arm span (rgt-0397) values VO2 was related to body height (rgt0395)
and arm span (rgt0394) at all three measurements after controlling for
age and pubertal status in boys In addition the Cs of the 400-metre
37
swimming performance was related (plt005) to the body mass
(rgt0411) BMI (rgt0412) and spine BMD (rgt0500) values at all three
measurement points in girls Tracking of the measured physical
characteristics over the two year study period was very high for boys
(rgt0880) and relatively high for girls (rgt0694)
Gil SM et al (2007) Physiological and anthropometric
characteristics of young soccer players according to their playing
position Relevance for the selection process J Strength Cond
Res 21(2)438-445 2007-The aim of this study was to establish
the anthropometric and physiological profiles of young non elite
soccer players according to their playing position and to
determine their relevance for the selection process Two hundred
forty-one male soccer players who were members of the Getxo
Arenas Club (Bizkaia) participated in this study Players age
1731 (plusmn 264) years range 14-21 years were classified into the
following groups forwards (n = 56) midfielders (n = 79)
defenders (n = 77) and goalkeepers (n = 29) Anthropometric
variables of participants (height weight body mass index 6
skinfolds 4 diameters and 3 perimeters) were measured Also
their somatotype and body composition (weights and percentages
of fat bone and muscle) were calculated Participants performed
the Astrand test to estimate their absolute and relative O2max
an endurance test sprint tests (30 meters flat and 30 meters
with 10 cones) and 3 jump tests (squat jump counter movement
jump and drop jump) Forwards were the leanest presenting the
highest percentage of muscle They were the best performers in
all the physiological tests including endurance velocity agility
and power In contrast goalkeepers were found to be the tallest
and the heaviest players They also had the largest fat skinfolds
and the highest fat percentage but their aerobic capacity was
the lowest In the selection process agility and the jump tests
were the most discriminating for forwards In contrast agility
38
height and endurance were the key factors for midfielders The
defenders group was characterized by a lower quantity of fat
Thus we may conclude that anthropometric and physiological
differences exist among soccer players who play in different
positions These differences fit with their different workload in a
game Therefore training programs should include specific
sessions for each positional role
Bayius et al (2006) Conducted a study on
anthropometric body composition and smototype differences of
Greek elite female basketball volleyball and handball players
Their mean scores were compared and it was found that elite
female players varied among sports
Chauhan(2006) The purpose of the study is to determine
the relationship between anthropometric variables and the
middle distance running performance and also to develop
regression equation for the prediction of performance of the
athletes between the age range of 18 and 30 years The data was
collected from 1500 meters middle distance runners as subjects
of the study by using anthropometer skinfold caliper vernier
calliper and steel tape The product movement method for
correlation and wherry do little method for calculating multiple
correlation and development of regression equation were utilized
Linear measurements ie height leg length thigh length total
arm length girth measurements ie biacromial and ankle
diameter thigh(negative) and calf skinfold lean body mass and
age have positive and significant correlations with middle
distance running performance The multiple correlation of
selected combination of variables(ie height thigh girth
biacromial diameter and thigh skinfold) with middle distance
running performance have been found significant but the
multiple correlation is not of sufficient size (so the regression
39
equation developed cannot be put in the prediction of middle
distance running performance)
Chauhan and Chauhan (2005) - The purpose of the study
was to explore the possible ingredients of anthropometric
variables which are essential for the execution of explosive arm
strength for volleyball players Since the game of volleyball
involves explosive strength for the execution of important skills
ie smashing blocking serving and receiving the ball in the
playing situations hence arm strength is essential ingredient
which determines the efficiency of players To achieve the
objectives of this study various body measurements on 40
volleyball players selected as subjects were taken Product
movement method for correlations and developing Regression
Equation were used Linear measurements ie height sitting
height trunk length leg length lower leg length total arm
length upper arm and forearm length foot length body girth
ie shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh body diameters ie
biacromial bitrochantric femur bicodylar and skinfolds ie
biceps triceps subscapular suprailliar mid auxiliary sum of
four skinfolds and body composition variables ie fat
percentage fat weight and lean body mass has positive and
significant correlations which explosive arm strength of
volleyball players Multiple correlation of height biacromial and
elbow diameter lean body mass taken together with explosive
arm strength has been found significant 1 level The size of the
multiple correlation is sufficiently large hence regression
equation developed is useful for the prediction of the explosive
arm strength of volleyball players
Monsma and Malina (2005) conducted a study on
anthropometric and smototype of competitive female figure
skates (11-22 years) by level of competition and discipline The
40
results suggested that figure skating favours lightness high
mesomorphy and lower endomorphy at elite levels
Porcari JP et al (2005) studied the effects of self-
administered neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) on
changes in strength endurance selected anthropometric
measures and subjects perceived shape and satisfaction of the
abdominal wall Twenty-four adults (experimental group)
stimulated their abdominals 5 days per week (20-40 minutes per
session) for 8 weeks and refrained from engaging in any
additional exercise during the study A control group (N=16)
refrained from exercising the abdominals or engaging in any
other exercise training during the study Subjects were tested at
the beginning mid-point and end of the study Isometric
strength of the abdominal muscles was tested using a isokinetic
dynamometer endurance was measured using the ACSM curl-up
test abdominal circumference was measured using a steel tape
measure and body shape and satisfaction were assessed via
questionnaire The stimulation group had a 58 increase in
abdominal strength whereas the control group did not change
The stimulation group also had a 100 increase in abdominal
endurance versus a 28 increase in the control group Waist
circumference decreased by of 35 cm in the stimulation group
compared to no significant change in the control group All 24
subjects in the stimulation group felt that their midsections were
more toned and firmed and 1324 (54) felt that their
posture had improved as a result of the stimulation None of the
control group subjects reported changes in these parameters
There were no significant differences in body weight BMI or
skinfold thickness over the course of the study in either group
NMES as used in the current study resulted in significant
improvements in the muscular strength and endurance of the
41
abdominal region as well as subjects perceived shape and
satisfaction of the mid-section
Uth N (2005) the present study compared the
anthropometry of sprinters and people belonging to the normal
population The height and body mass (BM) distribution of
sprinters (42 men and 44 women) were statistically compared to
the distributions of American and Danish normal populations
The main results showed that there was significantly less BM
and height variability (measured as standard deviation) among
male sprinters than among the normal male population (US and
Danish) while female sprinters showed less BM variability than
the US and Danish normal female populations On average the
American normal population was shorter than the sprinters
There was no height difference between the sprinters and the
Danish normal population All female groups had similar height
variability Both male and female sprinters had lower body mass
index (BMI) than the normal populations It is likely that there is
no single optimal height for sprinters but instead there is an
optimum range that differs for males and females This range in
height appears to exclude people who are very tall or very short
in stature Sprinters are generally lighter in BM than normal
populations Also the BM variation among sprinters is less than
the variation among normal populations These anthropometric
characteristics typical of sprinters might be explained in part
by the influence the anthropometric characteristics have on
relative muscle strength and step length
Chauhan (2004) The purpose of the study was to develop
the regression equation for the prediction performance of
University Throwers in relation to their anthropometrics
measurements To achieve the objectives of the study thirty
throwers were selected as subjects from the University Athletic
42
meet of Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra Thirty two body
measurements were taken with the help of anthropometer steel
tape Vernier calliper and skin fold calliper according to the
instruction of Weiner and Lourie (1969) The throwing
performance of the subjects was measured in terms of
performance in putting the shot Product moment method for
inter correlation and wherry do little method for calculating
multiple correlation and development of regression equation for
the prediction of performance were applied The linears
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length upper and fore arm length circumference ie shoulders
chest abdomen hip and arm body diameters ie biacromial
bicristal and elbow diameters and skinfold measurements ie
biceps sub ndash scapular supra-illiac and calf skin fold have been
found to possess positive and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 1 and 5 levels respectively Among
body composition variables ie fat percentage fat weight and
lean body mass have positive and significant correlations but
body density has negative and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 5 level The multiple correlation of
body weight height and total arm length with throwing
performance is positive and highly significant (R = 935) The size
of the multiple correlation is quite sufficient and hence the
regression equation developed can be used for the prediction of
throwing performance of the athletes
Elferink-Gemser MT et al (2004) To determine the
relationship between multidimensional performance characteristics
and level of performance in talented youth field hockey players elite
youth players (n = 38 mean age 132 years sd = 13) were compared
with sub-elite youth players (n = 88 mean age 142 years sd = 13) on
anthropometric physiological technical tactical and psychological
characteristics Multivariate analyses with performance level and
43
gender as factors and age as the covariate showed that the elite
youth players scored better than the sub-elite youth players on
technical (dribble performance in a peak and repeated shuttle run)
tactical (general tactics tactics for possession and non-possession of
the ball) and psychological variables (motivation) (p lt 005) The most
discriminating variables were tactics for possession of the ball
motivation and performance in a slalom dribble Age discriminated
between the two groups indicating that the elite youth players were
younger than the sub-elite players In the guidance of young talented
players to the top as well as in the detection of talented players more
attention has to be paid to tactical qualities motivation and specific
technical skills
Singal et al (2002) Studied anthropometrically 697 athletes
and 699 controls to assess their body fat and lean body mass All the
body components increased from 10 to 18 years in both boys and girls
of sports group and controls The body fat is lesser in athletes boys
and girls The lean body mass is large in athlete boys only 14 years of
age While studying sex differences it has been noticed that athletes
as well as control girls have significantly more fat and lesser lean
body mass as compared to male athletes and male controls The
magnitude of increase in fat as well as lean body mass is more in boys
as compared to girls
Singh (2002) conducted a study on anthropometric motor
fitness and motor skill determinants of performance in inter-college
level handball players Total 102 players were selected as subjects
The players securing first three places in inter-college matches of
Punjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Guru
Nanak Dev University Amritsar were considered as the subjects for
the study The playing ability of subjects was measured by the panel
of three expert judges during inter-college competition on 5 point
scale on the basis of there all round performance The averages of
scores given by three judges were considered as final score The
following variables for anthropometric measurements were selected
namely age height weight shoulder width biacromial width arm
44
length upper arm length forearm length leg length calf
circumference sitting height supra-iliac skinfold thigh skinfold sub-
scapular skinfold calf skinfold biceps skinfold triceps skinfold
Motor fitness measurements were done by applying following tests
speed 5030 meters sprint agility- shuttle runzig-zag run arms
power-hand ball throwpull-ups leg power-standing broad
jumpsargent jump cardio-vascular endurance- 12 minute runwalk
grip strength dominant hand grip strengthnon dominant hand grip
strength Motor skill was measured by applying test items namely
Dribbling-AAHPERD control dribble test item Passing-AAHPERD test
item Defence-AAHPERD defensive movement test item Throwing
Accuracy-Service placement test Throwing Ability-Wall Volley test
Handball Throw for distance-handball throw
A study of Asian gold medallist Kabaddi players (N-45) for linear
body measurements circumferences skinfolds was conducted by
Kaur et al (2001a) Kabaddi players are 17526 cm tall with 7667
Kg mean weight They have also developed bones and muscles (Bone
mass was 1187 Kg and muscle mass was 3439 Kg) But with 1714
body fat players are towards higher side Somatotype of their players
was found to be 267-546-194
Paduraru D (2000) Biological development and body
composition was evaluated by measuring physical parameters of the
best male wrestlers (Greek-Roman) from the Romanian Olympic team
This anthropometric study was made to estimate a number of
anthropometric markers of training of 25 male wrestlers of top level
who were studied following ISAK protocols using a formulae and the
result were statistically analysed The participant‟s physica l
characteristics height (Ht) weight (Wt) perimeters skinfolds (SF)
abdominal (ASF) suprailiac (SISF) subscapular (SSK) triceps (TSF)
thigh (TISF) were measured by an accredited anthropometrist Bodyfat
mass was calculated using the formulae put forward by
BROZECKampKEYS (1951)
45
After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
32
calculate a mean value and used to relate with fitness variables The
physical and motor fitness tests used were ergo jump vertical jump
agility flexibility speed and reaction time Mean calculated scores for
all players were obtained Regression analyses indicated significant
correlation between certain variables of Fitness tests and variables of
anthropometric estimation statistics Knowing these relationships
provides us with valuable predictive information about player‟s
Capabilities in sport Results showed between have less body mass
index (BMI) less fat greater lean body mass great leg and thigh
circumferences were significantly related to better speed agility ergo
jump and vertical jump Also observed greater height with vertical
jump(p lt 005) and relationships between agility and flexibility to less
fat observed too Regression analysis for all variables demonstrated a
significant relationship between some parameters These findings
suggest that we can predict some variables of anthropometric or
physical and motor fitness by other parameters
DixitKPateSPandeyU(2011) The study was concluded
in order to determine the relationship of selected anthropometric and
biomechanical variables with the performance of players in off spin
bowling Five male cricketers players who represent lakshmibai
National Institute of physical education Gwalior were selected as
subjected for the study The help of digital photography was used to
film the subjects is saggital plane of off spin bowling Joint point
method was used in order to obtain the values of selected angular
kinematics variables from develop stick figures The performance of off
spin bowling of each selected subjects was recorded on the basis of
twenty point scale 5 point awarded in run up 5 point awarded in
placement of foot 10 point awarded in Execution 10 point awarded in
Trajectory and 20 point awarded in line length and spin which was
obtained by using three point scales by the three judge To determine
the degree of relationship of selected anthropometric and
biomechanical variables with the performance of players in off spin
bowling Pearson‟s product Moment Correlation Method was used The
obtained value of coefficient of correlation of selected anthropometric
33
variables at the moment release Only the height and leg length have
significant relationship with the performance of subjects in off spin
bowling In case of biomechanical variables none of the biomechanical
variable has exhibited significant relationship with the performance of
players in off spin bowling It may be because of small size of the
sample It is a known fact that greater rotation creates greater
momentum but angle at elbow joint bowling arm did not exhibit
significant relationship which may be due to other reasons
Gall F CarlingC William Mreilly T(2010) We compared
anthropometric and fitness performance data from graduate male
youth players from an elite soccer academy who on leaving the
institution were either successful or not in progressing to higher
standards of play Altogether 161 players were grouped according to
whether they achieved international or professional status or
remained amateur Measures were taken across three age categories
(under 14 15 and 16 years of age) Players were assessed using
standard measures of anthropometric and fitness characteristics The
skeletal age of players was also measured to determine maturity
status Multivariate analysis (MANCOVA) identified a significant
(p lt 0001) effect for playing status Univariate analysis revealed a
significant difference in maturity status in amateurs and professionals
versus internationals (p lt 005) in body mass in professionals versus
amateurs (d = 056 p lt 005) in height (d = 085 p lt 001) and
maximal anaerobic power (d = 079 p lt 001) in both professionals
and internationals versus amateurs There was also a significant
difference in counter-movement jump (d = 053 p lt 005) and 40-m
sprint time (d = 050 p lt 005) in internationals versus amateurs as
well as a significant main effect for age and playing position
(p lt 0001) Significant differences were reported for maturity status
body mass height peak concentric torque maximal anaerobic power
and sprint and jump performance with results dependant on age
category and playing position These results suggest that
anthropometric and fitness assessments of elite youth soccer players
34
can play a part in determining their chances of proceeding to higher
achievement levels
MannaI KhannaG Chandra DharaP (2010) The aim of
study was to investigate the effect of training on selected
anthropometric physiological and biochemical variables of elite field
hockey players A total of 30 Indian male field hockey players (age
2300-3000 yrs) volunteered for this study The training sessions
were divided into 2 phases (a) Preparatory Phase (PP 8 weeks) and (b)
Competitive Phase (CP 4 weeks) The training programme consist of
aerobic anaerobic and skill development and were completed 4
hrsday 5 daysweek Selected variables were measured at zero level
(baseline data BD) and at the end of PP and CP A significant increase
(Plt005)in LBM back and hand grip strength serum level of urea
uric acid and HDLC and a significant decrease(Plt005) in body fat
sub-maximal exercise heart rate and recovery heart rate
haemoglobin total cholesterol triglyceride and LDLC were noted in PP
and CP of training when compare to BD No significant change was
noted in stature body mass HR max resting heart rate VO2max and
anaerobic power of the players after the training Since the data on
field hockey players are limited in India the present study may
provide useful information to the coaches to develop their training
programme
Carvalho H M (2009) Explosive muscle strength and
muscular balance of the knee joint are important parameters to
succeed in basketball Isokinetic testing has been consistently used
for assessment of concentric and eccentric strength of the knee joint
musculature The literature is more abundant for soccer players
(Sangnier amp Tourny-Chollet J Strength Cond Res 22 2008) than for
other team sports in general and basketball in particular In
addition isokinetic assessment has not been systematically
considered in adolescent basketball players taking into account
growth characteristics The present study examines the isokinetic
parameters of the knee joint musculature in 14-to 15-yearold
basketball players by playing position A total of 51 basketball players
35
(140-159 yrs 2-11 years of training) were categorized as guards
(n=16) forwards (n=21) and centers (n=14) Anthropometry included
those measurements needed for estimation of leg volumes (Jones amp
Pearson J Physiology 204 1969) plus stature and body mass After
a 5-min warm-up at 60 rpm in a cycle-ergo meter (Monark) and
stretching subjects performed five maximum knee extensions (KE)
and flexions (KF) in the isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex system 3
Biodex Corporation Shirley NY USA) programmed at 60 degreess
(modes CON and ECC in both legs Moments were corrected for the
effect of gravity and the highest moment from the five trials for each
contraction mode was retained for analysis Parameters for analysis
were absolute peak torque (PT) relative peak torque (PT per kg of body
mass) ‟functional‟ and ‟conventional‟ hamstrings to quadriceps (HQ)
ratios and bilateral differences (Aagaard et al Am J Sports Med 26
1998) Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test position-related
variation in body size and strength parameters Significance level was
set at pamp8804005 As expected centers were taller (F=12251 p lt
001) and heavier (F=11021 p lt 001) than guards and forwards
whereas forwards had similar stature and body mass as guards in this
age group Results in PT showed differences from centers to both
forwards and guards in mean ECCKF in the dominant leg (F=3979
plt005) Also in the non-dominant leg differences revealed in mean
ECCKF (F=4203 plt005) and ECCKE (F=4392 plt005) No
differences were found in mean CON PT as well as HQ ratios and
bilateral differences The present studies showed a significant
position-related variation of body size and absolute peak torque When
expressing isokinetic strength per unit of body mass the effect of
playing position was not anymore significant Future research
including maturational assessments is needed during pubertal years
It would also be of interest to investigate the effect of playing position
in players accumulating more years of basketball practice The
current ongoing project will report the relationship between isokinetic
outputs and concurrent anaerobic tests
36
Chauhan et al (2009) The purpose of this study is to
develop the regression equation for the prediction of sprinting
ability of secondary school boys The data was collected from the
boys of age range between 16 to 18 years(X=17) by anthrop
meter skin fold calliper venire calliper and steel tape The
Pearson product movement method for correlations Wherry Do
Little method for calculation multiple correlation and
development of regression equation were utilized Linear
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length thigh length and foot length girth measurements ie
shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh and calf body diameters
ie biacromial bicirstal and ankle diameters subscapular and
thigh skinfolds fat weight and lean body mass body weight and
age has significant and negative correlations with sprinting
ability The multiple correlation of a selected combination of
variables ie length biacromial diameter and lean body mass
with sprinting ability have been found highly significant The
developed multiple correlations are of sufficient size and the
regression equation can be put in the prediction of sprinting
ability of secondary school boys
Latt E (2009) The present study analyzed the development of
the anthropometrical parameters and body composition in young
swimmers and assessed the effect of these parameters on swimming
performance during biological maturation During the 2-year follow-up
study period the age height body mass fat free mass (FFM) bone
mineral mass (BM) arm span and biological maturation values for all
swimmers body mass index (BMI) and spine BMD for boys and body
fat and total BMD for girls significantly increased during each year
(plt005) Partial correlation analysis revealed that 400-m swimming
performance time was elated (plt005) to body height (rgt-0468) and
arm span (rgt-0397) values VO2 was related to body height (rgt0395)
and arm span (rgt0394) at all three measurements after controlling for
age and pubertal status in boys In addition the Cs of the 400-metre
37
swimming performance was related (plt005) to the body mass
(rgt0411) BMI (rgt0412) and spine BMD (rgt0500) values at all three
measurement points in girls Tracking of the measured physical
characteristics over the two year study period was very high for boys
(rgt0880) and relatively high for girls (rgt0694)
Gil SM et al (2007) Physiological and anthropometric
characteristics of young soccer players according to their playing
position Relevance for the selection process J Strength Cond
Res 21(2)438-445 2007-The aim of this study was to establish
the anthropometric and physiological profiles of young non elite
soccer players according to their playing position and to
determine their relevance for the selection process Two hundred
forty-one male soccer players who were members of the Getxo
Arenas Club (Bizkaia) participated in this study Players age
1731 (plusmn 264) years range 14-21 years were classified into the
following groups forwards (n = 56) midfielders (n = 79)
defenders (n = 77) and goalkeepers (n = 29) Anthropometric
variables of participants (height weight body mass index 6
skinfolds 4 diameters and 3 perimeters) were measured Also
their somatotype and body composition (weights and percentages
of fat bone and muscle) were calculated Participants performed
the Astrand test to estimate their absolute and relative O2max
an endurance test sprint tests (30 meters flat and 30 meters
with 10 cones) and 3 jump tests (squat jump counter movement
jump and drop jump) Forwards were the leanest presenting the
highest percentage of muscle They were the best performers in
all the physiological tests including endurance velocity agility
and power In contrast goalkeepers were found to be the tallest
and the heaviest players They also had the largest fat skinfolds
and the highest fat percentage but their aerobic capacity was
the lowest In the selection process agility and the jump tests
were the most discriminating for forwards In contrast agility
38
height and endurance were the key factors for midfielders The
defenders group was characterized by a lower quantity of fat
Thus we may conclude that anthropometric and physiological
differences exist among soccer players who play in different
positions These differences fit with their different workload in a
game Therefore training programs should include specific
sessions for each positional role
Bayius et al (2006) Conducted a study on
anthropometric body composition and smototype differences of
Greek elite female basketball volleyball and handball players
Their mean scores were compared and it was found that elite
female players varied among sports
Chauhan(2006) The purpose of the study is to determine
the relationship between anthropometric variables and the
middle distance running performance and also to develop
regression equation for the prediction of performance of the
athletes between the age range of 18 and 30 years The data was
collected from 1500 meters middle distance runners as subjects
of the study by using anthropometer skinfold caliper vernier
calliper and steel tape The product movement method for
correlation and wherry do little method for calculating multiple
correlation and development of regression equation were utilized
Linear measurements ie height leg length thigh length total
arm length girth measurements ie biacromial and ankle
diameter thigh(negative) and calf skinfold lean body mass and
age have positive and significant correlations with middle
distance running performance The multiple correlation of
selected combination of variables(ie height thigh girth
biacromial diameter and thigh skinfold) with middle distance
running performance have been found significant but the
multiple correlation is not of sufficient size (so the regression
39
equation developed cannot be put in the prediction of middle
distance running performance)
Chauhan and Chauhan (2005) - The purpose of the study
was to explore the possible ingredients of anthropometric
variables which are essential for the execution of explosive arm
strength for volleyball players Since the game of volleyball
involves explosive strength for the execution of important skills
ie smashing blocking serving and receiving the ball in the
playing situations hence arm strength is essential ingredient
which determines the efficiency of players To achieve the
objectives of this study various body measurements on 40
volleyball players selected as subjects were taken Product
movement method for correlations and developing Regression
Equation were used Linear measurements ie height sitting
height trunk length leg length lower leg length total arm
length upper arm and forearm length foot length body girth
ie shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh body diameters ie
biacromial bitrochantric femur bicodylar and skinfolds ie
biceps triceps subscapular suprailliar mid auxiliary sum of
four skinfolds and body composition variables ie fat
percentage fat weight and lean body mass has positive and
significant correlations which explosive arm strength of
volleyball players Multiple correlation of height biacromial and
elbow diameter lean body mass taken together with explosive
arm strength has been found significant 1 level The size of the
multiple correlation is sufficiently large hence regression
equation developed is useful for the prediction of the explosive
arm strength of volleyball players
Monsma and Malina (2005) conducted a study on
anthropometric and smototype of competitive female figure
skates (11-22 years) by level of competition and discipline The
40
results suggested that figure skating favours lightness high
mesomorphy and lower endomorphy at elite levels
Porcari JP et al (2005) studied the effects of self-
administered neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) on
changes in strength endurance selected anthropometric
measures and subjects perceived shape and satisfaction of the
abdominal wall Twenty-four adults (experimental group)
stimulated their abdominals 5 days per week (20-40 minutes per
session) for 8 weeks and refrained from engaging in any
additional exercise during the study A control group (N=16)
refrained from exercising the abdominals or engaging in any
other exercise training during the study Subjects were tested at
the beginning mid-point and end of the study Isometric
strength of the abdominal muscles was tested using a isokinetic
dynamometer endurance was measured using the ACSM curl-up
test abdominal circumference was measured using a steel tape
measure and body shape and satisfaction were assessed via
questionnaire The stimulation group had a 58 increase in
abdominal strength whereas the control group did not change
The stimulation group also had a 100 increase in abdominal
endurance versus a 28 increase in the control group Waist
circumference decreased by of 35 cm in the stimulation group
compared to no significant change in the control group All 24
subjects in the stimulation group felt that their midsections were
more toned and firmed and 1324 (54) felt that their
posture had improved as a result of the stimulation None of the
control group subjects reported changes in these parameters
There were no significant differences in body weight BMI or
skinfold thickness over the course of the study in either group
NMES as used in the current study resulted in significant
improvements in the muscular strength and endurance of the
41
abdominal region as well as subjects perceived shape and
satisfaction of the mid-section
Uth N (2005) the present study compared the
anthropometry of sprinters and people belonging to the normal
population The height and body mass (BM) distribution of
sprinters (42 men and 44 women) were statistically compared to
the distributions of American and Danish normal populations
The main results showed that there was significantly less BM
and height variability (measured as standard deviation) among
male sprinters than among the normal male population (US and
Danish) while female sprinters showed less BM variability than
the US and Danish normal female populations On average the
American normal population was shorter than the sprinters
There was no height difference between the sprinters and the
Danish normal population All female groups had similar height
variability Both male and female sprinters had lower body mass
index (BMI) than the normal populations It is likely that there is
no single optimal height for sprinters but instead there is an
optimum range that differs for males and females This range in
height appears to exclude people who are very tall or very short
in stature Sprinters are generally lighter in BM than normal
populations Also the BM variation among sprinters is less than
the variation among normal populations These anthropometric
characteristics typical of sprinters might be explained in part
by the influence the anthropometric characteristics have on
relative muscle strength and step length
Chauhan (2004) The purpose of the study was to develop
the regression equation for the prediction performance of
University Throwers in relation to their anthropometrics
measurements To achieve the objectives of the study thirty
throwers were selected as subjects from the University Athletic
42
meet of Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra Thirty two body
measurements were taken with the help of anthropometer steel
tape Vernier calliper and skin fold calliper according to the
instruction of Weiner and Lourie (1969) The throwing
performance of the subjects was measured in terms of
performance in putting the shot Product moment method for
inter correlation and wherry do little method for calculating
multiple correlation and development of regression equation for
the prediction of performance were applied The linears
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length upper and fore arm length circumference ie shoulders
chest abdomen hip and arm body diameters ie biacromial
bicristal and elbow diameters and skinfold measurements ie
biceps sub ndash scapular supra-illiac and calf skin fold have been
found to possess positive and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 1 and 5 levels respectively Among
body composition variables ie fat percentage fat weight and
lean body mass have positive and significant correlations but
body density has negative and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 5 level The multiple correlation of
body weight height and total arm length with throwing
performance is positive and highly significant (R = 935) The size
of the multiple correlation is quite sufficient and hence the
regression equation developed can be used for the prediction of
throwing performance of the athletes
Elferink-Gemser MT et al (2004) To determine the
relationship between multidimensional performance characteristics
and level of performance in talented youth field hockey players elite
youth players (n = 38 mean age 132 years sd = 13) were compared
with sub-elite youth players (n = 88 mean age 142 years sd = 13) on
anthropometric physiological technical tactical and psychological
characteristics Multivariate analyses with performance level and
43
gender as factors and age as the covariate showed that the elite
youth players scored better than the sub-elite youth players on
technical (dribble performance in a peak and repeated shuttle run)
tactical (general tactics tactics for possession and non-possession of
the ball) and psychological variables (motivation) (p lt 005) The most
discriminating variables were tactics for possession of the ball
motivation and performance in a slalom dribble Age discriminated
between the two groups indicating that the elite youth players were
younger than the sub-elite players In the guidance of young talented
players to the top as well as in the detection of talented players more
attention has to be paid to tactical qualities motivation and specific
technical skills
Singal et al (2002) Studied anthropometrically 697 athletes
and 699 controls to assess their body fat and lean body mass All the
body components increased from 10 to 18 years in both boys and girls
of sports group and controls The body fat is lesser in athletes boys
and girls The lean body mass is large in athlete boys only 14 years of
age While studying sex differences it has been noticed that athletes
as well as control girls have significantly more fat and lesser lean
body mass as compared to male athletes and male controls The
magnitude of increase in fat as well as lean body mass is more in boys
as compared to girls
Singh (2002) conducted a study on anthropometric motor
fitness and motor skill determinants of performance in inter-college
level handball players Total 102 players were selected as subjects
The players securing first three places in inter-college matches of
Punjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Guru
Nanak Dev University Amritsar were considered as the subjects for
the study The playing ability of subjects was measured by the panel
of three expert judges during inter-college competition on 5 point
scale on the basis of there all round performance The averages of
scores given by three judges were considered as final score The
following variables for anthropometric measurements were selected
namely age height weight shoulder width biacromial width arm
44
length upper arm length forearm length leg length calf
circumference sitting height supra-iliac skinfold thigh skinfold sub-
scapular skinfold calf skinfold biceps skinfold triceps skinfold
Motor fitness measurements were done by applying following tests
speed 5030 meters sprint agility- shuttle runzig-zag run arms
power-hand ball throwpull-ups leg power-standing broad
jumpsargent jump cardio-vascular endurance- 12 minute runwalk
grip strength dominant hand grip strengthnon dominant hand grip
strength Motor skill was measured by applying test items namely
Dribbling-AAHPERD control dribble test item Passing-AAHPERD test
item Defence-AAHPERD defensive movement test item Throwing
Accuracy-Service placement test Throwing Ability-Wall Volley test
Handball Throw for distance-handball throw
A study of Asian gold medallist Kabaddi players (N-45) for linear
body measurements circumferences skinfolds was conducted by
Kaur et al (2001a) Kabaddi players are 17526 cm tall with 7667
Kg mean weight They have also developed bones and muscles (Bone
mass was 1187 Kg and muscle mass was 3439 Kg) But with 1714
body fat players are towards higher side Somatotype of their players
was found to be 267-546-194
Paduraru D (2000) Biological development and body
composition was evaluated by measuring physical parameters of the
best male wrestlers (Greek-Roman) from the Romanian Olympic team
This anthropometric study was made to estimate a number of
anthropometric markers of training of 25 male wrestlers of top level
who were studied following ISAK protocols using a formulae and the
result were statistically analysed The participant‟s physica l
characteristics height (Ht) weight (Wt) perimeters skinfolds (SF)
abdominal (ASF) suprailiac (SISF) subscapular (SSK) triceps (TSF)
thigh (TISF) were measured by an accredited anthropometrist Bodyfat
mass was calculated using the formulae put forward by
BROZECKampKEYS (1951)
45
After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
33
variables at the moment release Only the height and leg length have
significant relationship with the performance of subjects in off spin
bowling In case of biomechanical variables none of the biomechanical
variable has exhibited significant relationship with the performance of
players in off spin bowling It may be because of small size of the
sample It is a known fact that greater rotation creates greater
momentum but angle at elbow joint bowling arm did not exhibit
significant relationship which may be due to other reasons
Gall F CarlingC William Mreilly T(2010) We compared
anthropometric and fitness performance data from graduate male
youth players from an elite soccer academy who on leaving the
institution were either successful or not in progressing to higher
standards of play Altogether 161 players were grouped according to
whether they achieved international or professional status or
remained amateur Measures were taken across three age categories
(under 14 15 and 16 years of age) Players were assessed using
standard measures of anthropometric and fitness characteristics The
skeletal age of players was also measured to determine maturity
status Multivariate analysis (MANCOVA) identified a significant
(p lt 0001) effect for playing status Univariate analysis revealed a
significant difference in maturity status in amateurs and professionals
versus internationals (p lt 005) in body mass in professionals versus
amateurs (d = 056 p lt 005) in height (d = 085 p lt 001) and
maximal anaerobic power (d = 079 p lt 001) in both professionals
and internationals versus amateurs There was also a significant
difference in counter-movement jump (d = 053 p lt 005) and 40-m
sprint time (d = 050 p lt 005) in internationals versus amateurs as
well as a significant main effect for age and playing position
(p lt 0001) Significant differences were reported for maturity status
body mass height peak concentric torque maximal anaerobic power
and sprint and jump performance with results dependant on age
category and playing position These results suggest that
anthropometric and fitness assessments of elite youth soccer players
34
can play a part in determining their chances of proceeding to higher
achievement levels
MannaI KhannaG Chandra DharaP (2010) The aim of
study was to investigate the effect of training on selected
anthropometric physiological and biochemical variables of elite field
hockey players A total of 30 Indian male field hockey players (age
2300-3000 yrs) volunteered for this study The training sessions
were divided into 2 phases (a) Preparatory Phase (PP 8 weeks) and (b)
Competitive Phase (CP 4 weeks) The training programme consist of
aerobic anaerobic and skill development and were completed 4
hrsday 5 daysweek Selected variables were measured at zero level
(baseline data BD) and at the end of PP and CP A significant increase
(Plt005)in LBM back and hand grip strength serum level of urea
uric acid and HDLC and a significant decrease(Plt005) in body fat
sub-maximal exercise heart rate and recovery heart rate
haemoglobin total cholesterol triglyceride and LDLC were noted in PP
and CP of training when compare to BD No significant change was
noted in stature body mass HR max resting heart rate VO2max and
anaerobic power of the players after the training Since the data on
field hockey players are limited in India the present study may
provide useful information to the coaches to develop their training
programme
Carvalho H M (2009) Explosive muscle strength and
muscular balance of the knee joint are important parameters to
succeed in basketball Isokinetic testing has been consistently used
for assessment of concentric and eccentric strength of the knee joint
musculature The literature is more abundant for soccer players
(Sangnier amp Tourny-Chollet J Strength Cond Res 22 2008) than for
other team sports in general and basketball in particular In
addition isokinetic assessment has not been systematically
considered in adolescent basketball players taking into account
growth characteristics The present study examines the isokinetic
parameters of the knee joint musculature in 14-to 15-yearold
basketball players by playing position A total of 51 basketball players
35
(140-159 yrs 2-11 years of training) were categorized as guards
(n=16) forwards (n=21) and centers (n=14) Anthropometry included
those measurements needed for estimation of leg volumes (Jones amp
Pearson J Physiology 204 1969) plus stature and body mass After
a 5-min warm-up at 60 rpm in a cycle-ergo meter (Monark) and
stretching subjects performed five maximum knee extensions (KE)
and flexions (KF) in the isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex system 3
Biodex Corporation Shirley NY USA) programmed at 60 degreess
(modes CON and ECC in both legs Moments were corrected for the
effect of gravity and the highest moment from the five trials for each
contraction mode was retained for analysis Parameters for analysis
were absolute peak torque (PT) relative peak torque (PT per kg of body
mass) ‟functional‟ and ‟conventional‟ hamstrings to quadriceps (HQ)
ratios and bilateral differences (Aagaard et al Am J Sports Med 26
1998) Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test position-related
variation in body size and strength parameters Significance level was
set at pamp8804005 As expected centers were taller (F=12251 p lt
001) and heavier (F=11021 p lt 001) than guards and forwards
whereas forwards had similar stature and body mass as guards in this
age group Results in PT showed differences from centers to both
forwards and guards in mean ECCKF in the dominant leg (F=3979
plt005) Also in the non-dominant leg differences revealed in mean
ECCKF (F=4203 plt005) and ECCKE (F=4392 plt005) No
differences were found in mean CON PT as well as HQ ratios and
bilateral differences The present studies showed a significant
position-related variation of body size and absolute peak torque When
expressing isokinetic strength per unit of body mass the effect of
playing position was not anymore significant Future research
including maturational assessments is needed during pubertal years
It would also be of interest to investigate the effect of playing position
in players accumulating more years of basketball practice The
current ongoing project will report the relationship between isokinetic
outputs and concurrent anaerobic tests
36
Chauhan et al (2009) The purpose of this study is to
develop the regression equation for the prediction of sprinting
ability of secondary school boys The data was collected from the
boys of age range between 16 to 18 years(X=17) by anthrop
meter skin fold calliper venire calliper and steel tape The
Pearson product movement method for correlations Wherry Do
Little method for calculation multiple correlation and
development of regression equation were utilized Linear
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length thigh length and foot length girth measurements ie
shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh and calf body diameters
ie biacromial bicirstal and ankle diameters subscapular and
thigh skinfolds fat weight and lean body mass body weight and
age has significant and negative correlations with sprinting
ability The multiple correlation of a selected combination of
variables ie length biacromial diameter and lean body mass
with sprinting ability have been found highly significant The
developed multiple correlations are of sufficient size and the
regression equation can be put in the prediction of sprinting
ability of secondary school boys
Latt E (2009) The present study analyzed the development of
the anthropometrical parameters and body composition in young
swimmers and assessed the effect of these parameters on swimming
performance during biological maturation During the 2-year follow-up
study period the age height body mass fat free mass (FFM) bone
mineral mass (BM) arm span and biological maturation values for all
swimmers body mass index (BMI) and spine BMD for boys and body
fat and total BMD for girls significantly increased during each year
(plt005) Partial correlation analysis revealed that 400-m swimming
performance time was elated (plt005) to body height (rgt-0468) and
arm span (rgt-0397) values VO2 was related to body height (rgt0395)
and arm span (rgt0394) at all three measurements after controlling for
age and pubertal status in boys In addition the Cs of the 400-metre
37
swimming performance was related (plt005) to the body mass
(rgt0411) BMI (rgt0412) and spine BMD (rgt0500) values at all three
measurement points in girls Tracking of the measured physical
characteristics over the two year study period was very high for boys
(rgt0880) and relatively high for girls (rgt0694)
Gil SM et al (2007) Physiological and anthropometric
characteristics of young soccer players according to their playing
position Relevance for the selection process J Strength Cond
Res 21(2)438-445 2007-The aim of this study was to establish
the anthropometric and physiological profiles of young non elite
soccer players according to their playing position and to
determine their relevance for the selection process Two hundred
forty-one male soccer players who were members of the Getxo
Arenas Club (Bizkaia) participated in this study Players age
1731 (plusmn 264) years range 14-21 years were classified into the
following groups forwards (n = 56) midfielders (n = 79)
defenders (n = 77) and goalkeepers (n = 29) Anthropometric
variables of participants (height weight body mass index 6
skinfolds 4 diameters and 3 perimeters) were measured Also
their somatotype and body composition (weights and percentages
of fat bone and muscle) were calculated Participants performed
the Astrand test to estimate their absolute and relative O2max
an endurance test sprint tests (30 meters flat and 30 meters
with 10 cones) and 3 jump tests (squat jump counter movement
jump and drop jump) Forwards were the leanest presenting the
highest percentage of muscle They were the best performers in
all the physiological tests including endurance velocity agility
and power In contrast goalkeepers were found to be the tallest
and the heaviest players They also had the largest fat skinfolds
and the highest fat percentage but their aerobic capacity was
the lowest In the selection process agility and the jump tests
were the most discriminating for forwards In contrast agility
38
height and endurance were the key factors for midfielders The
defenders group was characterized by a lower quantity of fat
Thus we may conclude that anthropometric and physiological
differences exist among soccer players who play in different
positions These differences fit with their different workload in a
game Therefore training programs should include specific
sessions for each positional role
Bayius et al (2006) Conducted a study on
anthropometric body composition and smototype differences of
Greek elite female basketball volleyball and handball players
Their mean scores were compared and it was found that elite
female players varied among sports
Chauhan(2006) The purpose of the study is to determine
the relationship between anthropometric variables and the
middle distance running performance and also to develop
regression equation for the prediction of performance of the
athletes between the age range of 18 and 30 years The data was
collected from 1500 meters middle distance runners as subjects
of the study by using anthropometer skinfold caliper vernier
calliper and steel tape The product movement method for
correlation and wherry do little method for calculating multiple
correlation and development of regression equation were utilized
Linear measurements ie height leg length thigh length total
arm length girth measurements ie biacromial and ankle
diameter thigh(negative) and calf skinfold lean body mass and
age have positive and significant correlations with middle
distance running performance The multiple correlation of
selected combination of variables(ie height thigh girth
biacromial diameter and thigh skinfold) with middle distance
running performance have been found significant but the
multiple correlation is not of sufficient size (so the regression
39
equation developed cannot be put in the prediction of middle
distance running performance)
Chauhan and Chauhan (2005) - The purpose of the study
was to explore the possible ingredients of anthropometric
variables which are essential for the execution of explosive arm
strength for volleyball players Since the game of volleyball
involves explosive strength for the execution of important skills
ie smashing blocking serving and receiving the ball in the
playing situations hence arm strength is essential ingredient
which determines the efficiency of players To achieve the
objectives of this study various body measurements on 40
volleyball players selected as subjects were taken Product
movement method for correlations and developing Regression
Equation were used Linear measurements ie height sitting
height trunk length leg length lower leg length total arm
length upper arm and forearm length foot length body girth
ie shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh body diameters ie
biacromial bitrochantric femur bicodylar and skinfolds ie
biceps triceps subscapular suprailliar mid auxiliary sum of
four skinfolds and body composition variables ie fat
percentage fat weight and lean body mass has positive and
significant correlations which explosive arm strength of
volleyball players Multiple correlation of height biacromial and
elbow diameter lean body mass taken together with explosive
arm strength has been found significant 1 level The size of the
multiple correlation is sufficiently large hence regression
equation developed is useful for the prediction of the explosive
arm strength of volleyball players
Monsma and Malina (2005) conducted a study on
anthropometric and smototype of competitive female figure
skates (11-22 years) by level of competition and discipline The
40
results suggested that figure skating favours lightness high
mesomorphy and lower endomorphy at elite levels
Porcari JP et al (2005) studied the effects of self-
administered neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) on
changes in strength endurance selected anthropometric
measures and subjects perceived shape and satisfaction of the
abdominal wall Twenty-four adults (experimental group)
stimulated their abdominals 5 days per week (20-40 minutes per
session) for 8 weeks and refrained from engaging in any
additional exercise during the study A control group (N=16)
refrained from exercising the abdominals or engaging in any
other exercise training during the study Subjects were tested at
the beginning mid-point and end of the study Isometric
strength of the abdominal muscles was tested using a isokinetic
dynamometer endurance was measured using the ACSM curl-up
test abdominal circumference was measured using a steel tape
measure and body shape and satisfaction were assessed via
questionnaire The stimulation group had a 58 increase in
abdominal strength whereas the control group did not change
The stimulation group also had a 100 increase in abdominal
endurance versus a 28 increase in the control group Waist
circumference decreased by of 35 cm in the stimulation group
compared to no significant change in the control group All 24
subjects in the stimulation group felt that their midsections were
more toned and firmed and 1324 (54) felt that their
posture had improved as a result of the stimulation None of the
control group subjects reported changes in these parameters
There were no significant differences in body weight BMI or
skinfold thickness over the course of the study in either group
NMES as used in the current study resulted in significant
improvements in the muscular strength and endurance of the
41
abdominal region as well as subjects perceived shape and
satisfaction of the mid-section
Uth N (2005) the present study compared the
anthropometry of sprinters and people belonging to the normal
population The height and body mass (BM) distribution of
sprinters (42 men and 44 women) were statistically compared to
the distributions of American and Danish normal populations
The main results showed that there was significantly less BM
and height variability (measured as standard deviation) among
male sprinters than among the normal male population (US and
Danish) while female sprinters showed less BM variability than
the US and Danish normal female populations On average the
American normal population was shorter than the sprinters
There was no height difference between the sprinters and the
Danish normal population All female groups had similar height
variability Both male and female sprinters had lower body mass
index (BMI) than the normal populations It is likely that there is
no single optimal height for sprinters but instead there is an
optimum range that differs for males and females This range in
height appears to exclude people who are very tall or very short
in stature Sprinters are generally lighter in BM than normal
populations Also the BM variation among sprinters is less than
the variation among normal populations These anthropometric
characteristics typical of sprinters might be explained in part
by the influence the anthropometric characteristics have on
relative muscle strength and step length
Chauhan (2004) The purpose of the study was to develop
the regression equation for the prediction performance of
University Throwers in relation to their anthropometrics
measurements To achieve the objectives of the study thirty
throwers were selected as subjects from the University Athletic
42
meet of Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra Thirty two body
measurements were taken with the help of anthropometer steel
tape Vernier calliper and skin fold calliper according to the
instruction of Weiner and Lourie (1969) The throwing
performance of the subjects was measured in terms of
performance in putting the shot Product moment method for
inter correlation and wherry do little method for calculating
multiple correlation and development of regression equation for
the prediction of performance were applied The linears
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length upper and fore arm length circumference ie shoulders
chest abdomen hip and arm body diameters ie biacromial
bicristal and elbow diameters and skinfold measurements ie
biceps sub ndash scapular supra-illiac and calf skin fold have been
found to possess positive and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 1 and 5 levels respectively Among
body composition variables ie fat percentage fat weight and
lean body mass have positive and significant correlations but
body density has negative and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 5 level The multiple correlation of
body weight height and total arm length with throwing
performance is positive and highly significant (R = 935) The size
of the multiple correlation is quite sufficient and hence the
regression equation developed can be used for the prediction of
throwing performance of the athletes
Elferink-Gemser MT et al (2004) To determine the
relationship between multidimensional performance characteristics
and level of performance in talented youth field hockey players elite
youth players (n = 38 mean age 132 years sd = 13) were compared
with sub-elite youth players (n = 88 mean age 142 years sd = 13) on
anthropometric physiological technical tactical and psychological
characteristics Multivariate analyses with performance level and
43
gender as factors and age as the covariate showed that the elite
youth players scored better than the sub-elite youth players on
technical (dribble performance in a peak and repeated shuttle run)
tactical (general tactics tactics for possession and non-possession of
the ball) and psychological variables (motivation) (p lt 005) The most
discriminating variables were tactics for possession of the ball
motivation and performance in a slalom dribble Age discriminated
between the two groups indicating that the elite youth players were
younger than the sub-elite players In the guidance of young talented
players to the top as well as in the detection of talented players more
attention has to be paid to tactical qualities motivation and specific
technical skills
Singal et al (2002) Studied anthropometrically 697 athletes
and 699 controls to assess their body fat and lean body mass All the
body components increased from 10 to 18 years in both boys and girls
of sports group and controls The body fat is lesser in athletes boys
and girls The lean body mass is large in athlete boys only 14 years of
age While studying sex differences it has been noticed that athletes
as well as control girls have significantly more fat and lesser lean
body mass as compared to male athletes and male controls The
magnitude of increase in fat as well as lean body mass is more in boys
as compared to girls
Singh (2002) conducted a study on anthropometric motor
fitness and motor skill determinants of performance in inter-college
level handball players Total 102 players were selected as subjects
The players securing first three places in inter-college matches of
Punjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Guru
Nanak Dev University Amritsar were considered as the subjects for
the study The playing ability of subjects was measured by the panel
of three expert judges during inter-college competition on 5 point
scale on the basis of there all round performance The averages of
scores given by three judges were considered as final score The
following variables for anthropometric measurements were selected
namely age height weight shoulder width biacromial width arm
44
length upper arm length forearm length leg length calf
circumference sitting height supra-iliac skinfold thigh skinfold sub-
scapular skinfold calf skinfold biceps skinfold triceps skinfold
Motor fitness measurements were done by applying following tests
speed 5030 meters sprint agility- shuttle runzig-zag run arms
power-hand ball throwpull-ups leg power-standing broad
jumpsargent jump cardio-vascular endurance- 12 minute runwalk
grip strength dominant hand grip strengthnon dominant hand grip
strength Motor skill was measured by applying test items namely
Dribbling-AAHPERD control dribble test item Passing-AAHPERD test
item Defence-AAHPERD defensive movement test item Throwing
Accuracy-Service placement test Throwing Ability-Wall Volley test
Handball Throw for distance-handball throw
A study of Asian gold medallist Kabaddi players (N-45) for linear
body measurements circumferences skinfolds was conducted by
Kaur et al (2001a) Kabaddi players are 17526 cm tall with 7667
Kg mean weight They have also developed bones and muscles (Bone
mass was 1187 Kg and muscle mass was 3439 Kg) But with 1714
body fat players are towards higher side Somatotype of their players
was found to be 267-546-194
Paduraru D (2000) Biological development and body
composition was evaluated by measuring physical parameters of the
best male wrestlers (Greek-Roman) from the Romanian Olympic team
This anthropometric study was made to estimate a number of
anthropometric markers of training of 25 male wrestlers of top level
who were studied following ISAK protocols using a formulae and the
result were statistically analysed The participant‟s physica l
characteristics height (Ht) weight (Wt) perimeters skinfolds (SF)
abdominal (ASF) suprailiac (SISF) subscapular (SSK) triceps (TSF)
thigh (TISF) were measured by an accredited anthropometrist Bodyfat
mass was calculated using the formulae put forward by
BROZECKampKEYS (1951)
45
After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
34
can play a part in determining their chances of proceeding to higher
achievement levels
MannaI KhannaG Chandra DharaP (2010) The aim of
study was to investigate the effect of training on selected
anthropometric physiological and biochemical variables of elite field
hockey players A total of 30 Indian male field hockey players (age
2300-3000 yrs) volunteered for this study The training sessions
were divided into 2 phases (a) Preparatory Phase (PP 8 weeks) and (b)
Competitive Phase (CP 4 weeks) The training programme consist of
aerobic anaerobic and skill development and were completed 4
hrsday 5 daysweek Selected variables were measured at zero level
(baseline data BD) and at the end of PP and CP A significant increase
(Plt005)in LBM back and hand grip strength serum level of urea
uric acid and HDLC and a significant decrease(Plt005) in body fat
sub-maximal exercise heart rate and recovery heart rate
haemoglobin total cholesterol triglyceride and LDLC were noted in PP
and CP of training when compare to BD No significant change was
noted in stature body mass HR max resting heart rate VO2max and
anaerobic power of the players after the training Since the data on
field hockey players are limited in India the present study may
provide useful information to the coaches to develop their training
programme
Carvalho H M (2009) Explosive muscle strength and
muscular balance of the knee joint are important parameters to
succeed in basketball Isokinetic testing has been consistently used
for assessment of concentric and eccentric strength of the knee joint
musculature The literature is more abundant for soccer players
(Sangnier amp Tourny-Chollet J Strength Cond Res 22 2008) than for
other team sports in general and basketball in particular In
addition isokinetic assessment has not been systematically
considered in adolescent basketball players taking into account
growth characteristics The present study examines the isokinetic
parameters of the knee joint musculature in 14-to 15-yearold
basketball players by playing position A total of 51 basketball players
35
(140-159 yrs 2-11 years of training) were categorized as guards
(n=16) forwards (n=21) and centers (n=14) Anthropometry included
those measurements needed for estimation of leg volumes (Jones amp
Pearson J Physiology 204 1969) plus stature and body mass After
a 5-min warm-up at 60 rpm in a cycle-ergo meter (Monark) and
stretching subjects performed five maximum knee extensions (KE)
and flexions (KF) in the isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex system 3
Biodex Corporation Shirley NY USA) programmed at 60 degreess
(modes CON and ECC in both legs Moments were corrected for the
effect of gravity and the highest moment from the five trials for each
contraction mode was retained for analysis Parameters for analysis
were absolute peak torque (PT) relative peak torque (PT per kg of body
mass) ‟functional‟ and ‟conventional‟ hamstrings to quadriceps (HQ)
ratios and bilateral differences (Aagaard et al Am J Sports Med 26
1998) Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test position-related
variation in body size and strength parameters Significance level was
set at pamp8804005 As expected centers were taller (F=12251 p lt
001) and heavier (F=11021 p lt 001) than guards and forwards
whereas forwards had similar stature and body mass as guards in this
age group Results in PT showed differences from centers to both
forwards and guards in mean ECCKF in the dominant leg (F=3979
plt005) Also in the non-dominant leg differences revealed in mean
ECCKF (F=4203 plt005) and ECCKE (F=4392 plt005) No
differences were found in mean CON PT as well as HQ ratios and
bilateral differences The present studies showed a significant
position-related variation of body size and absolute peak torque When
expressing isokinetic strength per unit of body mass the effect of
playing position was not anymore significant Future research
including maturational assessments is needed during pubertal years
It would also be of interest to investigate the effect of playing position
in players accumulating more years of basketball practice The
current ongoing project will report the relationship between isokinetic
outputs and concurrent anaerobic tests
36
Chauhan et al (2009) The purpose of this study is to
develop the regression equation for the prediction of sprinting
ability of secondary school boys The data was collected from the
boys of age range between 16 to 18 years(X=17) by anthrop
meter skin fold calliper venire calliper and steel tape The
Pearson product movement method for correlations Wherry Do
Little method for calculation multiple correlation and
development of regression equation were utilized Linear
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length thigh length and foot length girth measurements ie
shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh and calf body diameters
ie biacromial bicirstal and ankle diameters subscapular and
thigh skinfolds fat weight and lean body mass body weight and
age has significant and negative correlations with sprinting
ability The multiple correlation of a selected combination of
variables ie length biacromial diameter and lean body mass
with sprinting ability have been found highly significant The
developed multiple correlations are of sufficient size and the
regression equation can be put in the prediction of sprinting
ability of secondary school boys
Latt E (2009) The present study analyzed the development of
the anthropometrical parameters and body composition in young
swimmers and assessed the effect of these parameters on swimming
performance during biological maturation During the 2-year follow-up
study period the age height body mass fat free mass (FFM) bone
mineral mass (BM) arm span and biological maturation values for all
swimmers body mass index (BMI) and spine BMD for boys and body
fat and total BMD for girls significantly increased during each year
(plt005) Partial correlation analysis revealed that 400-m swimming
performance time was elated (plt005) to body height (rgt-0468) and
arm span (rgt-0397) values VO2 was related to body height (rgt0395)
and arm span (rgt0394) at all three measurements after controlling for
age and pubertal status in boys In addition the Cs of the 400-metre
37
swimming performance was related (plt005) to the body mass
(rgt0411) BMI (rgt0412) and spine BMD (rgt0500) values at all three
measurement points in girls Tracking of the measured physical
characteristics over the two year study period was very high for boys
(rgt0880) and relatively high for girls (rgt0694)
Gil SM et al (2007) Physiological and anthropometric
characteristics of young soccer players according to their playing
position Relevance for the selection process J Strength Cond
Res 21(2)438-445 2007-The aim of this study was to establish
the anthropometric and physiological profiles of young non elite
soccer players according to their playing position and to
determine their relevance for the selection process Two hundred
forty-one male soccer players who were members of the Getxo
Arenas Club (Bizkaia) participated in this study Players age
1731 (plusmn 264) years range 14-21 years were classified into the
following groups forwards (n = 56) midfielders (n = 79)
defenders (n = 77) and goalkeepers (n = 29) Anthropometric
variables of participants (height weight body mass index 6
skinfolds 4 diameters and 3 perimeters) were measured Also
their somatotype and body composition (weights and percentages
of fat bone and muscle) were calculated Participants performed
the Astrand test to estimate their absolute and relative O2max
an endurance test sprint tests (30 meters flat and 30 meters
with 10 cones) and 3 jump tests (squat jump counter movement
jump and drop jump) Forwards were the leanest presenting the
highest percentage of muscle They were the best performers in
all the physiological tests including endurance velocity agility
and power In contrast goalkeepers were found to be the tallest
and the heaviest players They also had the largest fat skinfolds
and the highest fat percentage but their aerobic capacity was
the lowest In the selection process agility and the jump tests
were the most discriminating for forwards In contrast agility
38
height and endurance were the key factors for midfielders The
defenders group was characterized by a lower quantity of fat
Thus we may conclude that anthropometric and physiological
differences exist among soccer players who play in different
positions These differences fit with their different workload in a
game Therefore training programs should include specific
sessions for each positional role
Bayius et al (2006) Conducted a study on
anthropometric body composition and smototype differences of
Greek elite female basketball volleyball and handball players
Their mean scores were compared and it was found that elite
female players varied among sports
Chauhan(2006) The purpose of the study is to determine
the relationship between anthropometric variables and the
middle distance running performance and also to develop
regression equation for the prediction of performance of the
athletes between the age range of 18 and 30 years The data was
collected from 1500 meters middle distance runners as subjects
of the study by using anthropometer skinfold caliper vernier
calliper and steel tape The product movement method for
correlation and wherry do little method for calculating multiple
correlation and development of regression equation were utilized
Linear measurements ie height leg length thigh length total
arm length girth measurements ie biacromial and ankle
diameter thigh(negative) and calf skinfold lean body mass and
age have positive and significant correlations with middle
distance running performance The multiple correlation of
selected combination of variables(ie height thigh girth
biacromial diameter and thigh skinfold) with middle distance
running performance have been found significant but the
multiple correlation is not of sufficient size (so the regression
39
equation developed cannot be put in the prediction of middle
distance running performance)
Chauhan and Chauhan (2005) - The purpose of the study
was to explore the possible ingredients of anthropometric
variables which are essential for the execution of explosive arm
strength for volleyball players Since the game of volleyball
involves explosive strength for the execution of important skills
ie smashing blocking serving and receiving the ball in the
playing situations hence arm strength is essential ingredient
which determines the efficiency of players To achieve the
objectives of this study various body measurements on 40
volleyball players selected as subjects were taken Product
movement method for correlations and developing Regression
Equation were used Linear measurements ie height sitting
height trunk length leg length lower leg length total arm
length upper arm and forearm length foot length body girth
ie shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh body diameters ie
biacromial bitrochantric femur bicodylar and skinfolds ie
biceps triceps subscapular suprailliar mid auxiliary sum of
four skinfolds and body composition variables ie fat
percentage fat weight and lean body mass has positive and
significant correlations which explosive arm strength of
volleyball players Multiple correlation of height biacromial and
elbow diameter lean body mass taken together with explosive
arm strength has been found significant 1 level The size of the
multiple correlation is sufficiently large hence regression
equation developed is useful for the prediction of the explosive
arm strength of volleyball players
Monsma and Malina (2005) conducted a study on
anthropometric and smototype of competitive female figure
skates (11-22 years) by level of competition and discipline The
40
results suggested that figure skating favours lightness high
mesomorphy and lower endomorphy at elite levels
Porcari JP et al (2005) studied the effects of self-
administered neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) on
changes in strength endurance selected anthropometric
measures and subjects perceived shape and satisfaction of the
abdominal wall Twenty-four adults (experimental group)
stimulated their abdominals 5 days per week (20-40 minutes per
session) for 8 weeks and refrained from engaging in any
additional exercise during the study A control group (N=16)
refrained from exercising the abdominals or engaging in any
other exercise training during the study Subjects were tested at
the beginning mid-point and end of the study Isometric
strength of the abdominal muscles was tested using a isokinetic
dynamometer endurance was measured using the ACSM curl-up
test abdominal circumference was measured using a steel tape
measure and body shape and satisfaction were assessed via
questionnaire The stimulation group had a 58 increase in
abdominal strength whereas the control group did not change
The stimulation group also had a 100 increase in abdominal
endurance versus a 28 increase in the control group Waist
circumference decreased by of 35 cm in the stimulation group
compared to no significant change in the control group All 24
subjects in the stimulation group felt that their midsections were
more toned and firmed and 1324 (54) felt that their
posture had improved as a result of the stimulation None of the
control group subjects reported changes in these parameters
There were no significant differences in body weight BMI or
skinfold thickness over the course of the study in either group
NMES as used in the current study resulted in significant
improvements in the muscular strength and endurance of the
41
abdominal region as well as subjects perceived shape and
satisfaction of the mid-section
Uth N (2005) the present study compared the
anthropometry of sprinters and people belonging to the normal
population The height and body mass (BM) distribution of
sprinters (42 men and 44 women) were statistically compared to
the distributions of American and Danish normal populations
The main results showed that there was significantly less BM
and height variability (measured as standard deviation) among
male sprinters than among the normal male population (US and
Danish) while female sprinters showed less BM variability than
the US and Danish normal female populations On average the
American normal population was shorter than the sprinters
There was no height difference between the sprinters and the
Danish normal population All female groups had similar height
variability Both male and female sprinters had lower body mass
index (BMI) than the normal populations It is likely that there is
no single optimal height for sprinters but instead there is an
optimum range that differs for males and females This range in
height appears to exclude people who are very tall or very short
in stature Sprinters are generally lighter in BM than normal
populations Also the BM variation among sprinters is less than
the variation among normal populations These anthropometric
characteristics typical of sprinters might be explained in part
by the influence the anthropometric characteristics have on
relative muscle strength and step length
Chauhan (2004) The purpose of the study was to develop
the regression equation for the prediction performance of
University Throwers in relation to their anthropometrics
measurements To achieve the objectives of the study thirty
throwers were selected as subjects from the University Athletic
42
meet of Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra Thirty two body
measurements were taken with the help of anthropometer steel
tape Vernier calliper and skin fold calliper according to the
instruction of Weiner and Lourie (1969) The throwing
performance of the subjects was measured in terms of
performance in putting the shot Product moment method for
inter correlation and wherry do little method for calculating
multiple correlation and development of regression equation for
the prediction of performance were applied The linears
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length upper and fore arm length circumference ie shoulders
chest abdomen hip and arm body diameters ie biacromial
bicristal and elbow diameters and skinfold measurements ie
biceps sub ndash scapular supra-illiac and calf skin fold have been
found to possess positive and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 1 and 5 levels respectively Among
body composition variables ie fat percentage fat weight and
lean body mass have positive and significant correlations but
body density has negative and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 5 level The multiple correlation of
body weight height and total arm length with throwing
performance is positive and highly significant (R = 935) The size
of the multiple correlation is quite sufficient and hence the
regression equation developed can be used for the prediction of
throwing performance of the athletes
Elferink-Gemser MT et al (2004) To determine the
relationship between multidimensional performance characteristics
and level of performance in talented youth field hockey players elite
youth players (n = 38 mean age 132 years sd = 13) were compared
with sub-elite youth players (n = 88 mean age 142 years sd = 13) on
anthropometric physiological technical tactical and psychological
characteristics Multivariate analyses with performance level and
43
gender as factors and age as the covariate showed that the elite
youth players scored better than the sub-elite youth players on
technical (dribble performance in a peak and repeated shuttle run)
tactical (general tactics tactics for possession and non-possession of
the ball) and psychological variables (motivation) (p lt 005) The most
discriminating variables were tactics for possession of the ball
motivation and performance in a slalom dribble Age discriminated
between the two groups indicating that the elite youth players were
younger than the sub-elite players In the guidance of young talented
players to the top as well as in the detection of talented players more
attention has to be paid to tactical qualities motivation and specific
technical skills
Singal et al (2002) Studied anthropometrically 697 athletes
and 699 controls to assess their body fat and lean body mass All the
body components increased from 10 to 18 years in both boys and girls
of sports group and controls The body fat is lesser in athletes boys
and girls The lean body mass is large in athlete boys only 14 years of
age While studying sex differences it has been noticed that athletes
as well as control girls have significantly more fat and lesser lean
body mass as compared to male athletes and male controls The
magnitude of increase in fat as well as lean body mass is more in boys
as compared to girls
Singh (2002) conducted a study on anthropometric motor
fitness and motor skill determinants of performance in inter-college
level handball players Total 102 players were selected as subjects
The players securing first three places in inter-college matches of
Punjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Guru
Nanak Dev University Amritsar were considered as the subjects for
the study The playing ability of subjects was measured by the panel
of three expert judges during inter-college competition on 5 point
scale on the basis of there all round performance The averages of
scores given by three judges were considered as final score The
following variables for anthropometric measurements were selected
namely age height weight shoulder width biacromial width arm
44
length upper arm length forearm length leg length calf
circumference sitting height supra-iliac skinfold thigh skinfold sub-
scapular skinfold calf skinfold biceps skinfold triceps skinfold
Motor fitness measurements were done by applying following tests
speed 5030 meters sprint agility- shuttle runzig-zag run arms
power-hand ball throwpull-ups leg power-standing broad
jumpsargent jump cardio-vascular endurance- 12 minute runwalk
grip strength dominant hand grip strengthnon dominant hand grip
strength Motor skill was measured by applying test items namely
Dribbling-AAHPERD control dribble test item Passing-AAHPERD test
item Defence-AAHPERD defensive movement test item Throwing
Accuracy-Service placement test Throwing Ability-Wall Volley test
Handball Throw for distance-handball throw
A study of Asian gold medallist Kabaddi players (N-45) for linear
body measurements circumferences skinfolds was conducted by
Kaur et al (2001a) Kabaddi players are 17526 cm tall with 7667
Kg mean weight They have also developed bones and muscles (Bone
mass was 1187 Kg and muscle mass was 3439 Kg) But with 1714
body fat players are towards higher side Somatotype of their players
was found to be 267-546-194
Paduraru D (2000) Biological development and body
composition was evaluated by measuring physical parameters of the
best male wrestlers (Greek-Roman) from the Romanian Olympic team
This anthropometric study was made to estimate a number of
anthropometric markers of training of 25 male wrestlers of top level
who were studied following ISAK protocols using a formulae and the
result were statistically analysed The participant‟s physica l
characteristics height (Ht) weight (Wt) perimeters skinfolds (SF)
abdominal (ASF) suprailiac (SISF) subscapular (SSK) triceps (TSF)
thigh (TISF) were measured by an accredited anthropometrist Bodyfat
mass was calculated using the formulae put forward by
BROZECKampKEYS (1951)
45
After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
35
(140-159 yrs 2-11 years of training) were categorized as guards
(n=16) forwards (n=21) and centers (n=14) Anthropometry included
those measurements needed for estimation of leg volumes (Jones amp
Pearson J Physiology 204 1969) plus stature and body mass After
a 5-min warm-up at 60 rpm in a cycle-ergo meter (Monark) and
stretching subjects performed five maximum knee extensions (KE)
and flexions (KF) in the isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex system 3
Biodex Corporation Shirley NY USA) programmed at 60 degreess
(modes CON and ECC in both legs Moments were corrected for the
effect of gravity and the highest moment from the five trials for each
contraction mode was retained for analysis Parameters for analysis
were absolute peak torque (PT) relative peak torque (PT per kg of body
mass) ‟functional‟ and ‟conventional‟ hamstrings to quadriceps (HQ)
ratios and bilateral differences (Aagaard et al Am J Sports Med 26
1998) Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test position-related
variation in body size and strength parameters Significance level was
set at pamp8804005 As expected centers were taller (F=12251 p lt
001) and heavier (F=11021 p lt 001) than guards and forwards
whereas forwards had similar stature and body mass as guards in this
age group Results in PT showed differences from centers to both
forwards and guards in mean ECCKF in the dominant leg (F=3979
plt005) Also in the non-dominant leg differences revealed in mean
ECCKF (F=4203 plt005) and ECCKE (F=4392 plt005) No
differences were found in mean CON PT as well as HQ ratios and
bilateral differences The present studies showed a significant
position-related variation of body size and absolute peak torque When
expressing isokinetic strength per unit of body mass the effect of
playing position was not anymore significant Future research
including maturational assessments is needed during pubertal years
It would also be of interest to investigate the effect of playing position
in players accumulating more years of basketball practice The
current ongoing project will report the relationship between isokinetic
outputs and concurrent anaerobic tests
36
Chauhan et al (2009) The purpose of this study is to
develop the regression equation for the prediction of sprinting
ability of secondary school boys The data was collected from the
boys of age range between 16 to 18 years(X=17) by anthrop
meter skin fold calliper venire calliper and steel tape The
Pearson product movement method for correlations Wherry Do
Little method for calculation multiple correlation and
development of regression equation were utilized Linear
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length thigh length and foot length girth measurements ie
shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh and calf body diameters
ie biacromial bicirstal and ankle diameters subscapular and
thigh skinfolds fat weight and lean body mass body weight and
age has significant and negative correlations with sprinting
ability The multiple correlation of a selected combination of
variables ie length biacromial diameter and lean body mass
with sprinting ability have been found highly significant The
developed multiple correlations are of sufficient size and the
regression equation can be put in the prediction of sprinting
ability of secondary school boys
Latt E (2009) The present study analyzed the development of
the anthropometrical parameters and body composition in young
swimmers and assessed the effect of these parameters on swimming
performance during biological maturation During the 2-year follow-up
study period the age height body mass fat free mass (FFM) bone
mineral mass (BM) arm span and biological maturation values for all
swimmers body mass index (BMI) and spine BMD for boys and body
fat and total BMD for girls significantly increased during each year
(plt005) Partial correlation analysis revealed that 400-m swimming
performance time was elated (plt005) to body height (rgt-0468) and
arm span (rgt-0397) values VO2 was related to body height (rgt0395)
and arm span (rgt0394) at all three measurements after controlling for
age and pubertal status in boys In addition the Cs of the 400-metre
37
swimming performance was related (plt005) to the body mass
(rgt0411) BMI (rgt0412) and spine BMD (rgt0500) values at all three
measurement points in girls Tracking of the measured physical
characteristics over the two year study period was very high for boys
(rgt0880) and relatively high for girls (rgt0694)
Gil SM et al (2007) Physiological and anthropometric
characteristics of young soccer players according to their playing
position Relevance for the selection process J Strength Cond
Res 21(2)438-445 2007-The aim of this study was to establish
the anthropometric and physiological profiles of young non elite
soccer players according to their playing position and to
determine their relevance for the selection process Two hundred
forty-one male soccer players who were members of the Getxo
Arenas Club (Bizkaia) participated in this study Players age
1731 (plusmn 264) years range 14-21 years were classified into the
following groups forwards (n = 56) midfielders (n = 79)
defenders (n = 77) and goalkeepers (n = 29) Anthropometric
variables of participants (height weight body mass index 6
skinfolds 4 diameters and 3 perimeters) were measured Also
their somatotype and body composition (weights and percentages
of fat bone and muscle) were calculated Participants performed
the Astrand test to estimate their absolute and relative O2max
an endurance test sprint tests (30 meters flat and 30 meters
with 10 cones) and 3 jump tests (squat jump counter movement
jump and drop jump) Forwards were the leanest presenting the
highest percentage of muscle They were the best performers in
all the physiological tests including endurance velocity agility
and power In contrast goalkeepers were found to be the tallest
and the heaviest players They also had the largest fat skinfolds
and the highest fat percentage but their aerobic capacity was
the lowest In the selection process agility and the jump tests
were the most discriminating for forwards In contrast agility
38
height and endurance were the key factors for midfielders The
defenders group was characterized by a lower quantity of fat
Thus we may conclude that anthropometric and physiological
differences exist among soccer players who play in different
positions These differences fit with their different workload in a
game Therefore training programs should include specific
sessions for each positional role
Bayius et al (2006) Conducted a study on
anthropometric body composition and smototype differences of
Greek elite female basketball volleyball and handball players
Their mean scores were compared and it was found that elite
female players varied among sports
Chauhan(2006) The purpose of the study is to determine
the relationship between anthropometric variables and the
middle distance running performance and also to develop
regression equation for the prediction of performance of the
athletes between the age range of 18 and 30 years The data was
collected from 1500 meters middle distance runners as subjects
of the study by using anthropometer skinfold caliper vernier
calliper and steel tape The product movement method for
correlation and wherry do little method for calculating multiple
correlation and development of regression equation were utilized
Linear measurements ie height leg length thigh length total
arm length girth measurements ie biacromial and ankle
diameter thigh(negative) and calf skinfold lean body mass and
age have positive and significant correlations with middle
distance running performance The multiple correlation of
selected combination of variables(ie height thigh girth
biacromial diameter and thigh skinfold) with middle distance
running performance have been found significant but the
multiple correlation is not of sufficient size (so the regression
39
equation developed cannot be put in the prediction of middle
distance running performance)
Chauhan and Chauhan (2005) - The purpose of the study
was to explore the possible ingredients of anthropometric
variables which are essential for the execution of explosive arm
strength for volleyball players Since the game of volleyball
involves explosive strength for the execution of important skills
ie smashing blocking serving and receiving the ball in the
playing situations hence arm strength is essential ingredient
which determines the efficiency of players To achieve the
objectives of this study various body measurements on 40
volleyball players selected as subjects were taken Product
movement method for correlations and developing Regression
Equation were used Linear measurements ie height sitting
height trunk length leg length lower leg length total arm
length upper arm and forearm length foot length body girth
ie shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh body diameters ie
biacromial bitrochantric femur bicodylar and skinfolds ie
biceps triceps subscapular suprailliar mid auxiliary sum of
four skinfolds and body composition variables ie fat
percentage fat weight and lean body mass has positive and
significant correlations which explosive arm strength of
volleyball players Multiple correlation of height biacromial and
elbow diameter lean body mass taken together with explosive
arm strength has been found significant 1 level The size of the
multiple correlation is sufficiently large hence regression
equation developed is useful for the prediction of the explosive
arm strength of volleyball players
Monsma and Malina (2005) conducted a study on
anthropometric and smototype of competitive female figure
skates (11-22 years) by level of competition and discipline The
40
results suggested that figure skating favours lightness high
mesomorphy and lower endomorphy at elite levels
Porcari JP et al (2005) studied the effects of self-
administered neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) on
changes in strength endurance selected anthropometric
measures and subjects perceived shape and satisfaction of the
abdominal wall Twenty-four adults (experimental group)
stimulated their abdominals 5 days per week (20-40 minutes per
session) for 8 weeks and refrained from engaging in any
additional exercise during the study A control group (N=16)
refrained from exercising the abdominals or engaging in any
other exercise training during the study Subjects were tested at
the beginning mid-point and end of the study Isometric
strength of the abdominal muscles was tested using a isokinetic
dynamometer endurance was measured using the ACSM curl-up
test abdominal circumference was measured using a steel tape
measure and body shape and satisfaction were assessed via
questionnaire The stimulation group had a 58 increase in
abdominal strength whereas the control group did not change
The stimulation group also had a 100 increase in abdominal
endurance versus a 28 increase in the control group Waist
circumference decreased by of 35 cm in the stimulation group
compared to no significant change in the control group All 24
subjects in the stimulation group felt that their midsections were
more toned and firmed and 1324 (54) felt that their
posture had improved as a result of the stimulation None of the
control group subjects reported changes in these parameters
There were no significant differences in body weight BMI or
skinfold thickness over the course of the study in either group
NMES as used in the current study resulted in significant
improvements in the muscular strength and endurance of the
41
abdominal region as well as subjects perceived shape and
satisfaction of the mid-section
Uth N (2005) the present study compared the
anthropometry of sprinters and people belonging to the normal
population The height and body mass (BM) distribution of
sprinters (42 men and 44 women) were statistically compared to
the distributions of American and Danish normal populations
The main results showed that there was significantly less BM
and height variability (measured as standard deviation) among
male sprinters than among the normal male population (US and
Danish) while female sprinters showed less BM variability than
the US and Danish normal female populations On average the
American normal population was shorter than the sprinters
There was no height difference between the sprinters and the
Danish normal population All female groups had similar height
variability Both male and female sprinters had lower body mass
index (BMI) than the normal populations It is likely that there is
no single optimal height for sprinters but instead there is an
optimum range that differs for males and females This range in
height appears to exclude people who are very tall or very short
in stature Sprinters are generally lighter in BM than normal
populations Also the BM variation among sprinters is less than
the variation among normal populations These anthropometric
characteristics typical of sprinters might be explained in part
by the influence the anthropometric characteristics have on
relative muscle strength and step length
Chauhan (2004) The purpose of the study was to develop
the regression equation for the prediction performance of
University Throwers in relation to their anthropometrics
measurements To achieve the objectives of the study thirty
throwers were selected as subjects from the University Athletic
42
meet of Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra Thirty two body
measurements were taken with the help of anthropometer steel
tape Vernier calliper and skin fold calliper according to the
instruction of Weiner and Lourie (1969) The throwing
performance of the subjects was measured in terms of
performance in putting the shot Product moment method for
inter correlation and wherry do little method for calculating
multiple correlation and development of regression equation for
the prediction of performance were applied The linears
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length upper and fore arm length circumference ie shoulders
chest abdomen hip and arm body diameters ie biacromial
bicristal and elbow diameters and skinfold measurements ie
biceps sub ndash scapular supra-illiac and calf skin fold have been
found to possess positive and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 1 and 5 levels respectively Among
body composition variables ie fat percentage fat weight and
lean body mass have positive and significant correlations but
body density has negative and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 5 level The multiple correlation of
body weight height and total arm length with throwing
performance is positive and highly significant (R = 935) The size
of the multiple correlation is quite sufficient and hence the
regression equation developed can be used for the prediction of
throwing performance of the athletes
Elferink-Gemser MT et al (2004) To determine the
relationship between multidimensional performance characteristics
and level of performance in talented youth field hockey players elite
youth players (n = 38 mean age 132 years sd = 13) were compared
with sub-elite youth players (n = 88 mean age 142 years sd = 13) on
anthropometric physiological technical tactical and psychological
characteristics Multivariate analyses with performance level and
43
gender as factors and age as the covariate showed that the elite
youth players scored better than the sub-elite youth players on
technical (dribble performance in a peak and repeated shuttle run)
tactical (general tactics tactics for possession and non-possession of
the ball) and psychological variables (motivation) (p lt 005) The most
discriminating variables were tactics for possession of the ball
motivation and performance in a slalom dribble Age discriminated
between the two groups indicating that the elite youth players were
younger than the sub-elite players In the guidance of young talented
players to the top as well as in the detection of talented players more
attention has to be paid to tactical qualities motivation and specific
technical skills
Singal et al (2002) Studied anthropometrically 697 athletes
and 699 controls to assess their body fat and lean body mass All the
body components increased from 10 to 18 years in both boys and girls
of sports group and controls The body fat is lesser in athletes boys
and girls The lean body mass is large in athlete boys only 14 years of
age While studying sex differences it has been noticed that athletes
as well as control girls have significantly more fat and lesser lean
body mass as compared to male athletes and male controls The
magnitude of increase in fat as well as lean body mass is more in boys
as compared to girls
Singh (2002) conducted a study on anthropometric motor
fitness and motor skill determinants of performance in inter-college
level handball players Total 102 players were selected as subjects
The players securing first three places in inter-college matches of
Punjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Guru
Nanak Dev University Amritsar were considered as the subjects for
the study The playing ability of subjects was measured by the panel
of three expert judges during inter-college competition on 5 point
scale on the basis of there all round performance The averages of
scores given by three judges were considered as final score The
following variables for anthropometric measurements were selected
namely age height weight shoulder width biacromial width arm
44
length upper arm length forearm length leg length calf
circumference sitting height supra-iliac skinfold thigh skinfold sub-
scapular skinfold calf skinfold biceps skinfold triceps skinfold
Motor fitness measurements were done by applying following tests
speed 5030 meters sprint agility- shuttle runzig-zag run arms
power-hand ball throwpull-ups leg power-standing broad
jumpsargent jump cardio-vascular endurance- 12 minute runwalk
grip strength dominant hand grip strengthnon dominant hand grip
strength Motor skill was measured by applying test items namely
Dribbling-AAHPERD control dribble test item Passing-AAHPERD test
item Defence-AAHPERD defensive movement test item Throwing
Accuracy-Service placement test Throwing Ability-Wall Volley test
Handball Throw for distance-handball throw
A study of Asian gold medallist Kabaddi players (N-45) for linear
body measurements circumferences skinfolds was conducted by
Kaur et al (2001a) Kabaddi players are 17526 cm tall with 7667
Kg mean weight They have also developed bones and muscles (Bone
mass was 1187 Kg and muscle mass was 3439 Kg) But with 1714
body fat players are towards higher side Somatotype of their players
was found to be 267-546-194
Paduraru D (2000) Biological development and body
composition was evaluated by measuring physical parameters of the
best male wrestlers (Greek-Roman) from the Romanian Olympic team
This anthropometric study was made to estimate a number of
anthropometric markers of training of 25 male wrestlers of top level
who were studied following ISAK protocols using a formulae and the
result were statistically analysed The participant‟s physica l
characteristics height (Ht) weight (Wt) perimeters skinfolds (SF)
abdominal (ASF) suprailiac (SISF) subscapular (SSK) triceps (TSF)
thigh (TISF) were measured by an accredited anthropometrist Bodyfat
mass was calculated using the formulae put forward by
BROZECKampKEYS (1951)
45
After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
36
Chauhan et al (2009) The purpose of this study is to
develop the regression equation for the prediction of sprinting
ability of secondary school boys The data was collected from the
boys of age range between 16 to 18 years(X=17) by anthrop
meter skin fold calliper venire calliper and steel tape The
Pearson product movement method for correlations Wherry Do
Little method for calculation multiple correlation and
development of regression equation were utilized Linear
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length thigh length and foot length girth measurements ie
shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh and calf body diameters
ie biacromial bicirstal and ankle diameters subscapular and
thigh skinfolds fat weight and lean body mass body weight and
age has significant and negative correlations with sprinting
ability The multiple correlation of a selected combination of
variables ie length biacromial diameter and lean body mass
with sprinting ability have been found highly significant The
developed multiple correlations are of sufficient size and the
regression equation can be put in the prediction of sprinting
ability of secondary school boys
Latt E (2009) The present study analyzed the development of
the anthropometrical parameters and body composition in young
swimmers and assessed the effect of these parameters on swimming
performance during biological maturation During the 2-year follow-up
study period the age height body mass fat free mass (FFM) bone
mineral mass (BM) arm span and biological maturation values for all
swimmers body mass index (BMI) and spine BMD for boys and body
fat and total BMD for girls significantly increased during each year
(plt005) Partial correlation analysis revealed that 400-m swimming
performance time was elated (plt005) to body height (rgt-0468) and
arm span (rgt-0397) values VO2 was related to body height (rgt0395)
and arm span (rgt0394) at all three measurements after controlling for
age and pubertal status in boys In addition the Cs of the 400-metre
37
swimming performance was related (plt005) to the body mass
(rgt0411) BMI (rgt0412) and spine BMD (rgt0500) values at all three
measurement points in girls Tracking of the measured physical
characteristics over the two year study period was very high for boys
(rgt0880) and relatively high for girls (rgt0694)
Gil SM et al (2007) Physiological and anthropometric
characteristics of young soccer players according to their playing
position Relevance for the selection process J Strength Cond
Res 21(2)438-445 2007-The aim of this study was to establish
the anthropometric and physiological profiles of young non elite
soccer players according to their playing position and to
determine their relevance for the selection process Two hundred
forty-one male soccer players who were members of the Getxo
Arenas Club (Bizkaia) participated in this study Players age
1731 (plusmn 264) years range 14-21 years were classified into the
following groups forwards (n = 56) midfielders (n = 79)
defenders (n = 77) and goalkeepers (n = 29) Anthropometric
variables of participants (height weight body mass index 6
skinfolds 4 diameters and 3 perimeters) were measured Also
their somatotype and body composition (weights and percentages
of fat bone and muscle) were calculated Participants performed
the Astrand test to estimate their absolute and relative O2max
an endurance test sprint tests (30 meters flat and 30 meters
with 10 cones) and 3 jump tests (squat jump counter movement
jump and drop jump) Forwards were the leanest presenting the
highest percentage of muscle They were the best performers in
all the physiological tests including endurance velocity agility
and power In contrast goalkeepers were found to be the tallest
and the heaviest players They also had the largest fat skinfolds
and the highest fat percentage but their aerobic capacity was
the lowest In the selection process agility and the jump tests
were the most discriminating for forwards In contrast agility
38
height and endurance were the key factors for midfielders The
defenders group was characterized by a lower quantity of fat
Thus we may conclude that anthropometric and physiological
differences exist among soccer players who play in different
positions These differences fit with their different workload in a
game Therefore training programs should include specific
sessions for each positional role
Bayius et al (2006) Conducted a study on
anthropometric body composition and smototype differences of
Greek elite female basketball volleyball and handball players
Their mean scores were compared and it was found that elite
female players varied among sports
Chauhan(2006) The purpose of the study is to determine
the relationship between anthropometric variables and the
middle distance running performance and also to develop
regression equation for the prediction of performance of the
athletes between the age range of 18 and 30 years The data was
collected from 1500 meters middle distance runners as subjects
of the study by using anthropometer skinfold caliper vernier
calliper and steel tape The product movement method for
correlation and wherry do little method for calculating multiple
correlation and development of regression equation were utilized
Linear measurements ie height leg length thigh length total
arm length girth measurements ie biacromial and ankle
diameter thigh(negative) and calf skinfold lean body mass and
age have positive and significant correlations with middle
distance running performance The multiple correlation of
selected combination of variables(ie height thigh girth
biacromial diameter and thigh skinfold) with middle distance
running performance have been found significant but the
multiple correlation is not of sufficient size (so the regression
39
equation developed cannot be put in the prediction of middle
distance running performance)
Chauhan and Chauhan (2005) - The purpose of the study
was to explore the possible ingredients of anthropometric
variables which are essential for the execution of explosive arm
strength for volleyball players Since the game of volleyball
involves explosive strength for the execution of important skills
ie smashing blocking serving and receiving the ball in the
playing situations hence arm strength is essential ingredient
which determines the efficiency of players To achieve the
objectives of this study various body measurements on 40
volleyball players selected as subjects were taken Product
movement method for correlations and developing Regression
Equation were used Linear measurements ie height sitting
height trunk length leg length lower leg length total arm
length upper arm and forearm length foot length body girth
ie shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh body diameters ie
biacromial bitrochantric femur bicodylar and skinfolds ie
biceps triceps subscapular suprailliar mid auxiliary sum of
four skinfolds and body composition variables ie fat
percentage fat weight and lean body mass has positive and
significant correlations which explosive arm strength of
volleyball players Multiple correlation of height biacromial and
elbow diameter lean body mass taken together with explosive
arm strength has been found significant 1 level The size of the
multiple correlation is sufficiently large hence regression
equation developed is useful for the prediction of the explosive
arm strength of volleyball players
Monsma and Malina (2005) conducted a study on
anthropometric and smototype of competitive female figure
skates (11-22 years) by level of competition and discipline The
40
results suggested that figure skating favours lightness high
mesomorphy and lower endomorphy at elite levels
Porcari JP et al (2005) studied the effects of self-
administered neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) on
changes in strength endurance selected anthropometric
measures and subjects perceived shape and satisfaction of the
abdominal wall Twenty-four adults (experimental group)
stimulated their abdominals 5 days per week (20-40 minutes per
session) for 8 weeks and refrained from engaging in any
additional exercise during the study A control group (N=16)
refrained from exercising the abdominals or engaging in any
other exercise training during the study Subjects were tested at
the beginning mid-point and end of the study Isometric
strength of the abdominal muscles was tested using a isokinetic
dynamometer endurance was measured using the ACSM curl-up
test abdominal circumference was measured using a steel tape
measure and body shape and satisfaction were assessed via
questionnaire The stimulation group had a 58 increase in
abdominal strength whereas the control group did not change
The stimulation group also had a 100 increase in abdominal
endurance versus a 28 increase in the control group Waist
circumference decreased by of 35 cm in the stimulation group
compared to no significant change in the control group All 24
subjects in the stimulation group felt that their midsections were
more toned and firmed and 1324 (54) felt that their
posture had improved as a result of the stimulation None of the
control group subjects reported changes in these parameters
There were no significant differences in body weight BMI or
skinfold thickness over the course of the study in either group
NMES as used in the current study resulted in significant
improvements in the muscular strength and endurance of the
41
abdominal region as well as subjects perceived shape and
satisfaction of the mid-section
Uth N (2005) the present study compared the
anthropometry of sprinters and people belonging to the normal
population The height and body mass (BM) distribution of
sprinters (42 men and 44 women) were statistically compared to
the distributions of American and Danish normal populations
The main results showed that there was significantly less BM
and height variability (measured as standard deviation) among
male sprinters than among the normal male population (US and
Danish) while female sprinters showed less BM variability than
the US and Danish normal female populations On average the
American normal population was shorter than the sprinters
There was no height difference between the sprinters and the
Danish normal population All female groups had similar height
variability Both male and female sprinters had lower body mass
index (BMI) than the normal populations It is likely that there is
no single optimal height for sprinters but instead there is an
optimum range that differs for males and females This range in
height appears to exclude people who are very tall or very short
in stature Sprinters are generally lighter in BM than normal
populations Also the BM variation among sprinters is less than
the variation among normal populations These anthropometric
characteristics typical of sprinters might be explained in part
by the influence the anthropometric characteristics have on
relative muscle strength and step length
Chauhan (2004) The purpose of the study was to develop
the regression equation for the prediction performance of
University Throwers in relation to their anthropometrics
measurements To achieve the objectives of the study thirty
throwers were selected as subjects from the University Athletic
42
meet of Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra Thirty two body
measurements were taken with the help of anthropometer steel
tape Vernier calliper and skin fold calliper according to the
instruction of Weiner and Lourie (1969) The throwing
performance of the subjects was measured in terms of
performance in putting the shot Product moment method for
inter correlation and wherry do little method for calculating
multiple correlation and development of regression equation for
the prediction of performance were applied The linears
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length upper and fore arm length circumference ie shoulders
chest abdomen hip and arm body diameters ie biacromial
bicristal and elbow diameters and skinfold measurements ie
biceps sub ndash scapular supra-illiac and calf skin fold have been
found to possess positive and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 1 and 5 levels respectively Among
body composition variables ie fat percentage fat weight and
lean body mass have positive and significant correlations but
body density has negative and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 5 level The multiple correlation of
body weight height and total arm length with throwing
performance is positive and highly significant (R = 935) The size
of the multiple correlation is quite sufficient and hence the
regression equation developed can be used for the prediction of
throwing performance of the athletes
Elferink-Gemser MT et al (2004) To determine the
relationship between multidimensional performance characteristics
and level of performance in talented youth field hockey players elite
youth players (n = 38 mean age 132 years sd = 13) were compared
with sub-elite youth players (n = 88 mean age 142 years sd = 13) on
anthropometric physiological technical tactical and psychological
characteristics Multivariate analyses with performance level and
43
gender as factors and age as the covariate showed that the elite
youth players scored better than the sub-elite youth players on
technical (dribble performance in a peak and repeated shuttle run)
tactical (general tactics tactics for possession and non-possession of
the ball) and psychological variables (motivation) (p lt 005) The most
discriminating variables were tactics for possession of the ball
motivation and performance in a slalom dribble Age discriminated
between the two groups indicating that the elite youth players were
younger than the sub-elite players In the guidance of young talented
players to the top as well as in the detection of talented players more
attention has to be paid to tactical qualities motivation and specific
technical skills
Singal et al (2002) Studied anthropometrically 697 athletes
and 699 controls to assess their body fat and lean body mass All the
body components increased from 10 to 18 years in both boys and girls
of sports group and controls The body fat is lesser in athletes boys
and girls The lean body mass is large in athlete boys only 14 years of
age While studying sex differences it has been noticed that athletes
as well as control girls have significantly more fat and lesser lean
body mass as compared to male athletes and male controls The
magnitude of increase in fat as well as lean body mass is more in boys
as compared to girls
Singh (2002) conducted a study on anthropometric motor
fitness and motor skill determinants of performance in inter-college
level handball players Total 102 players were selected as subjects
The players securing first three places in inter-college matches of
Punjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Guru
Nanak Dev University Amritsar were considered as the subjects for
the study The playing ability of subjects was measured by the panel
of three expert judges during inter-college competition on 5 point
scale on the basis of there all round performance The averages of
scores given by three judges were considered as final score The
following variables for anthropometric measurements were selected
namely age height weight shoulder width biacromial width arm
44
length upper arm length forearm length leg length calf
circumference sitting height supra-iliac skinfold thigh skinfold sub-
scapular skinfold calf skinfold biceps skinfold triceps skinfold
Motor fitness measurements were done by applying following tests
speed 5030 meters sprint agility- shuttle runzig-zag run arms
power-hand ball throwpull-ups leg power-standing broad
jumpsargent jump cardio-vascular endurance- 12 minute runwalk
grip strength dominant hand grip strengthnon dominant hand grip
strength Motor skill was measured by applying test items namely
Dribbling-AAHPERD control dribble test item Passing-AAHPERD test
item Defence-AAHPERD defensive movement test item Throwing
Accuracy-Service placement test Throwing Ability-Wall Volley test
Handball Throw for distance-handball throw
A study of Asian gold medallist Kabaddi players (N-45) for linear
body measurements circumferences skinfolds was conducted by
Kaur et al (2001a) Kabaddi players are 17526 cm tall with 7667
Kg mean weight They have also developed bones and muscles (Bone
mass was 1187 Kg and muscle mass was 3439 Kg) But with 1714
body fat players are towards higher side Somatotype of their players
was found to be 267-546-194
Paduraru D (2000) Biological development and body
composition was evaluated by measuring physical parameters of the
best male wrestlers (Greek-Roman) from the Romanian Olympic team
This anthropometric study was made to estimate a number of
anthropometric markers of training of 25 male wrestlers of top level
who were studied following ISAK protocols using a formulae and the
result were statistically analysed The participant‟s physica l
characteristics height (Ht) weight (Wt) perimeters skinfolds (SF)
abdominal (ASF) suprailiac (SISF) subscapular (SSK) triceps (TSF)
thigh (TISF) were measured by an accredited anthropometrist Bodyfat
mass was calculated using the formulae put forward by
BROZECKampKEYS (1951)
45
After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
37
swimming performance was related (plt005) to the body mass
(rgt0411) BMI (rgt0412) and spine BMD (rgt0500) values at all three
measurement points in girls Tracking of the measured physical
characteristics over the two year study period was very high for boys
(rgt0880) and relatively high for girls (rgt0694)
Gil SM et al (2007) Physiological and anthropometric
characteristics of young soccer players according to their playing
position Relevance for the selection process J Strength Cond
Res 21(2)438-445 2007-The aim of this study was to establish
the anthropometric and physiological profiles of young non elite
soccer players according to their playing position and to
determine their relevance for the selection process Two hundred
forty-one male soccer players who were members of the Getxo
Arenas Club (Bizkaia) participated in this study Players age
1731 (plusmn 264) years range 14-21 years were classified into the
following groups forwards (n = 56) midfielders (n = 79)
defenders (n = 77) and goalkeepers (n = 29) Anthropometric
variables of participants (height weight body mass index 6
skinfolds 4 diameters and 3 perimeters) were measured Also
their somatotype and body composition (weights and percentages
of fat bone and muscle) were calculated Participants performed
the Astrand test to estimate their absolute and relative O2max
an endurance test sprint tests (30 meters flat and 30 meters
with 10 cones) and 3 jump tests (squat jump counter movement
jump and drop jump) Forwards were the leanest presenting the
highest percentage of muscle They were the best performers in
all the physiological tests including endurance velocity agility
and power In contrast goalkeepers were found to be the tallest
and the heaviest players They also had the largest fat skinfolds
and the highest fat percentage but their aerobic capacity was
the lowest In the selection process agility and the jump tests
were the most discriminating for forwards In contrast agility
38
height and endurance were the key factors for midfielders The
defenders group was characterized by a lower quantity of fat
Thus we may conclude that anthropometric and physiological
differences exist among soccer players who play in different
positions These differences fit with their different workload in a
game Therefore training programs should include specific
sessions for each positional role
Bayius et al (2006) Conducted a study on
anthropometric body composition and smototype differences of
Greek elite female basketball volleyball and handball players
Their mean scores were compared and it was found that elite
female players varied among sports
Chauhan(2006) The purpose of the study is to determine
the relationship between anthropometric variables and the
middle distance running performance and also to develop
regression equation for the prediction of performance of the
athletes between the age range of 18 and 30 years The data was
collected from 1500 meters middle distance runners as subjects
of the study by using anthropometer skinfold caliper vernier
calliper and steel tape The product movement method for
correlation and wherry do little method for calculating multiple
correlation and development of regression equation were utilized
Linear measurements ie height leg length thigh length total
arm length girth measurements ie biacromial and ankle
diameter thigh(negative) and calf skinfold lean body mass and
age have positive and significant correlations with middle
distance running performance The multiple correlation of
selected combination of variables(ie height thigh girth
biacromial diameter and thigh skinfold) with middle distance
running performance have been found significant but the
multiple correlation is not of sufficient size (so the regression
39
equation developed cannot be put in the prediction of middle
distance running performance)
Chauhan and Chauhan (2005) - The purpose of the study
was to explore the possible ingredients of anthropometric
variables which are essential for the execution of explosive arm
strength for volleyball players Since the game of volleyball
involves explosive strength for the execution of important skills
ie smashing blocking serving and receiving the ball in the
playing situations hence arm strength is essential ingredient
which determines the efficiency of players To achieve the
objectives of this study various body measurements on 40
volleyball players selected as subjects were taken Product
movement method for correlations and developing Regression
Equation were used Linear measurements ie height sitting
height trunk length leg length lower leg length total arm
length upper arm and forearm length foot length body girth
ie shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh body diameters ie
biacromial bitrochantric femur bicodylar and skinfolds ie
biceps triceps subscapular suprailliar mid auxiliary sum of
four skinfolds and body composition variables ie fat
percentage fat weight and lean body mass has positive and
significant correlations which explosive arm strength of
volleyball players Multiple correlation of height biacromial and
elbow diameter lean body mass taken together with explosive
arm strength has been found significant 1 level The size of the
multiple correlation is sufficiently large hence regression
equation developed is useful for the prediction of the explosive
arm strength of volleyball players
Monsma and Malina (2005) conducted a study on
anthropometric and smototype of competitive female figure
skates (11-22 years) by level of competition and discipline The
40
results suggested that figure skating favours lightness high
mesomorphy and lower endomorphy at elite levels
Porcari JP et al (2005) studied the effects of self-
administered neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) on
changes in strength endurance selected anthropometric
measures and subjects perceived shape and satisfaction of the
abdominal wall Twenty-four adults (experimental group)
stimulated their abdominals 5 days per week (20-40 minutes per
session) for 8 weeks and refrained from engaging in any
additional exercise during the study A control group (N=16)
refrained from exercising the abdominals or engaging in any
other exercise training during the study Subjects were tested at
the beginning mid-point and end of the study Isometric
strength of the abdominal muscles was tested using a isokinetic
dynamometer endurance was measured using the ACSM curl-up
test abdominal circumference was measured using a steel tape
measure and body shape and satisfaction were assessed via
questionnaire The stimulation group had a 58 increase in
abdominal strength whereas the control group did not change
The stimulation group also had a 100 increase in abdominal
endurance versus a 28 increase in the control group Waist
circumference decreased by of 35 cm in the stimulation group
compared to no significant change in the control group All 24
subjects in the stimulation group felt that their midsections were
more toned and firmed and 1324 (54) felt that their
posture had improved as a result of the stimulation None of the
control group subjects reported changes in these parameters
There were no significant differences in body weight BMI or
skinfold thickness over the course of the study in either group
NMES as used in the current study resulted in significant
improvements in the muscular strength and endurance of the
41
abdominal region as well as subjects perceived shape and
satisfaction of the mid-section
Uth N (2005) the present study compared the
anthropometry of sprinters and people belonging to the normal
population The height and body mass (BM) distribution of
sprinters (42 men and 44 women) were statistically compared to
the distributions of American and Danish normal populations
The main results showed that there was significantly less BM
and height variability (measured as standard deviation) among
male sprinters than among the normal male population (US and
Danish) while female sprinters showed less BM variability than
the US and Danish normal female populations On average the
American normal population was shorter than the sprinters
There was no height difference between the sprinters and the
Danish normal population All female groups had similar height
variability Both male and female sprinters had lower body mass
index (BMI) than the normal populations It is likely that there is
no single optimal height for sprinters but instead there is an
optimum range that differs for males and females This range in
height appears to exclude people who are very tall or very short
in stature Sprinters are generally lighter in BM than normal
populations Also the BM variation among sprinters is less than
the variation among normal populations These anthropometric
characteristics typical of sprinters might be explained in part
by the influence the anthropometric characteristics have on
relative muscle strength and step length
Chauhan (2004) The purpose of the study was to develop
the regression equation for the prediction performance of
University Throwers in relation to their anthropometrics
measurements To achieve the objectives of the study thirty
throwers were selected as subjects from the University Athletic
42
meet of Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra Thirty two body
measurements were taken with the help of anthropometer steel
tape Vernier calliper and skin fold calliper according to the
instruction of Weiner and Lourie (1969) The throwing
performance of the subjects was measured in terms of
performance in putting the shot Product moment method for
inter correlation and wherry do little method for calculating
multiple correlation and development of regression equation for
the prediction of performance were applied The linears
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length upper and fore arm length circumference ie shoulders
chest abdomen hip and arm body diameters ie biacromial
bicristal and elbow diameters and skinfold measurements ie
biceps sub ndash scapular supra-illiac and calf skin fold have been
found to possess positive and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 1 and 5 levels respectively Among
body composition variables ie fat percentage fat weight and
lean body mass have positive and significant correlations but
body density has negative and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 5 level The multiple correlation of
body weight height and total arm length with throwing
performance is positive and highly significant (R = 935) The size
of the multiple correlation is quite sufficient and hence the
regression equation developed can be used for the prediction of
throwing performance of the athletes
Elferink-Gemser MT et al (2004) To determine the
relationship between multidimensional performance characteristics
and level of performance in talented youth field hockey players elite
youth players (n = 38 mean age 132 years sd = 13) were compared
with sub-elite youth players (n = 88 mean age 142 years sd = 13) on
anthropometric physiological technical tactical and psychological
characteristics Multivariate analyses with performance level and
43
gender as factors and age as the covariate showed that the elite
youth players scored better than the sub-elite youth players on
technical (dribble performance in a peak and repeated shuttle run)
tactical (general tactics tactics for possession and non-possession of
the ball) and psychological variables (motivation) (p lt 005) The most
discriminating variables were tactics for possession of the ball
motivation and performance in a slalom dribble Age discriminated
between the two groups indicating that the elite youth players were
younger than the sub-elite players In the guidance of young talented
players to the top as well as in the detection of talented players more
attention has to be paid to tactical qualities motivation and specific
technical skills
Singal et al (2002) Studied anthropometrically 697 athletes
and 699 controls to assess their body fat and lean body mass All the
body components increased from 10 to 18 years in both boys and girls
of sports group and controls The body fat is lesser in athletes boys
and girls The lean body mass is large in athlete boys only 14 years of
age While studying sex differences it has been noticed that athletes
as well as control girls have significantly more fat and lesser lean
body mass as compared to male athletes and male controls The
magnitude of increase in fat as well as lean body mass is more in boys
as compared to girls
Singh (2002) conducted a study on anthropometric motor
fitness and motor skill determinants of performance in inter-college
level handball players Total 102 players were selected as subjects
The players securing first three places in inter-college matches of
Punjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Guru
Nanak Dev University Amritsar were considered as the subjects for
the study The playing ability of subjects was measured by the panel
of three expert judges during inter-college competition on 5 point
scale on the basis of there all round performance The averages of
scores given by three judges were considered as final score The
following variables for anthropometric measurements were selected
namely age height weight shoulder width biacromial width arm
44
length upper arm length forearm length leg length calf
circumference sitting height supra-iliac skinfold thigh skinfold sub-
scapular skinfold calf skinfold biceps skinfold triceps skinfold
Motor fitness measurements were done by applying following tests
speed 5030 meters sprint agility- shuttle runzig-zag run arms
power-hand ball throwpull-ups leg power-standing broad
jumpsargent jump cardio-vascular endurance- 12 minute runwalk
grip strength dominant hand grip strengthnon dominant hand grip
strength Motor skill was measured by applying test items namely
Dribbling-AAHPERD control dribble test item Passing-AAHPERD test
item Defence-AAHPERD defensive movement test item Throwing
Accuracy-Service placement test Throwing Ability-Wall Volley test
Handball Throw for distance-handball throw
A study of Asian gold medallist Kabaddi players (N-45) for linear
body measurements circumferences skinfolds was conducted by
Kaur et al (2001a) Kabaddi players are 17526 cm tall with 7667
Kg mean weight They have also developed bones and muscles (Bone
mass was 1187 Kg and muscle mass was 3439 Kg) But with 1714
body fat players are towards higher side Somatotype of their players
was found to be 267-546-194
Paduraru D (2000) Biological development and body
composition was evaluated by measuring physical parameters of the
best male wrestlers (Greek-Roman) from the Romanian Olympic team
This anthropometric study was made to estimate a number of
anthropometric markers of training of 25 male wrestlers of top level
who were studied following ISAK protocols using a formulae and the
result were statistically analysed The participant‟s physica l
characteristics height (Ht) weight (Wt) perimeters skinfolds (SF)
abdominal (ASF) suprailiac (SISF) subscapular (SSK) triceps (TSF)
thigh (TISF) were measured by an accredited anthropometrist Bodyfat
mass was calculated using the formulae put forward by
BROZECKampKEYS (1951)
45
After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
38
height and endurance were the key factors for midfielders The
defenders group was characterized by a lower quantity of fat
Thus we may conclude that anthropometric and physiological
differences exist among soccer players who play in different
positions These differences fit with their different workload in a
game Therefore training programs should include specific
sessions for each positional role
Bayius et al (2006) Conducted a study on
anthropometric body composition and smototype differences of
Greek elite female basketball volleyball and handball players
Their mean scores were compared and it was found that elite
female players varied among sports
Chauhan(2006) The purpose of the study is to determine
the relationship between anthropometric variables and the
middle distance running performance and also to develop
regression equation for the prediction of performance of the
athletes between the age range of 18 and 30 years The data was
collected from 1500 meters middle distance runners as subjects
of the study by using anthropometer skinfold caliper vernier
calliper and steel tape The product movement method for
correlation and wherry do little method for calculating multiple
correlation and development of regression equation were utilized
Linear measurements ie height leg length thigh length total
arm length girth measurements ie biacromial and ankle
diameter thigh(negative) and calf skinfold lean body mass and
age have positive and significant correlations with middle
distance running performance The multiple correlation of
selected combination of variables(ie height thigh girth
biacromial diameter and thigh skinfold) with middle distance
running performance have been found significant but the
multiple correlation is not of sufficient size (so the regression
39
equation developed cannot be put in the prediction of middle
distance running performance)
Chauhan and Chauhan (2005) - The purpose of the study
was to explore the possible ingredients of anthropometric
variables which are essential for the execution of explosive arm
strength for volleyball players Since the game of volleyball
involves explosive strength for the execution of important skills
ie smashing blocking serving and receiving the ball in the
playing situations hence arm strength is essential ingredient
which determines the efficiency of players To achieve the
objectives of this study various body measurements on 40
volleyball players selected as subjects were taken Product
movement method for correlations and developing Regression
Equation were used Linear measurements ie height sitting
height trunk length leg length lower leg length total arm
length upper arm and forearm length foot length body girth
ie shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh body diameters ie
biacromial bitrochantric femur bicodylar and skinfolds ie
biceps triceps subscapular suprailliar mid auxiliary sum of
four skinfolds and body composition variables ie fat
percentage fat weight and lean body mass has positive and
significant correlations which explosive arm strength of
volleyball players Multiple correlation of height biacromial and
elbow diameter lean body mass taken together with explosive
arm strength has been found significant 1 level The size of the
multiple correlation is sufficiently large hence regression
equation developed is useful for the prediction of the explosive
arm strength of volleyball players
Monsma and Malina (2005) conducted a study on
anthropometric and smototype of competitive female figure
skates (11-22 years) by level of competition and discipline The
40
results suggested that figure skating favours lightness high
mesomorphy and lower endomorphy at elite levels
Porcari JP et al (2005) studied the effects of self-
administered neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) on
changes in strength endurance selected anthropometric
measures and subjects perceived shape and satisfaction of the
abdominal wall Twenty-four adults (experimental group)
stimulated their abdominals 5 days per week (20-40 minutes per
session) for 8 weeks and refrained from engaging in any
additional exercise during the study A control group (N=16)
refrained from exercising the abdominals or engaging in any
other exercise training during the study Subjects were tested at
the beginning mid-point and end of the study Isometric
strength of the abdominal muscles was tested using a isokinetic
dynamometer endurance was measured using the ACSM curl-up
test abdominal circumference was measured using a steel tape
measure and body shape and satisfaction were assessed via
questionnaire The stimulation group had a 58 increase in
abdominal strength whereas the control group did not change
The stimulation group also had a 100 increase in abdominal
endurance versus a 28 increase in the control group Waist
circumference decreased by of 35 cm in the stimulation group
compared to no significant change in the control group All 24
subjects in the stimulation group felt that their midsections were
more toned and firmed and 1324 (54) felt that their
posture had improved as a result of the stimulation None of the
control group subjects reported changes in these parameters
There were no significant differences in body weight BMI or
skinfold thickness over the course of the study in either group
NMES as used in the current study resulted in significant
improvements in the muscular strength and endurance of the
41
abdominal region as well as subjects perceived shape and
satisfaction of the mid-section
Uth N (2005) the present study compared the
anthropometry of sprinters and people belonging to the normal
population The height and body mass (BM) distribution of
sprinters (42 men and 44 women) were statistically compared to
the distributions of American and Danish normal populations
The main results showed that there was significantly less BM
and height variability (measured as standard deviation) among
male sprinters than among the normal male population (US and
Danish) while female sprinters showed less BM variability than
the US and Danish normal female populations On average the
American normal population was shorter than the sprinters
There was no height difference between the sprinters and the
Danish normal population All female groups had similar height
variability Both male and female sprinters had lower body mass
index (BMI) than the normal populations It is likely that there is
no single optimal height for sprinters but instead there is an
optimum range that differs for males and females This range in
height appears to exclude people who are very tall or very short
in stature Sprinters are generally lighter in BM than normal
populations Also the BM variation among sprinters is less than
the variation among normal populations These anthropometric
characteristics typical of sprinters might be explained in part
by the influence the anthropometric characteristics have on
relative muscle strength and step length
Chauhan (2004) The purpose of the study was to develop
the regression equation for the prediction performance of
University Throwers in relation to their anthropometrics
measurements To achieve the objectives of the study thirty
throwers were selected as subjects from the University Athletic
42
meet of Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra Thirty two body
measurements were taken with the help of anthropometer steel
tape Vernier calliper and skin fold calliper according to the
instruction of Weiner and Lourie (1969) The throwing
performance of the subjects was measured in terms of
performance in putting the shot Product moment method for
inter correlation and wherry do little method for calculating
multiple correlation and development of regression equation for
the prediction of performance were applied The linears
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length upper and fore arm length circumference ie shoulders
chest abdomen hip and arm body diameters ie biacromial
bicristal and elbow diameters and skinfold measurements ie
biceps sub ndash scapular supra-illiac and calf skin fold have been
found to possess positive and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 1 and 5 levels respectively Among
body composition variables ie fat percentage fat weight and
lean body mass have positive and significant correlations but
body density has negative and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 5 level The multiple correlation of
body weight height and total arm length with throwing
performance is positive and highly significant (R = 935) The size
of the multiple correlation is quite sufficient and hence the
regression equation developed can be used for the prediction of
throwing performance of the athletes
Elferink-Gemser MT et al (2004) To determine the
relationship between multidimensional performance characteristics
and level of performance in talented youth field hockey players elite
youth players (n = 38 mean age 132 years sd = 13) were compared
with sub-elite youth players (n = 88 mean age 142 years sd = 13) on
anthropometric physiological technical tactical and psychological
characteristics Multivariate analyses with performance level and
43
gender as factors and age as the covariate showed that the elite
youth players scored better than the sub-elite youth players on
technical (dribble performance in a peak and repeated shuttle run)
tactical (general tactics tactics for possession and non-possession of
the ball) and psychological variables (motivation) (p lt 005) The most
discriminating variables were tactics for possession of the ball
motivation and performance in a slalom dribble Age discriminated
between the two groups indicating that the elite youth players were
younger than the sub-elite players In the guidance of young talented
players to the top as well as in the detection of talented players more
attention has to be paid to tactical qualities motivation and specific
technical skills
Singal et al (2002) Studied anthropometrically 697 athletes
and 699 controls to assess their body fat and lean body mass All the
body components increased from 10 to 18 years in both boys and girls
of sports group and controls The body fat is lesser in athletes boys
and girls The lean body mass is large in athlete boys only 14 years of
age While studying sex differences it has been noticed that athletes
as well as control girls have significantly more fat and lesser lean
body mass as compared to male athletes and male controls The
magnitude of increase in fat as well as lean body mass is more in boys
as compared to girls
Singh (2002) conducted a study on anthropometric motor
fitness and motor skill determinants of performance in inter-college
level handball players Total 102 players were selected as subjects
The players securing first three places in inter-college matches of
Punjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Guru
Nanak Dev University Amritsar were considered as the subjects for
the study The playing ability of subjects was measured by the panel
of three expert judges during inter-college competition on 5 point
scale on the basis of there all round performance The averages of
scores given by three judges were considered as final score The
following variables for anthropometric measurements were selected
namely age height weight shoulder width biacromial width arm
44
length upper arm length forearm length leg length calf
circumference sitting height supra-iliac skinfold thigh skinfold sub-
scapular skinfold calf skinfold biceps skinfold triceps skinfold
Motor fitness measurements were done by applying following tests
speed 5030 meters sprint agility- shuttle runzig-zag run arms
power-hand ball throwpull-ups leg power-standing broad
jumpsargent jump cardio-vascular endurance- 12 minute runwalk
grip strength dominant hand grip strengthnon dominant hand grip
strength Motor skill was measured by applying test items namely
Dribbling-AAHPERD control dribble test item Passing-AAHPERD test
item Defence-AAHPERD defensive movement test item Throwing
Accuracy-Service placement test Throwing Ability-Wall Volley test
Handball Throw for distance-handball throw
A study of Asian gold medallist Kabaddi players (N-45) for linear
body measurements circumferences skinfolds was conducted by
Kaur et al (2001a) Kabaddi players are 17526 cm tall with 7667
Kg mean weight They have also developed bones and muscles (Bone
mass was 1187 Kg and muscle mass was 3439 Kg) But with 1714
body fat players are towards higher side Somatotype of their players
was found to be 267-546-194
Paduraru D (2000) Biological development and body
composition was evaluated by measuring physical parameters of the
best male wrestlers (Greek-Roman) from the Romanian Olympic team
This anthropometric study was made to estimate a number of
anthropometric markers of training of 25 male wrestlers of top level
who were studied following ISAK protocols using a formulae and the
result were statistically analysed The participant‟s physica l
characteristics height (Ht) weight (Wt) perimeters skinfolds (SF)
abdominal (ASF) suprailiac (SISF) subscapular (SSK) triceps (TSF)
thigh (TISF) were measured by an accredited anthropometrist Bodyfat
mass was calculated using the formulae put forward by
BROZECKampKEYS (1951)
45
After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
39
equation developed cannot be put in the prediction of middle
distance running performance)
Chauhan and Chauhan (2005) - The purpose of the study
was to explore the possible ingredients of anthropometric
variables which are essential for the execution of explosive arm
strength for volleyball players Since the game of volleyball
involves explosive strength for the execution of important skills
ie smashing blocking serving and receiving the ball in the
playing situations hence arm strength is essential ingredient
which determines the efficiency of players To achieve the
objectives of this study various body measurements on 40
volleyball players selected as subjects were taken Product
movement method for correlations and developing Regression
Equation were used Linear measurements ie height sitting
height trunk length leg length lower leg length total arm
length upper arm and forearm length foot length body girth
ie shoulder chest abdomen hip thigh body diameters ie
biacromial bitrochantric femur bicodylar and skinfolds ie
biceps triceps subscapular suprailliar mid auxiliary sum of
four skinfolds and body composition variables ie fat
percentage fat weight and lean body mass has positive and
significant correlations which explosive arm strength of
volleyball players Multiple correlation of height biacromial and
elbow diameter lean body mass taken together with explosive
arm strength has been found significant 1 level The size of the
multiple correlation is sufficiently large hence regression
equation developed is useful for the prediction of the explosive
arm strength of volleyball players
Monsma and Malina (2005) conducted a study on
anthropometric and smototype of competitive female figure
skates (11-22 years) by level of competition and discipline The
40
results suggested that figure skating favours lightness high
mesomorphy and lower endomorphy at elite levels
Porcari JP et al (2005) studied the effects of self-
administered neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) on
changes in strength endurance selected anthropometric
measures and subjects perceived shape and satisfaction of the
abdominal wall Twenty-four adults (experimental group)
stimulated their abdominals 5 days per week (20-40 minutes per
session) for 8 weeks and refrained from engaging in any
additional exercise during the study A control group (N=16)
refrained from exercising the abdominals or engaging in any
other exercise training during the study Subjects were tested at
the beginning mid-point and end of the study Isometric
strength of the abdominal muscles was tested using a isokinetic
dynamometer endurance was measured using the ACSM curl-up
test abdominal circumference was measured using a steel tape
measure and body shape and satisfaction were assessed via
questionnaire The stimulation group had a 58 increase in
abdominal strength whereas the control group did not change
The stimulation group also had a 100 increase in abdominal
endurance versus a 28 increase in the control group Waist
circumference decreased by of 35 cm in the stimulation group
compared to no significant change in the control group All 24
subjects in the stimulation group felt that their midsections were
more toned and firmed and 1324 (54) felt that their
posture had improved as a result of the stimulation None of the
control group subjects reported changes in these parameters
There were no significant differences in body weight BMI or
skinfold thickness over the course of the study in either group
NMES as used in the current study resulted in significant
improvements in the muscular strength and endurance of the
41
abdominal region as well as subjects perceived shape and
satisfaction of the mid-section
Uth N (2005) the present study compared the
anthropometry of sprinters and people belonging to the normal
population The height and body mass (BM) distribution of
sprinters (42 men and 44 women) were statistically compared to
the distributions of American and Danish normal populations
The main results showed that there was significantly less BM
and height variability (measured as standard deviation) among
male sprinters than among the normal male population (US and
Danish) while female sprinters showed less BM variability than
the US and Danish normal female populations On average the
American normal population was shorter than the sprinters
There was no height difference between the sprinters and the
Danish normal population All female groups had similar height
variability Both male and female sprinters had lower body mass
index (BMI) than the normal populations It is likely that there is
no single optimal height for sprinters but instead there is an
optimum range that differs for males and females This range in
height appears to exclude people who are very tall or very short
in stature Sprinters are generally lighter in BM than normal
populations Also the BM variation among sprinters is less than
the variation among normal populations These anthropometric
characteristics typical of sprinters might be explained in part
by the influence the anthropometric characteristics have on
relative muscle strength and step length
Chauhan (2004) The purpose of the study was to develop
the regression equation for the prediction performance of
University Throwers in relation to their anthropometrics
measurements To achieve the objectives of the study thirty
throwers were selected as subjects from the University Athletic
42
meet of Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra Thirty two body
measurements were taken with the help of anthropometer steel
tape Vernier calliper and skin fold calliper according to the
instruction of Weiner and Lourie (1969) The throwing
performance of the subjects was measured in terms of
performance in putting the shot Product moment method for
inter correlation and wherry do little method for calculating
multiple correlation and development of regression equation for
the prediction of performance were applied The linears
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length upper and fore arm length circumference ie shoulders
chest abdomen hip and arm body diameters ie biacromial
bicristal and elbow diameters and skinfold measurements ie
biceps sub ndash scapular supra-illiac and calf skin fold have been
found to possess positive and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 1 and 5 levels respectively Among
body composition variables ie fat percentage fat weight and
lean body mass have positive and significant correlations but
body density has negative and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 5 level The multiple correlation of
body weight height and total arm length with throwing
performance is positive and highly significant (R = 935) The size
of the multiple correlation is quite sufficient and hence the
regression equation developed can be used for the prediction of
throwing performance of the athletes
Elferink-Gemser MT et al (2004) To determine the
relationship between multidimensional performance characteristics
and level of performance in talented youth field hockey players elite
youth players (n = 38 mean age 132 years sd = 13) were compared
with sub-elite youth players (n = 88 mean age 142 years sd = 13) on
anthropometric physiological technical tactical and psychological
characteristics Multivariate analyses with performance level and
43
gender as factors and age as the covariate showed that the elite
youth players scored better than the sub-elite youth players on
technical (dribble performance in a peak and repeated shuttle run)
tactical (general tactics tactics for possession and non-possession of
the ball) and psychological variables (motivation) (p lt 005) The most
discriminating variables were tactics for possession of the ball
motivation and performance in a slalom dribble Age discriminated
between the two groups indicating that the elite youth players were
younger than the sub-elite players In the guidance of young talented
players to the top as well as in the detection of talented players more
attention has to be paid to tactical qualities motivation and specific
technical skills
Singal et al (2002) Studied anthropometrically 697 athletes
and 699 controls to assess their body fat and lean body mass All the
body components increased from 10 to 18 years in both boys and girls
of sports group and controls The body fat is lesser in athletes boys
and girls The lean body mass is large in athlete boys only 14 years of
age While studying sex differences it has been noticed that athletes
as well as control girls have significantly more fat and lesser lean
body mass as compared to male athletes and male controls The
magnitude of increase in fat as well as lean body mass is more in boys
as compared to girls
Singh (2002) conducted a study on anthropometric motor
fitness and motor skill determinants of performance in inter-college
level handball players Total 102 players were selected as subjects
The players securing first three places in inter-college matches of
Punjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Guru
Nanak Dev University Amritsar were considered as the subjects for
the study The playing ability of subjects was measured by the panel
of three expert judges during inter-college competition on 5 point
scale on the basis of there all round performance The averages of
scores given by three judges were considered as final score The
following variables for anthropometric measurements were selected
namely age height weight shoulder width biacromial width arm
44
length upper arm length forearm length leg length calf
circumference sitting height supra-iliac skinfold thigh skinfold sub-
scapular skinfold calf skinfold biceps skinfold triceps skinfold
Motor fitness measurements were done by applying following tests
speed 5030 meters sprint agility- shuttle runzig-zag run arms
power-hand ball throwpull-ups leg power-standing broad
jumpsargent jump cardio-vascular endurance- 12 minute runwalk
grip strength dominant hand grip strengthnon dominant hand grip
strength Motor skill was measured by applying test items namely
Dribbling-AAHPERD control dribble test item Passing-AAHPERD test
item Defence-AAHPERD defensive movement test item Throwing
Accuracy-Service placement test Throwing Ability-Wall Volley test
Handball Throw for distance-handball throw
A study of Asian gold medallist Kabaddi players (N-45) for linear
body measurements circumferences skinfolds was conducted by
Kaur et al (2001a) Kabaddi players are 17526 cm tall with 7667
Kg mean weight They have also developed bones and muscles (Bone
mass was 1187 Kg and muscle mass was 3439 Kg) But with 1714
body fat players are towards higher side Somatotype of their players
was found to be 267-546-194
Paduraru D (2000) Biological development and body
composition was evaluated by measuring physical parameters of the
best male wrestlers (Greek-Roman) from the Romanian Olympic team
This anthropometric study was made to estimate a number of
anthropometric markers of training of 25 male wrestlers of top level
who were studied following ISAK protocols using a formulae and the
result were statistically analysed The participant‟s physica l
characteristics height (Ht) weight (Wt) perimeters skinfolds (SF)
abdominal (ASF) suprailiac (SISF) subscapular (SSK) triceps (TSF)
thigh (TISF) were measured by an accredited anthropometrist Bodyfat
mass was calculated using the formulae put forward by
BROZECKampKEYS (1951)
45
After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
40
results suggested that figure skating favours lightness high
mesomorphy and lower endomorphy at elite levels
Porcari JP et al (2005) studied the effects of self-
administered neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) on
changes in strength endurance selected anthropometric
measures and subjects perceived shape and satisfaction of the
abdominal wall Twenty-four adults (experimental group)
stimulated their abdominals 5 days per week (20-40 minutes per
session) for 8 weeks and refrained from engaging in any
additional exercise during the study A control group (N=16)
refrained from exercising the abdominals or engaging in any
other exercise training during the study Subjects were tested at
the beginning mid-point and end of the study Isometric
strength of the abdominal muscles was tested using a isokinetic
dynamometer endurance was measured using the ACSM curl-up
test abdominal circumference was measured using a steel tape
measure and body shape and satisfaction were assessed via
questionnaire The stimulation group had a 58 increase in
abdominal strength whereas the control group did not change
The stimulation group also had a 100 increase in abdominal
endurance versus a 28 increase in the control group Waist
circumference decreased by of 35 cm in the stimulation group
compared to no significant change in the control group All 24
subjects in the stimulation group felt that their midsections were
more toned and firmed and 1324 (54) felt that their
posture had improved as a result of the stimulation None of the
control group subjects reported changes in these parameters
There were no significant differences in body weight BMI or
skinfold thickness over the course of the study in either group
NMES as used in the current study resulted in significant
improvements in the muscular strength and endurance of the
41
abdominal region as well as subjects perceived shape and
satisfaction of the mid-section
Uth N (2005) the present study compared the
anthropometry of sprinters and people belonging to the normal
population The height and body mass (BM) distribution of
sprinters (42 men and 44 women) were statistically compared to
the distributions of American and Danish normal populations
The main results showed that there was significantly less BM
and height variability (measured as standard deviation) among
male sprinters than among the normal male population (US and
Danish) while female sprinters showed less BM variability than
the US and Danish normal female populations On average the
American normal population was shorter than the sprinters
There was no height difference between the sprinters and the
Danish normal population All female groups had similar height
variability Both male and female sprinters had lower body mass
index (BMI) than the normal populations It is likely that there is
no single optimal height for sprinters but instead there is an
optimum range that differs for males and females This range in
height appears to exclude people who are very tall or very short
in stature Sprinters are generally lighter in BM than normal
populations Also the BM variation among sprinters is less than
the variation among normal populations These anthropometric
characteristics typical of sprinters might be explained in part
by the influence the anthropometric characteristics have on
relative muscle strength and step length
Chauhan (2004) The purpose of the study was to develop
the regression equation for the prediction performance of
University Throwers in relation to their anthropometrics
measurements To achieve the objectives of the study thirty
throwers were selected as subjects from the University Athletic
42
meet of Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra Thirty two body
measurements were taken with the help of anthropometer steel
tape Vernier calliper and skin fold calliper according to the
instruction of Weiner and Lourie (1969) The throwing
performance of the subjects was measured in terms of
performance in putting the shot Product moment method for
inter correlation and wherry do little method for calculating
multiple correlation and development of regression equation for
the prediction of performance were applied The linears
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length upper and fore arm length circumference ie shoulders
chest abdomen hip and arm body diameters ie biacromial
bicristal and elbow diameters and skinfold measurements ie
biceps sub ndash scapular supra-illiac and calf skin fold have been
found to possess positive and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 1 and 5 levels respectively Among
body composition variables ie fat percentage fat weight and
lean body mass have positive and significant correlations but
body density has negative and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 5 level The multiple correlation of
body weight height and total arm length with throwing
performance is positive and highly significant (R = 935) The size
of the multiple correlation is quite sufficient and hence the
regression equation developed can be used for the prediction of
throwing performance of the athletes
Elferink-Gemser MT et al (2004) To determine the
relationship between multidimensional performance characteristics
and level of performance in talented youth field hockey players elite
youth players (n = 38 mean age 132 years sd = 13) were compared
with sub-elite youth players (n = 88 mean age 142 years sd = 13) on
anthropometric physiological technical tactical and psychological
characteristics Multivariate analyses with performance level and
43
gender as factors and age as the covariate showed that the elite
youth players scored better than the sub-elite youth players on
technical (dribble performance in a peak and repeated shuttle run)
tactical (general tactics tactics for possession and non-possession of
the ball) and psychological variables (motivation) (p lt 005) The most
discriminating variables were tactics for possession of the ball
motivation and performance in a slalom dribble Age discriminated
between the two groups indicating that the elite youth players were
younger than the sub-elite players In the guidance of young talented
players to the top as well as in the detection of talented players more
attention has to be paid to tactical qualities motivation and specific
technical skills
Singal et al (2002) Studied anthropometrically 697 athletes
and 699 controls to assess their body fat and lean body mass All the
body components increased from 10 to 18 years in both boys and girls
of sports group and controls The body fat is lesser in athletes boys
and girls The lean body mass is large in athlete boys only 14 years of
age While studying sex differences it has been noticed that athletes
as well as control girls have significantly more fat and lesser lean
body mass as compared to male athletes and male controls The
magnitude of increase in fat as well as lean body mass is more in boys
as compared to girls
Singh (2002) conducted a study on anthropometric motor
fitness and motor skill determinants of performance in inter-college
level handball players Total 102 players were selected as subjects
The players securing first three places in inter-college matches of
Punjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Guru
Nanak Dev University Amritsar were considered as the subjects for
the study The playing ability of subjects was measured by the panel
of three expert judges during inter-college competition on 5 point
scale on the basis of there all round performance The averages of
scores given by three judges were considered as final score The
following variables for anthropometric measurements were selected
namely age height weight shoulder width biacromial width arm
44
length upper arm length forearm length leg length calf
circumference sitting height supra-iliac skinfold thigh skinfold sub-
scapular skinfold calf skinfold biceps skinfold triceps skinfold
Motor fitness measurements were done by applying following tests
speed 5030 meters sprint agility- shuttle runzig-zag run arms
power-hand ball throwpull-ups leg power-standing broad
jumpsargent jump cardio-vascular endurance- 12 minute runwalk
grip strength dominant hand grip strengthnon dominant hand grip
strength Motor skill was measured by applying test items namely
Dribbling-AAHPERD control dribble test item Passing-AAHPERD test
item Defence-AAHPERD defensive movement test item Throwing
Accuracy-Service placement test Throwing Ability-Wall Volley test
Handball Throw for distance-handball throw
A study of Asian gold medallist Kabaddi players (N-45) for linear
body measurements circumferences skinfolds was conducted by
Kaur et al (2001a) Kabaddi players are 17526 cm tall with 7667
Kg mean weight They have also developed bones and muscles (Bone
mass was 1187 Kg and muscle mass was 3439 Kg) But with 1714
body fat players are towards higher side Somatotype of their players
was found to be 267-546-194
Paduraru D (2000) Biological development and body
composition was evaluated by measuring physical parameters of the
best male wrestlers (Greek-Roman) from the Romanian Olympic team
This anthropometric study was made to estimate a number of
anthropometric markers of training of 25 male wrestlers of top level
who were studied following ISAK protocols using a formulae and the
result were statistically analysed The participant‟s physica l
characteristics height (Ht) weight (Wt) perimeters skinfolds (SF)
abdominal (ASF) suprailiac (SISF) subscapular (SSK) triceps (TSF)
thigh (TISF) were measured by an accredited anthropometrist Bodyfat
mass was calculated using the formulae put forward by
BROZECKampKEYS (1951)
45
After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
41
abdominal region as well as subjects perceived shape and
satisfaction of the mid-section
Uth N (2005) the present study compared the
anthropometry of sprinters and people belonging to the normal
population The height and body mass (BM) distribution of
sprinters (42 men and 44 women) were statistically compared to
the distributions of American and Danish normal populations
The main results showed that there was significantly less BM
and height variability (measured as standard deviation) among
male sprinters than among the normal male population (US and
Danish) while female sprinters showed less BM variability than
the US and Danish normal female populations On average the
American normal population was shorter than the sprinters
There was no height difference between the sprinters and the
Danish normal population All female groups had similar height
variability Both male and female sprinters had lower body mass
index (BMI) than the normal populations It is likely that there is
no single optimal height for sprinters but instead there is an
optimum range that differs for males and females This range in
height appears to exclude people who are very tall or very short
in stature Sprinters are generally lighter in BM than normal
populations Also the BM variation among sprinters is less than
the variation among normal populations These anthropometric
characteristics typical of sprinters might be explained in part
by the influence the anthropometric characteristics have on
relative muscle strength and step length
Chauhan (2004) The purpose of the study was to develop
the regression equation for the prediction performance of
University Throwers in relation to their anthropometrics
measurements To achieve the objectives of the study thirty
throwers were selected as subjects from the University Athletic
42
meet of Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra Thirty two body
measurements were taken with the help of anthropometer steel
tape Vernier calliper and skin fold calliper according to the
instruction of Weiner and Lourie (1969) The throwing
performance of the subjects was measured in terms of
performance in putting the shot Product moment method for
inter correlation and wherry do little method for calculating
multiple correlation and development of regression equation for
the prediction of performance were applied The linears
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length upper and fore arm length circumference ie shoulders
chest abdomen hip and arm body diameters ie biacromial
bicristal and elbow diameters and skinfold measurements ie
biceps sub ndash scapular supra-illiac and calf skin fold have been
found to possess positive and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 1 and 5 levels respectively Among
body composition variables ie fat percentage fat weight and
lean body mass have positive and significant correlations but
body density has negative and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 5 level The multiple correlation of
body weight height and total arm length with throwing
performance is positive and highly significant (R = 935) The size
of the multiple correlation is quite sufficient and hence the
regression equation developed can be used for the prediction of
throwing performance of the athletes
Elferink-Gemser MT et al (2004) To determine the
relationship between multidimensional performance characteristics
and level of performance in talented youth field hockey players elite
youth players (n = 38 mean age 132 years sd = 13) were compared
with sub-elite youth players (n = 88 mean age 142 years sd = 13) on
anthropometric physiological technical tactical and psychological
characteristics Multivariate analyses with performance level and
43
gender as factors and age as the covariate showed that the elite
youth players scored better than the sub-elite youth players on
technical (dribble performance in a peak and repeated shuttle run)
tactical (general tactics tactics for possession and non-possession of
the ball) and psychological variables (motivation) (p lt 005) The most
discriminating variables were tactics for possession of the ball
motivation and performance in a slalom dribble Age discriminated
between the two groups indicating that the elite youth players were
younger than the sub-elite players In the guidance of young talented
players to the top as well as in the detection of talented players more
attention has to be paid to tactical qualities motivation and specific
technical skills
Singal et al (2002) Studied anthropometrically 697 athletes
and 699 controls to assess their body fat and lean body mass All the
body components increased from 10 to 18 years in both boys and girls
of sports group and controls The body fat is lesser in athletes boys
and girls The lean body mass is large in athlete boys only 14 years of
age While studying sex differences it has been noticed that athletes
as well as control girls have significantly more fat and lesser lean
body mass as compared to male athletes and male controls The
magnitude of increase in fat as well as lean body mass is more in boys
as compared to girls
Singh (2002) conducted a study on anthropometric motor
fitness and motor skill determinants of performance in inter-college
level handball players Total 102 players were selected as subjects
The players securing first three places in inter-college matches of
Punjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Guru
Nanak Dev University Amritsar were considered as the subjects for
the study The playing ability of subjects was measured by the panel
of three expert judges during inter-college competition on 5 point
scale on the basis of there all round performance The averages of
scores given by three judges were considered as final score The
following variables for anthropometric measurements were selected
namely age height weight shoulder width biacromial width arm
44
length upper arm length forearm length leg length calf
circumference sitting height supra-iliac skinfold thigh skinfold sub-
scapular skinfold calf skinfold biceps skinfold triceps skinfold
Motor fitness measurements were done by applying following tests
speed 5030 meters sprint agility- shuttle runzig-zag run arms
power-hand ball throwpull-ups leg power-standing broad
jumpsargent jump cardio-vascular endurance- 12 minute runwalk
grip strength dominant hand grip strengthnon dominant hand grip
strength Motor skill was measured by applying test items namely
Dribbling-AAHPERD control dribble test item Passing-AAHPERD test
item Defence-AAHPERD defensive movement test item Throwing
Accuracy-Service placement test Throwing Ability-Wall Volley test
Handball Throw for distance-handball throw
A study of Asian gold medallist Kabaddi players (N-45) for linear
body measurements circumferences skinfolds was conducted by
Kaur et al (2001a) Kabaddi players are 17526 cm tall with 7667
Kg mean weight They have also developed bones and muscles (Bone
mass was 1187 Kg and muscle mass was 3439 Kg) But with 1714
body fat players are towards higher side Somatotype of their players
was found to be 267-546-194
Paduraru D (2000) Biological development and body
composition was evaluated by measuring physical parameters of the
best male wrestlers (Greek-Roman) from the Romanian Olympic team
This anthropometric study was made to estimate a number of
anthropometric markers of training of 25 male wrestlers of top level
who were studied following ISAK protocols using a formulae and the
result were statistically analysed The participant‟s physica l
characteristics height (Ht) weight (Wt) perimeters skinfolds (SF)
abdominal (ASF) suprailiac (SISF) subscapular (SSK) triceps (TSF)
thigh (TISF) were measured by an accredited anthropometrist Bodyfat
mass was calculated using the formulae put forward by
BROZECKampKEYS (1951)
45
After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
42
meet of Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra Thirty two body
measurements were taken with the help of anthropometer steel
tape Vernier calliper and skin fold calliper according to the
instruction of Weiner and Lourie (1969) The throwing
performance of the subjects was measured in terms of
performance in putting the shot Product moment method for
inter correlation and wherry do little method for calculating
multiple correlation and development of regression equation for
the prediction of performance were applied The linears
measurements ie height leg length fore leg length total arm
length upper and fore arm length circumference ie shoulders
chest abdomen hip and arm body diameters ie biacromial
bicristal and elbow diameters and skinfold measurements ie
biceps sub ndash scapular supra-illiac and calf skin fold have been
found to possess positive and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 1 and 5 levels respectively Among
body composition variables ie fat percentage fat weight and
lean body mass have positive and significant correlations but
body density has negative and significant correlation with
throwing performance at 5 level The multiple correlation of
body weight height and total arm length with throwing
performance is positive and highly significant (R = 935) The size
of the multiple correlation is quite sufficient and hence the
regression equation developed can be used for the prediction of
throwing performance of the athletes
Elferink-Gemser MT et al (2004) To determine the
relationship between multidimensional performance characteristics
and level of performance in talented youth field hockey players elite
youth players (n = 38 mean age 132 years sd = 13) were compared
with sub-elite youth players (n = 88 mean age 142 years sd = 13) on
anthropometric physiological technical tactical and psychological
characteristics Multivariate analyses with performance level and
43
gender as factors and age as the covariate showed that the elite
youth players scored better than the sub-elite youth players on
technical (dribble performance in a peak and repeated shuttle run)
tactical (general tactics tactics for possession and non-possession of
the ball) and psychological variables (motivation) (p lt 005) The most
discriminating variables were tactics for possession of the ball
motivation and performance in a slalom dribble Age discriminated
between the two groups indicating that the elite youth players were
younger than the sub-elite players In the guidance of young talented
players to the top as well as in the detection of talented players more
attention has to be paid to tactical qualities motivation and specific
technical skills
Singal et al (2002) Studied anthropometrically 697 athletes
and 699 controls to assess their body fat and lean body mass All the
body components increased from 10 to 18 years in both boys and girls
of sports group and controls The body fat is lesser in athletes boys
and girls The lean body mass is large in athlete boys only 14 years of
age While studying sex differences it has been noticed that athletes
as well as control girls have significantly more fat and lesser lean
body mass as compared to male athletes and male controls The
magnitude of increase in fat as well as lean body mass is more in boys
as compared to girls
Singh (2002) conducted a study on anthropometric motor
fitness and motor skill determinants of performance in inter-college
level handball players Total 102 players were selected as subjects
The players securing first three places in inter-college matches of
Punjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Guru
Nanak Dev University Amritsar were considered as the subjects for
the study The playing ability of subjects was measured by the panel
of three expert judges during inter-college competition on 5 point
scale on the basis of there all round performance The averages of
scores given by three judges were considered as final score The
following variables for anthropometric measurements were selected
namely age height weight shoulder width biacromial width arm
44
length upper arm length forearm length leg length calf
circumference sitting height supra-iliac skinfold thigh skinfold sub-
scapular skinfold calf skinfold biceps skinfold triceps skinfold
Motor fitness measurements were done by applying following tests
speed 5030 meters sprint agility- shuttle runzig-zag run arms
power-hand ball throwpull-ups leg power-standing broad
jumpsargent jump cardio-vascular endurance- 12 minute runwalk
grip strength dominant hand grip strengthnon dominant hand grip
strength Motor skill was measured by applying test items namely
Dribbling-AAHPERD control dribble test item Passing-AAHPERD test
item Defence-AAHPERD defensive movement test item Throwing
Accuracy-Service placement test Throwing Ability-Wall Volley test
Handball Throw for distance-handball throw
A study of Asian gold medallist Kabaddi players (N-45) for linear
body measurements circumferences skinfolds was conducted by
Kaur et al (2001a) Kabaddi players are 17526 cm tall with 7667
Kg mean weight They have also developed bones and muscles (Bone
mass was 1187 Kg and muscle mass was 3439 Kg) But with 1714
body fat players are towards higher side Somatotype of their players
was found to be 267-546-194
Paduraru D (2000) Biological development and body
composition was evaluated by measuring physical parameters of the
best male wrestlers (Greek-Roman) from the Romanian Olympic team
This anthropometric study was made to estimate a number of
anthropometric markers of training of 25 male wrestlers of top level
who were studied following ISAK protocols using a formulae and the
result were statistically analysed The participant‟s physica l
characteristics height (Ht) weight (Wt) perimeters skinfolds (SF)
abdominal (ASF) suprailiac (SISF) subscapular (SSK) triceps (TSF)
thigh (TISF) were measured by an accredited anthropometrist Bodyfat
mass was calculated using the formulae put forward by
BROZECKampKEYS (1951)
45
After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
43
gender as factors and age as the covariate showed that the elite
youth players scored better than the sub-elite youth players on
technical (dribble performance in a peak and repeated shuttle run)
tactical (general tactics tactics for possession and non-possession of
the ball) and psychological variables (motivation) (p lt 005) The most
discriminating variables were tactics for possession of the ball
motivation and performance in a slalom dribble Age discriminated
between the two groups indicating that the elite youth players were
younger than the sub-elite players In the guidance of young talented
players to the top as well as in the detection of talented players more
attention has to be paid to tactical qualities motivation and specific
technical skills
Singal et al (2002) Studied anthropometrically 697 athletes
and 699 controls to assess their body fat and lean body mass All the
body components increased from 10 to 18 years in both boys and girls
of sports group and controls The body fat is lesser in athletes boys
and girls The lean body mass is large in athlete boys only 14 years of
age While studying sex differences it has been noticed that athletes
as well as control girls have significantly more fat and lesser lean
body mass as compared to male athletes and male controls The
magnitude of increase in fat as well as lean body mass is more in boys
as compared to girls
Singh (2002) conducted a study on anthropometric motor
fitness and motor skill determinants of performance in inter-college
level handball players Total 102 players were selected as subjects
The players securing first three places in inter-college matches of
Punjab University Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Guru
Nanak Dev University Amritsar were considered as the subjects for
the study The playing ability of subjects was measured by the panel
of three expert judges during inter-college competition on 5 point
scale on the basis of there all round performance The averages of
scores given by three judges were considered as final score The
following variables for anthropometric measurements were selected
namely age height weight shoulder width biacromial width arm
44
length upper arm length forearm length leg length calf
circumference sitting height supra-iliac skinfold thigh skinfold sub-
scapular skinfold calf skinfold biceps skinfold triceps skinfold
Motor fitness measurements were done by applying following tests
speed 5030 meters sprint agility- shuttle runzig-zag run arms
power-hand ball throwpull-ups leg power-standing broad
jumpsargent jump cardio-vascular endurance- 12 minute runwalk
grip strength dominant hand grip strengthnon dominant hand grip
strength Motor skill was measured by applying test items namely
Dribbling-AAHPERD control dribble test item Passing-AAHPERD test
item Defence-AAHPERD defensive movement test item Throwing
Accuracy-Service placement test Throwing Ability-Wall Volley test
Handball Throw for distance-handball throw
A study of Asian gold medallist Kabaddi players (N-45) for linear
body measurements circumferences skinfolds was conducted by
Kaur et al (2001a) Kabaddi players are 17526 cm tall with 7667
Kg mean weight They have also developed bones and muscles (Bone
mass was 1187 Kg and muscle mass was 3439 Kg) But with 1714
body fat players are towards higher side Somatotype of their players
was found to be 267-546-194
Paduraru D (2000) Biological development and body
composition was evaluated by measuring physical parameters of the
best male wrestlers (Greek-Roman) from the Romanian Olympic team
This anthropometric study was made to estimate a number of
anthropometric markers of training of 25 male wrestlers of top level
who were studied following ISAK protocols using a formulae and the
result were statistically analysed The participant‟s physica l
characteristics height (Ht) weight (Wt) perimeters skinfolds (SF)
abdominal (ASF) suprailiac (SISF) subscapular (SSK) triceps (TSF)
thigh (TISF) were measured by an accredited anthropometrist Bodyfat
mass was calculated using the formulae put forward by
BROZECKampKEYS (1951)
45
After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
44
length upper arm length forearm length leg length calf
circumference sitting height supra-iliac skinfold thigh skinfold sub-
scapular skinfold calf skinfold biceps skinfold triceps skinfold
Motor fitness measurements were done by applying following tests
speed 5030 meters sprint agility- shuttle runzig-zag run arms
power-hand ball throwpull-ups leg power-standing broad
jumpsargent jump cardio-vascular endurance- 12 minute runwalk
grip strength dominant hand grip strengthnon dominant hand grip
strength Motor skill was measured by applying test items namely
Dribbling-AAHPERD control dribble test item Passing-AAHPERD test
item Defence-AAHPERD defensive movement test item Throwing
Accuracy-Service placement test Throwing Ability-Wall Volley test
Handball Throw for distance-handball throw
A study of Asian gold medallist Kabaddi players (N-45) for linear
body measurements circumferences skinfolds was conducted by
Kaur et al (2001a) Kabaddi players are 17526 cm tall with 7667
Kg mean weight They have also developed bones and muscles (Bone
mass was 1187 Kg and muscle mass was 3439 Kg) But with 1714
body fat players are towards higher side Somatotype of their players
was found to be 267-546-194
Paduraru D (2000) Biological development and body
composition was evaluated by measuring physical parameters of the
best male wrestlers (Greek-Roman) from the Romanian Olympic team
This anthropometric study was made to estimate a number of
anthropometric markers of training of 25 male wrestlers of top level
who were studied following ISAK protocols using a formulae and the
result were statistically analysed The participant‟s physica l
characteristics height (Ht) weight (Wt) perimeters skinfolds (SF)
abdominal (ASF) suprailiac (SISF) subscapular (SSK) triceps (TSF)
thigh (TISF) were measured by an accredited anthropometrist Bodyfat
mass was calculated using the formulae put forward by
BROZECKampKEYS (1951)
45
After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
45
After measuring 25 wrestlers with the age (Ag) range 188-315
years mean 239y sport history (SH) range 5-23 years mean
1217y height (Ht) 1584-1947 cm mean 1729 cm weight (Wt)
range 58-1165 kg mean 826 kg body mass index (BMI) range 2311-
3261 mean 2498 bone development index (BDI) range 4116-4794
mean 4482 body fat mass (BFM kg) range 67-2423 kg mean 1074
body fat mass (BFM ) range 375-2008 mean 1175 fat-free
mass (FFM kg) range 5205-9238 kg mean 6834 kg fat free mass
(FFM ) range 7920-8927 mean 8689 With regard to skinfolds
thickness the triceps skinfold recorded the lowest values followed by
subscapular and tight skinfolds Variance suggests that
anthropometric parameters other than weight (Wt) and height (Ht)
may be useful to estimate the level of training in professional
wrestlers (Greek-Roman)
Papadopoulou SD(2000)The number of studies related to
anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek women
players is very limited especially the ones concerning elite volleyball
players For this purpose 92 women volleyball players were examined
from the national team (NT n=29)) and A1 division (AD n=63) The
mean age was 238 plusmn 51 years and training age 110 plusmn52 years The
anthropometrics measurements recorded were height weight segment
lengths diameters and circumferences Also the body fat percentage
was estimated with the skinfold method The mean height was 179
plusmn62 cm and the mean weight 707 plusmn78 kg The NT players had
significant longer upper limb forearm bitrochanteric diameter and
wrist and calf circumferences (plt005) There were no significant
differences in body fat percentage between NT (224 plusmn47) and AD
(213 plusmn55) players as well as fat free mass (561 plusmn57 kg and 546
plusmn47 kg for NT and AD respectively) Some anthropometric
characteristics differ between NT and AD players and these
characteristics could possibly affect the performance In both NT and
AD players the relatively high body fat percentage is a negative factor
in athletes top performance and must be decreased
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
46
Pavicic L et al(2000) This study analyze differences in
anthropometric status of elite water polo players playing different
team roles defined as goalkeeper guard forward and centreThe
sample of subjects consists of 66 water polo players from the
population of the Croatian national league aged from 19 to 29 years
Their anthropometric status defines 23 measures compromising
lengths girths skinfolds breadths and body weightThe analysis of
variance showed statistically significant differences in the following
measures midstylion-dactilion length foot breadth femur breadth
(ppound 0001) body weight (ppound 0005) calf girth arm girth (relaxed)
stature and biliocristal breadth (ppound 005) The multivariate
discriminative analysis showed that groups significantly differ along
the two discriminative functions Four girth measures and body
weight define the first function and midstylion-dactilion length
biliocristal breadth calf girth arm length body weight and stature
define the second A planar location of the group centroids shows that
groups of centres and goalkeepers lay far apart in respect to the first
function and have almost the same projections on the second
function The goalkeepers compared to centres have notably smaller
girths of chest and arm smaller body weight and greater midstylion-
dactilion length and stature Forwards and guards groups compare
very closely In respect to the first function they are located
approximately in the middle between the other two and their position
in respect to the second function is away from other two groups in the
direction of smaller valuesIt is concluded that centres tend to be
endomezomorph goalkeepers tend to be ektomesorph and forwards
and guards groups tend to a balanced mezomorph somatotype
Dhillon et al (1998) examined the influence of training
break in selected motor abilities and skills of 15 hockey players
age ranged between 13-18 year Eight physical fitness and skill
tests included were push dribble and role shooting hit sit and
reach standing broad jump shuttle run and 60 m sprint All the
tests were conducted before a training break of three weeks
These tests were conducted again at the end of the first and
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
47
second week after the beginning of the training It was found
that the training break of three weeks leads to a significant
deterioration The deterioration of technical skills was much
higher in push hit and shooting Deterioration was observed
much less in dribble and role skills In the tests of physical
fitness significant deterioration was found in flexibility and
speed leg length ability did not show any type of deterioration
due to the break It was concluded that after three weeks of
training break two weeks of training was enough to achieve the
previous level of performance except flexibility They further
added that the rate of recovery was higher in the first week as
compared to the second
Nindl et al (1998) Conducted a study on comparison of
body composition assessment among lean black and white male
collegiate athletes through various means such as under water
weighing skinfold measurement and simple anthropometric
traits It was found that no significant difference exists between
black and white athletes for age height weight or BMI
The twelve members of USA Olympic womens field Hockey
team those were going to participate in Atlanta Olympics 1996
were studied by Sparling et al (1998) The players studied
were having mean age 27 years height 165cm and weight 596
kg The mean bone mineral density value for members of the
1996 United States Olympic womens field hockey team is 125
kgcm2 which is very high The mean fat free mass per unit
height was quite high and percent fat was low It is found that in
this group of world class sportswomen low percent fat was not
associated with low bone mineral density mean body mass
index of the team is 220+ 13kgcm
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
48
Sodhi And Rajni (1995) studied the Anthropometry
profiles of elite Indian male swimmers and conclude that elite
class swimmers were older in age and hand smaller skinfold
thickness than the control group of swimmers
Vaz L W (1994) investigated some of the selected
anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness components
as predictors of performance in Judo He found in his study that
anthropometric variables namely height weight calf ndash girth arm
girth and ponderal index were related to judo performance in
various weight categories but leg length arm length thigh girth
and crural ratio were not seen significantly related to Judo
performance Combined contribution of anthropometric and
physical fitness variables to judo performance in various weight
categories were showing significant relations Multiple regression
analysis indicated that predictions regarding Judo performance
on the basis of anthropometric and physical fitness variables
can be made with reasonable degree of accuracy
Sullivan and Knowlton (1994) conducted a study on
anthropometric characteristics and performance related
predictors of success in adolescent are pole vaulters It was
concluded that the somatotype is a selective factor for this event
as early as 13 years of age It was also concluded that
somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of
junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters
Ronnie and Looney(1994) conducted a study on
differences in physical characteristics in collegiate baseball
players Physical characteristics including height weight body
composition and somatotype of baseball players were evaluated
to determine if difference exist in physical profile by position at
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
49
this level of competition It was found that there exist differences
in height weight lean body weight
Bale et al (1994) conducted a study on anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American
football players 143 football players were classified into five
weight groups and assessed It was found that weight group in
both the high school players and college footballers show
significant differences in percent fat somatotype and strength
measures between lower and higher weight categories
Guladi and Graziani (1993) conducted a study on
anthropometric somatotype of Italian sports participants
Somatotype was estimated from anthropometric procedure alone
according to Heath-Carter method The anthropometric
measurements(height and weight biceps and calf girths
humerous and fumer width tricepssub-scapular supra-iliac
and calf skinfold) were taken using Lange skinfold calliper The
mean for the male and female participants was calculated It was
found that some significant changes with an increase in level of
performance in some sport groups with increase in mesomorphic
components
Diwarka (1991) conducted a study to investigate the
relationship of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability and to assess the combined
contribution of physical physiological and motor skill variables
to volleyball playing ability Physical variables include speed
arm length explosive power dynamic balance agility flexibility
age height and weight are taken Physiological variables
including pulse rate systolic blood pressure dialstolic blood
pressure and cardio-vascular endurance were measured Motor
skill variables were volleying serving passing and set-up 100
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
50
women volleyball players who participated in the inter-college
level tournament were taken as subjects
Hockey players were examined by Sharma et al (1990)
according to their field positions This study revealed a
significant difference in the physique of players The fullbacks
were significantly heavier and taller possessed longer lower and
upper extremities broad shoulders and chest hips
circumferences had greater amount of skin fold thickness There
was also a consistent increase in stature and weight according
to their field positions The half-backs were shortest and lightest
among all the sub- groups whereas forwards possessed greater
lower extremities and smaller biilliocristal breadth
Guennadi(1990) conducted a study on anthropometric
measurements and parameters of physical fitness on male and
female high jumpers between 14-22 years of age The study
explained that the tall high jumpers with less body weight had
the capability of achieving better results It was further
suggested that height must be the essential parameter during
the search of talent
Sharma and Shukla (1990) investigated the
anthropometric and motor fitness variables of 40 players of
hockey and football they took 37 anthropometric measurements
and 5 standardize motor fitness tests It was concluded
1 The football players had significantly broader shoulders
chest circumference humerous and fumer bicondylar
breadth and posses‟ bigger thigh and calf muscles as
compared to hockey players
2 In case of physical fitness tests the football players had
higher values in sit-ups and leg strength
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
51
3 Hockey players indicated higher mean values in push-ups
back strength and grip strength
Kishore (1986) studied the relationship of anthropometric
measurement to weightlifting performance 30 weight lifters were
selected as subjects Arm length leg length upper arm girth
fore arm girth and skinfold were measured He found that
1 There was significant relationship between thigh girth
trunk girth upper arm and fore arm girth lean body mass
to weightlifting performance
2 There was negative relationship between leg length thigh
length to weightlifting performance
3 There was no significant relationship between arm lengths
fore by lengths calf girth and weightlifting performance
Eiben (1984) studied the anthropometric character of
women athletics during European Athletic Championship The
result showed that
1 The sprinters had small stature mainly due to their short
trunk Their lower extremities especially their thigh were
long as compared to trunk the lower limb especially the
lower legs were strong with well developed muscles
2 The hurdlers were also strong and muscular their stature
was nearly identical with the sprinters however their
trunk was somewhat lower and their lower extremities
relatively shorter
Ramadan (1984) investigated the anthropometric
characteristics of the Kuwaiti World Cup soccer team to
determine the body composition and somatotype Skinfold and
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
52
somatotype by the Health ndash Carter method estimated body
composition
Analysis by playing position revealed
1 The goalkeepers to have higher percentage of fat and
mesomorphy
2 Mid fielders were the leanest
3 The strikers were significantly older and less fat
A similar study carried out by Malhotra et al (1975) on
24 Indian hockey players described that the mean age height
and weight of the players has to be 238 years 1725 cms and
629 kg respectively He concluded that the full backs were
found to be the tallest followed by half backs forwards and
goalkeepers
(B) Studies on physical fitness components and performance
Veera NaikM (2012) Physical fitness comprises two related
concepts general fitness a state of health and well-being andspecific
fitness a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform
specific aspects of sports or occupations Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition exercise and enough rest
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net Each team tries to score points by grounding a
ball on the other teams court under organized rules Basketball is a
team sport the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket
horizontally positioned to score points while following a set of rules
Usually two teams of five players play on a marked rectangular court
with a basket at each width end Basketball is one of the worlds most
popular and widely viewed sportsThe aim of the present study was to
study the difference in Physical Fitness among Volley Ball and Basket
Ball Players of Khammam District 15 Male Volley Ball Players and 15
Male Basket Ball Players between the age group of 19 Years to 21
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
53
Years of Khammam District were taken for the Study The AAPHER
Youth Fitness Test consisting of 6 Items of 50 yard run standing
broad jump pull upssitupsshuttle run and 600 yard were used for
the Study It was found that Basket Ball Players have good Physical
Fitness compare to Volley Ball Players This study shows that the
Basket Ball Players are good in Physical fitness because they do good
Physical Training More compare to Volley Ball Players
Hankey J Lyons M Duncan M (2012) Introduction
Basketball entails repeated episodes of short intense activity
involving rapid changes in direction (Abdelkrim El Fazaa and El Ati
2007) The line drill test (LD) is proposed as a viable and appropriate
field test for anaerobic performance (Seminick 1990) due to its high
reliability and acceptable validity in adolescent basketball players
(Carvalho et al 2010) The analysis of factors that influence per-
formance in the LD has practical implications for coaches and sports
scientists This study sought to determine the components of fitness
associated with performance in the LD in adolescent basketball
players Method Following ethical approval and informed consent 46
elite adolescent male basketball players (M = 1682 plusmn 086 years) took
part in LDs lateral quickness test (LQT) aerobic capacity test
(VO2max estimated via 20m shuttle run) back and leg strength test
(Takei Instruments Ltd) upper body strength test (Concept II Dyno)
vertical jump test with measures of jump height actual peak power
(PPactual) and peak power relative to body mass (PPrel) using a force
platform (Kistler Amherst New York) Pearson product moment
correlations were used to determine the relationship between the
fitness variables and LD Multiple-regression analysis (backward
stepwise p to enter lt005 p to remove gt01) was conducted to
determine which combination of measured characteristics could
predict LD performance Results Significant relationships were evident
between LDs and all fitness variables (all Plt0001) Multiple-
regression analysis indicated that together lateral agility aerobic
capacity and PPrel could account for approximately 739 of the
variance in LDs (p lt 001) according to the following regression
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
54
formula LD performance = 25291 - 0082 (PPrel) + 0795 (LQT) ndash
0058 (aerobic capacity) Discussion Performance in the LD is
predicted best by a combination of factors which include PPrel LQT
and aerobic capacity rather than by any single component of fitness
As previously mentioned the LD is recommended as an appropriate
field test for measuring anaerobic performance in adolescent
basketball players (Carvalho et al 2010) The results imply that
aerobic capacity has a significant contribution to performance of the
LD disagreeing with previous research which suggests the LD is an
anaerobic test (Seminick 1990) Therefore it can be suggested that
training which results in improvements in any of these factors may
result in improved performance in LD References Abdelkrim NB El
Fazaa S El Ati J (2007) Br J Sports Med 41 Carvalho et al (2011) J
Strength Cond Res e-pub ahead of print Seminick D (1990) Tests and
measurements The line drill test NSCA J 12 47ndash49 69-75
DeeplaKRajender RajT(2011) Physical fitness refers to the
organic capacity of the individual to perform the tasks of the daily
living without undue tiredness and fatigue and still have a reserve of
strength and energy available to meet satisfactorily sudden emergence
placed upon him Physical fitness is necessary for a successful and
enjoyable life because it increases the functional efficiency of human
organism The characteristics of Physical fitness such as strength
speed endurance agility flexibility are essential for physiological
function and good health Physical fitness is composed of general and
specific fitness It can be health and skill related physical fitness
Athletes and Foot ball Players compulsory require physical fitness to
excel Benefits of Physical fitness 1 Helps maintain and increase
muscle strength improving balance overall co-ordination reaction
time and flexibility Some physical activities even improve mental
concentration 2 Controls Weight improves mood boost energy
promotes better sleep 3 It combats health conditions and diseases
4Reduces the incidence of illnesses such as coronary heart disease
hypertension stroke type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis Purpose(s)
The Purpose of the the present study to find out the Physical fitness
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
55
among Male Athletes and Male Foot Ball Players of Schools in
Hyderabad between the age group of fourteen to sixteen years
Tiwari LM Rai V Siddhartha S(2011) The purpose of
the study was to find ut the ldquorelationship of speed agility
shoulderstrength Explosive Strength and muscular endurance with
the performance of Badminton Playerrdquo 30State Level Badminton
Players from lucknow who were participating in state
Badmintonchampionships were selected as a subject for the study
Their age ranged between 20 to 25 years
For estimating speed agility shoulder strength Explosive
Strength muscular endurance and badminton performance the
following tests were employed- For speed (50 meters dash in
seconds) agility (4 x 10 meters shuttle Run in second) shoulder
strength (pull ups in numbers) explosive strength (standing broad
jump in meters) muscular endurance (sit ups in numbersmin) and
the badminton performance was graded by a panel of experts on the
basis of their skills techniques and match result Statistics - For
analysis Zero order correlation was used to compute correlation
between badminton performance and selected variables ie speed
agility shoulder strength Explosive Strength and muscular
endurance Result - The result showed that all the motor fitness
components (speed agility explosive strength shoulder strength and
muscular endurance) of an individual correlates maximum with
badminton performance The coefficient of correlation of speed (r =-
0667) agility(r =-083) explosive strength(r =055) shoulder
strength(r =069) and muscular endurance(r =075) were found to be
significant with Badminton Players performance at 005 level of
confidence The finding indicates that speed agility explosive
strength shoulder strength and muscular endurance were important
variables for better performance in Badminton
Chandra Saha G MukhopadhyayMP(2011) The purpose
of the study was to find out the effect of resistance training
endurance training and combined training on selected physical fitness
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
56
variables Sixty male students aged between 17 and 22 years were
selected for the study They were divided into four equal groups each
group consisting of fifteen subjects in which Group I underwent
resistance training group II underwent endurance training group III
underwent combination training three days per week for twelve weeks
and group IV acted as control which did not participate in any
training The subjects were tested on selected criterion variables such
as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory endurance at
prior to and immediately after the training period For testing the leg
strength and back strength the dynamometer was used and to test
the cardio-respiratory endurance the Cooper‟s 12 minutes runwalk
test wasadministered The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used
to find out the significant difference if any between the experimental
groups and control group on selected criterion variables separately
Sincethere were four groups involved in the present study the Scheffeacute
S test was used as post-hoc test The selected criterion variables
such as leg strength back strength and cardio-respiratory were
improved significantly for all the training groups when compared with
the control group and the leg and back strength were improved
significantly for combined training group and resistance training
group and in cardio-respiratory endurance the endurance training
group and combined training groups were significantly improved
MacLeod H (2009) Nine games players (mean age 233 years
sfrac1428 height 173 m sfrac14008 body mass 700 kg sfrac14127) completed
14 laps of a measured circuit that incorporated intermittent running
and directional changes representative of the movements made by
field hockey players during match-play The distances and speeds
recorded by a global positioning satellite (GPS) system (Spi EliteTM)
were compared statistically with speed measurements made using
timing gates and distances measured using a calibrated trundle
wheel to establish the criterion validity of the GPS system A
validation of the speed of movement of each participant separately
was also made using data from each timing gate over a range of
speeds The mean distance recorded by the GPS system was 6821 m
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
57
(sfrac147) and the mean speed was 70 km h71 (sfrac1419) compared with
the actual distance of 6818 m and recorded mean speed of 70 km h71
(sfrac1419) Pearson correlations (r) among timing gate speed and GPS
speed were 099 (P50001) and the mean difference and 95 limits of
agreement were 00+09 km h71 These results suggest that a GPS
system (Spi EliteTM) offers a valid tool for measuring speed and
distance during match-play and can quickly provide the positioning
system for accessing player movementpatterns in field hockey
Gabbett T et al (2007) Relationship between physical fitness
and playing ability in rugby league players J Strength Cond Res
21(4)1126-1133 1997-This study investigated the physiological
anthropometric and skill characteristics of rugby league players and
determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing
ability in these athletes Eighty-six rugby league players (mean plusmn SD
age 225 plusmn 49 years) underwent measurements of standard
anthropometry (height body mass and sum of 4 skinfolds) muscular
power (vertical jump) speed (10- 20- and 40-m sprint) agility (L
run) and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test)
In addition 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing
ability of players using standardized skill criteria First-grade players
had significantly greater (p lt 005) basic passing and ball-carrying
ability and superior skills under fatigue tackling and defensive skills
and evasion skills (ie ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills)
than second-grade and third-grade players While no significant (p gt
005) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass
skinfold thickness height 10- 20- or 40-m speed agility vertical
jump height or estimated maximal aerobic power all the
physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p
lt 005) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability The
results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics
but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players
However all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were
related to playing ability These findings suggest that while
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
58
physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate
between successful and less successful rugby league players a high
level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these
athletes A game-specific training program that incorporates both
physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater
transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby
league
Connor D O et al (2007) Effects of six weeks of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMBcreatine supplementation on
strength power and anthropometry of highly trained athletes J
Strength Cond Res 21(2)419-423 2007-This study investigated the
effects of 6 weeks of dietary supplementation of -hydroxy--
methylbutyrate (HMB) and HMB combined with creatine monohydrate
(HMBCr) on the muscular strength and endurance leg power and
anthropometry of elite male rugby league players The subjects were
divided into a control group (n = 8) a HMB group (n = 11 3 gmiddotd1) or
a HMBCr group (n = 11 12 gmiddotd1 with 3 g HMB 3 g Cr 6 g
carbohydrates) Three repetition maximum lifts on bench press
deadlifts prone row and shoulder press maximum chin-up
repetitions 10-second maximal cycle test body mass girths and sum
of skinfolds were assessed pre- and postsupplementation Statistical
analysis revealed no effect of HMB or HMBCr on any parameter
compared with presupplementation measures or the control group
HMB and HMBCr were concluded to have no ergogenic effect on
muscular strength and endurance leg power or anthropometry when
taken orally by highly trained male athletes over 6 weeks
Kistler (2004) Purpose of the study was to find out the effect
of 8 weeks participation in physical education programme (N=1050)
men were the subject of study The subjects were tested in five
minutes run for distance an obstacle course run for time push-ups
test chinning test and sit-ups test The result of the study showed
that significant improvement was achieved in physical fitness
components ie Strength endurance and agility Further it was found
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
59
that cardio-respiratory endurance was not significantly improved
University men compared favourable with army training
Weber C L and Keogh J C L (2000) studied specific
physiological and skill based characteristics may be related to the
playing position of senior athletes in team sports (1-6) However
physical capacity and skill level of female junior athletes has not been
related to playing position Specialized training of forward back and
midfield hockey players at a junior representative level may be useful
for the successful transition into senior representative hockey The
present study assessed fitness and skill components of female junior
and senior hockey players of the same relative standard (regional
representative) and related performance values to playing position We
hypothesized that no specific performance measure is related to
playing position in female junior hockey players whereas certain
components of fitness are significantly related to playing position in
senior players Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x
40m repeated sprint (7) multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and four skinfolds Skill level was
assessed using pushing power dribbling and accuracy tests Each
player was ranked for athletic ability regardless of position by
coaches and selectors Results indicated that differences exist
between senior and junior female hockey players in several
performance measures No obvious relationship between playing
position and any performance measure was demonstrated in junior
hockey players In contrast senior hockey players demonstrated that
certain characteristics of physical ability are related to playing
position We conclude that playing position is related to particular
physiological based characteristics in senior players only
Keogh J W L Weber C L(2000) Performance in many
sports is reliant on several factors These include tactics mental
toughness physical characteristics and technical skill Significant
differences in physical characteristics (1-3) and skill (4) have been
shown between athletes of different ability within the same sport
However it is unknown if differences in physical characteristics and
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
60
technical skill exist in senior female athletes of different ability If
differences occur in senior female athletes of different ability it would
suggest that less successful female athletes may improve their athletic
performance by focusing on different physical andor skill-based
characteristics
Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the
performance of senior female field hockey players (both regional
representative and amateur) on a number of physical fitness
anthropometric and hockey-related skill tests
Physiological tests included 10m and 40m sprint 6 x 40 m
repeated sprint test (5) Multistage aerobic test standing long jump
agility test body mass height and sum of four skin folds Skill level
was assessed using pushing power as well as dribbling and accuracy
tests Results showed that differences in a number of measures
occurred between the two groups No differences were found on
performance measures between subjects in the follicular or lateral
stage of the menstrual cycle The present study demonstrates that
both physical characteristics and technical skill are important
components of performance in senior female hockey players
Karuonene (2000) Conduct physical fitness test on a large
number of finish secondary school children to find their fitness level
and followed cureton‟s (1999) recommendations with battery of 19
items and found that Balance test Squat stand and dizziness
recovery were considered the poor test Floor touch man lift and
endurance hopes were too poor for boys Extended press up was too
difficult A systematic improvement with age was seen in the standing
broad jump only On the whole it was observed that the test battery
was not satisfactory
Fedotova E(2000)The purpose of this investigation was to
study the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant
differences between both age groups and field position groupsData
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
61
were collected on 135 subjects aged between 10 and 18 practicing
hockey in Special Sport Schools of Olympic Reserve in Moscow All of
them have been studied for height weight lengths breadths girths
skinfolds body composition physical work capacity (PWC170)
respiratory performance (vital capacity) grip strength explosive
strengthIt was found that hockey players of all age groups have
higher values of humeral breadth muscle mass grip strength
explosive strengthPWC170 and lower values of fat and pelvic
breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups The trend of
year‟s increases of parameters studied was analyzed and it was found
that the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters
precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters
of young female athletes Compiling the results of intrasportive
differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey players it
is found that the different categories of players (forwards haves
backs and goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters
studied only from the age of 15-16 (after 6-7 years of practicing in
hockey) The finds of this research will be useful to coach who are
working with young female hockey players It can also be used for
sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice
Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness
and psychological traits of tribal non-tribal high school students on a
sample of 1200 drawn from high altitude Fleishman physical fitness
test battery was used for the purpose She concluded that
1 The tribal (boys and girls) were found superior in explosive
strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls)
2 The non-tribal (boys and girls) were better in extend
flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls)
3 The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic
flexibility to the non-tribal boys
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
62
4 The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the
tribal boys
5 The tribal girls were better in speed and endurance then
the non-tribal girls
6 The non-tribal (boys) of lower altitude were better in
dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal boys of higher
altitude
Anna (2000) Compared the performance of fourth grade
children on the KRAUS-WEBER test to those on the California
Physical Performance test which included the following events
50 yard dash standing broad softball throw sit-ups and push-
ups The result indicated that children who failed in one stretch
item or any two or more items on KRAUS-WEBER test made
lower scores on the average in running jumping throwing and
sit-ups than those who passed all the KRAUS-WEBER test items
Kaur (1999) compared the motor fitness of rural and
urban girls studying in Punjab schools The secondary purpose
of the study was to prepare grading scales in motor fitness for
the school girls studying in grade eleven and twelve In all 4000
girls of grades eleven and twelve were selected as a sample for
the study The AAHPER youth fitness test was used for the
purpose Based on the findings of the study the following
conclusions were drawn
1 Rural girls possessed better shoulders strength than urban
girls
2 Abdomen strength of rural girls was found better than
urban girls
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
63
3 Leg strength of rural girls was found better than urban
girls
4 Agility was found lesser in urban girls than rural girls
5 Cardiovascular endurance was found better in rural girls
than urban girls
Hakkinen (1999) examined the changes in physical fitness
profile during competitive season consisting of a first season for
ten weeks followed by a second season for eleven weeks The
entire season was characterised by 4-5 weekly sessions for
playing drills and competitive games and by 2-3 weekly sessions
for physical conditioning mostly for strength and explosive
strength training Nine members of a female volleyball team
served as experimental subjects and eight other female volleyball
players were the controls Results showed significant increase in
maximal vertical jumping height during competitive season
Kumar (1998) conducted a study on physical fitness of
Himachal Pradesh high and higher secondary school boys The
results had shown that there was a significant linearity from 13
years to 16 years male subjects of Himachal Pradesh in almost
all the fitness components The boys of 16 years age were found
significantly superior than 13 to 15 years boys The 15 years
boys were better than 14 to 13 years boys Similarly 14 years
boys were superior than 13 year boys in all the components of
Fleishman‟s test battery He developed norms for 4 different age
groups
Sharma (1997) conducted a study to construct and
standardize motor fitness for elementary school children of
Delhi His sample included 500 boys and girls The study was
conducted in two phases In the first phase he developed motor
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
64
fitness battery by using factor analysis technique The battery
consisted of five motor fitness tests namely 1 Softball throw 2
Toe touching 3 Double foot balance 4 50 meters dash 5300
meter run walk for girls and boys In the second phase he
developed percentile scale on all the five components of motor
fitness for future use
Sangral (1994) Administered a study on motor fitness
components as predictor of talent in hockey Thirty nine (N=39)
male students were selected as sample of study Ten ball
shooting rolling for 25 meters and dribble and roll for 20
seconds test were used to evaluate the hockey performance
Motor fitness used to evaluate the hockey performance Motor
fitness test ie co-ordination ability standing broad jump 30
metre fly start vertical jump 10X6 meter shuttle run sitting
ball throw 800 metre run and 20 metre backward run were
used The analysis if data showed that 10 ball shooting
significant relationship with co-ordination ability and backward
run for 20 meter Similarly rolling of 20 metre had significant
relationship with standing broad jump 30 metre fly start
vertical jump 10X6 metre shuttle run sitting ball throw 800
metre run and backward run for 20 metre dribble and roll for
20 seconds (distance) The regression equation for prediction
showed different contribution of motor abilities to hockey
performance
Su (1993) the purpose of the study were (a) to develop
health related physical fitness norms for school aged children
and youth(age 7 to 18 years) of Taiwan and (b) to make age and
gender comparison on each of the five physical fitness items The
subjects involved in this study were a randomly selected sample
of children and youth ages 7 to 18 (N= 2368) from Hsinchu
Taiwan The data was collected by a small travelling group of
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
65
trained physical education major students seven stations were
established at each site to collect data Each subject completed
the following test items (a) bent knee sit-ups test (b) pull-ups
test (c) height and weight measurement (d) sit and reach test
(e) modify pull-ups test (f) skinfold measurements and (g) one
mile walk run or half mile walk run
Raw data were converted to percentiles The percentiles for
each test item varied by age Data analysis (Plt0005) indicated
1 Male students did not differ among ages for skinfold
thickness
2 Young female students (7 to 10 years old) did differ from
older female students (16 to 18 years old) in skinflold
thickness
3 Older (16 to 18 years olds) and younger (7 to 10 year old)
students tended to be different in the sit and reach test
4 Male students performed the same in sit-ups after age 10
5 Male students above the 10 score higher on the pull-up
test than all female groups
6 Male students overage 13 did score better than all groups
of female students in the one mile walk run test
Handel (1993) conducted a study to compare the selected
physical fitness variables and anthropometric measures of tribal
and non-tribal students of Himachal Pradesh They were tested
with selected items of AAHPER youth fitness test ie
1 pull-ups
2 sits-ups
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
66
3 50yard dash
4 standing broad jump
5 shuttle run
6 600-runwalk
and selected anthropometric measurements ie chest grith
height weight upper arm grith thigh grith and calf grith In all
tests and measurements the composite mean scores of tribal
students were higher than their non-tribal counter parts but
none of differences in means were found statistically significant
at 05 level of confidence
Chahal (1993) the purpose of this investigation was to
develop task related physical performance standards based on
muscular strength and endurance fitness components and body
composition for male combat soldiers in the Canadian Army
Previously physical fitness standard for the army have been
based on norm reference approach and on fitness test score (non
relevant to occupation) of the normal army population
Representative selected common tasks for the study were
casualty evacuation ammunition box lift maximal effort Jerry
can task maximal effort slit trench dig and weight load march
Following laboratory test batteries were selected and developed
based on the physical requirements of the chosen field tasks (a)
static and dynamic muscular strength test battery (b) static and
dynamic muscular endurance test battery and (c) body
composition variables Laboratory data on 116 randomly
selected male infantry soldiers and field task data on 88 soldiers
from the Canadian forces base in Calgary Alberta was gathered
isometric and isokinetic strength levels of male soldiers were in
agreement with the values reported by other authors for civilian
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
67
male population of similar age groups Soldier had lower
strength levels in comparison to highly trained individuals and
greater than relatively less trained male civil population
Recommended performance standards for the filed tasks were
based on (a) cut off performance suggested by the panel of
subject experts Judges and the researcher (b) soldiers
physiological capabilities to meet job requirements A panel of
expert judges was asked to classify all individuals into pass and
fail groups Then discriminant analysis was used to determine
the linear combination of field tests that maximally
discriminated between the two groups and the resultant
classifications The discriminant analysis results did not support
or refute any of the cut off performance suggested by the expert
judges or the researcher
Shergill (1992) Conducted a study to evaluate the
importance of a set of specific physical fitness components as
contributors in hockey playing abilities Twenty two test items
were selected to measure fitness The sample consist of 100
female players of hockey from four Universities of Punjab ie
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar Panjab University
Chandigarh Punjabi University Patiala and Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana The age range from 18 to 24 years The
multiple regression analysis was applied to analyse data The
result of t ratio showed that endurance run test standing broad
jump grip strength vertical jump wrist flexion age height and
weight were significantly important in evaluating the hockey
performance
Miller(1990) in his study determined whether or not
participation in selected physical education activities affects the
health related physical fitness of college students Subjects
consisted of 228 university students enrolled in either aerobic
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
68
dance archery bowling swimming tennisbadminton or weight
training The FYT program manual served as a guide in defining
the test components and procedure Skinfold thickness was
measured to evaluate body composition The twenty minute
steady state job evaluated cardio-respiratory endurance The sit
and reach test evaluated flexibility through the use of a
flexibility measuring apparatus Muscular strength and
endurance were evaluated by means of the bent knee curl up A
co-related bdquot‟-test was performed to determine whether there was
significant differences in pre test and post test scores of each
items in the test battery For each group ANACOVA was used to
determine the significant difference existed among groups on the
post test scores for the four performance variables Tests of
simple effects were performed to clarify the meaning of
significant interactions A difference was considered significant if
it reached the 05 level Results of the study indicated that a
ten week program of activity had elicited the following effects
1 Aerobic dance and weight training elicit significant
improvements in flexibility and muscular strength
2 Archery bowling and tennis were not effective in the
enhancement of health related physical fitness
3 Swimming elicits a significant improvement in cardio-
respiratory endurance flexibility and muscular strength
and endurance
4 Male could be expected to improve flexible more than the
females following a ten week program of swimming
5 Weight training was the most influential activity in
improving flexibility in females
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
69
6 Swimming was the most influential activity in improving
flexibility in females
Kaur (1989) developed the physical fitness norms for the
high school girls of Punjab state belonging to the age group of 12
to 15 years The subjects were selected from the various urban
and rural schools of Punjab Sample consisted of 4000 students
by using Fleishman‟s Test battery In this study she concluded
that the lower performance level of rural students in most of the
physical fitness variables as compared to their urban counter
parts The percentile norms for the physical fitness test were
valid and suitable to assess the physical fitness level of school
girls She observed that the subjects belonging to urban
residence were significantly superior to rural subjects in terms
of dynamic flexibility arm and shoulder strength arm hand and
shoulder strength and trunk strength variables But the results
were not found to be significant between the rural and urban
girls against extent flexibility speed of change of direction
explosive strength endurance level of arms and shoulders co-
ordinative ability cardio-vascular endurance and speed of
running The four age steps were found significantly different
from each other against most of the physical fitness variables
while there were no significant differences in a few variables
between some age steps
Uppal and Datta (1988) Studied the motor fitness
components as predictors of hockey performance seventy four
male hockey players of different Universities of Indian secured
as the subject of the study The motor fitness component
included speed strength power agility flexibility dynamic
balance and kinesthetic perception trait Field hockey rating
scale secured as the criterion measure to evaluate the playing
ability It was concluded on the basis of results yielded by the
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
70
study that motor fitness components of speed grip strength
(both right and left hand) agility balance and kinesthetic
perception contribute to hockey playing ability where as power
and flexibility are not significant contributors to hockey
performance
Titchenal et al (1988) investigated the effects of exercise
on skinfold (SF) thickness was assessed in 21 male runners (age
25 to 73 years) measurements were made before and after
running a 422 Kms marathonTo ensure that measurements
were made to identical SF sites before and after exercise the
chest abdomen and thigh were marked in ink Mean finishing
time was 246+ 18 minutes ranging from 188 to 357 minutes
Body weights was reduced during the marathon by 23 + 02 kg
(P 00001) Some of SFS was increased in 17 men unchanged in
three and decreased I n one changes ranged from -05 to +80
mm Using the equation of Jackson (1980) Percent body fat was
overestimated after exercise by 07 to +02 percentage points (P
00001) with changes ranging from -02 to 25 percentage points
Consequently percentage body fat was overestimated by an
average of 7 percent (range -2 to 26 percent) Pronounced pitting
edema was observed suggesting that increased SF thickness
was due to transient subcutaneous edema
Sally et al(1988) Studied to determine if participating in
six week of resistive exercise training would alter the somato
type ratings and skinfold values of a groups of college aged
women ANOVA was used to determine the prior to the training
there was no significant difference between the resistive exercise
(RE N=30) group and the control (C N=10) on any of the
variables measured Training however resulted in significant (P
005) increase in static knee flexion strength and static knee
extension strength RE static elbow extension strength did not
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
71
increase significantly and there were no significant alternations
in any of three components of Health Centre somato types The
skinfolds evaluated only the calf skinfold exhibited a significant
decrease (P 005) with training These results suggest that
although college aged women may experience significant
strength increase in short-term resistive exercise alterations in
somato type are not likely Furthermore initial somato type
ratings do not seem to substantially influence training effects
Simpson (1987) observed the subjects selected for the
study consisted of 132 students enrolled in physical education
activity courses at Tarleton State University Experimental
groups selected included those students enrolled in weight
training aerobic dance and racquet ball A control group was
also analysed in this study and consisted of those students
enrolled in archery Pre test procedure involved evolution of body
composition by skinfold measurements and cardio-respiratory
endurance by the 15 mile run In addition Flexibility was
measured by the sit and reach test and dynamic strength by the
sit up test Following completion of program activities identical
procedures were used to collect post test data A correlation bdquot‟-
test performed to determine if there were significant difference in
pre test and post test scores of each item in the test battery An
analysis of co-variance was calcutated on the post test scores for
the four performances variables to determine significant
differences among groups Tukey‟s HSD was used to locate the
differences A difference was considered significant if it reach 05
level Results of the study indicated that all groups experienced
significant changes due to participation in the program
activities Subjects involved in the weight training and aerobic
dance groups experienced significant positive changes in body
composition flexibility and dynamic strength The racquet ball
groups observed positive changes in flexibility and dynamic
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
72
strength The control group experienced significant negative
changes in cardio-respiratory endurance
Singh (1986) conducted a study to develop physical
fitness norms of Punjab State high school boys He randomly
selected 5000 high school boys of Punjab state The sample
included rural and urban subjects in equal numbers for the
collection of data He included following test items
1 Standing Broad Jump
2 Sit and Reach Test
3 Agility Run
4 Sit-up Bent Knee
5 50 meter Dash
6 Push-ups (Chair)
7 Cricket Ball Throw
8 600 meters RunWalk
He observed significant difference in number of test items
between urban and rural school boys Significant relationship
between age and performance of the subjects was also observed
The test items were standardised through the development of
percentile norms which was found to be suitable to assess the
physical fitness of Punjab state high school boys ranging 12 to
15 years age
Singh (1986) conducted a normative study of physical
fitness Panjab University men students He applied Fleishman‟s
tests battery on 4000 male students belonging to the various
colleges affiliated to Panjab University to collect the data The
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
73
subjects ranged between 17 to 22 years of age He found
linearity of physical fitness status according to age The
students of rural areas were significantly superior in all the test
items than urban students He developed percentile norms and
established their reliability subjectivity and validity
Haywod et al (1986) observed the development of
strength and flexibility in adults is enhanced by training in
competitive sports Much less is known about such Physiologic
changes in young children The present study compared the
effects of training between female gymnasts and swimmers aged
7 to 12 years Anthropometric measures specific and general
strength tests and flexibility measures were taken Swimmers
were significantly taller heavier and had greater lean body
weight than gymnasts although there was no significant
difference between the two groups waist girth specific arm
pulling strength and ankle and trunk flexibility reflected
possible differential involvement of body areas in the two sports
Participants appeared to maintain flexibility and percent fat over
the seven to twelve years age range while increasing body size
and strength during that time Involvement in these two sports
make positive contributions towards body composition strength
and flexibility in young girls
In 1986 the AAHPERD health related fitness tests
measures back and hamstring flexibility 825 young female were
administered to trails of three tests The measurement included
the sit and reach test passive hamstring flexibility The
correlations between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility upper back flexibility and lower back flexibility were
low These findings indicate the sit and reach test had moderate
criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in health related fitness test
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
74
Philip (1985) studied the effect of age on physical
performance of elementary schools boys in grade one through
six The thirty subjects were randomly selected from each class
The age of subject ranged form 5 years 9 months to 12 years 2
months 12 tests were conducted to judge the motor
performance of the subjects The study showed that motor
performance score increased with age and flexibility tended to
decrease with age
Massicotte et al (1985) took up the study to verify the
validity of specific parameters of cardio-respiratory endurance
and anthropometric measurements that existed amongst
the young on a run of 1600 meters for 10 to 12 years old and
2400 meters for 13 to 17 years old children The sample was
randomly selected and was comprised of 159 boys and 162 girls
aged 10 to 17 years old The endurance test was performed on
an external surface During the three days prior to or following
the tests on the course the Vo2 Max was measured while the
subjects performed a maximum workload on the bicycle
ergometer The correlation between the time and complete the
run and the Vo2 Max varied from 062 and 084 for the different
age and sex groups The correlations were similar for both sexes
for the 1600 meters while the value was higher for the girls on
the 2400 meters distance
A study was undertaken by Johnson (1985) to determine
the relationship between power output as measured by the
Maargariakalamen (Mg K) power test in a selected number of
power events in track and field and basket ball The test was
conducted on male college athletes and basket ball playersThree
such problems were also investigated
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
75
1 The determination of objectivity and validity of the Mg
K power test
2 Validity of the sergeant jump test and 50 yard dash as
measures of power and
3 Validity of the Lewis Noromogram as a measure of lower
extremity power The test results indicated no
significant relationship between power output as
measured by Mg power test and selected power events
Other finding indicated that the sergeant jump test 50
yard dash and lewis normogran were valid power tests
A survey was conducted by Summer (1984) to assess the motor
performance of three and four years old children A test-retest
evaluation was conducted with a sample population of 30
subjects to determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments The data collected by the survey was then tested by
use of correlations and t-test The findings of the study revealed
that majority of 24 test items selected for the instrument were
found to be valid and reliable measures for three and four years
old children
Barbanti (1982) conducted a study on 2342 boys and
girls enrolled in public school system in Brazil during 1982
school years A trained team collected to anthropometric
measurements administered the health related physical fitness
test battery and in two tests of athletic ability it was revealed
that
1 For selected Brazilian school population ages 6 to 14
years height and weight of both sexes increased at
approximately same rate
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
76
2 Brazilian girls had higher values than boys for triceps
subscapular skinfold measurement and in sit and reach
test
3 Brazilian boys performed better than Brazilian girls in
modified sit-up test nine minute run test 50 meter dash
test and standing long jump test
4 The comparison between norms for Brazilian and American
boys and girls showed that American boys and girls in
general were taller and heavier and had higher scores in
sit and reach test modified sit-up test 50 meter dash test
and standing long jump test
Shirda (1981) compared the physical fitness level of Iraqui
children with AAHPER youth fitness test norms Data was
collected by administering the youth physical fitness test to 545
children between 10-17 years of age in Basrah The findings of
the study revealed that Iraqui children in Basrah showed
performance that in an absolute sense exceeded the American
norm by 15 times At early ages (10-12) performance for both
boys and girls of both the countries were similar
Wharton (1980) Using the AAHPER youth fitness test as
predictors of skill development in field hockey on 107 senior
high school girls who had no previous field hockey training
found that a significant relationship existed between the scores
on the youth fitness test and field hockey achievement as
measured by the schmithals French field hockey achievement
tests
From the above studies of related literature it is clear that
physique and body composition has significant contribution in
the execution of skills and also in the achievement of better
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study
77
performance in the field of games and sports So it is obligatory
on the part of the physical educationists and research scientists
in the field to investigate such variables and combination of
anthropometric variables which are essential ingredients for
better performance of participants If the investigator may
become able to find such relations and are in such a position to
develop regression equation for the performance then it will be a
great contribution to the profession without wasting more energy
and time the suitable physique and body composition may be
evolved for the particular participant in a particular games and
sport
CHAPTER ndash III
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the procedure adopted for the selection of
subjects reliability of data selection of variables collection of
data and statistical technique for analysing the data have been
described
Selection of Subjects
The subjects for the present study consisted of hockey players
who participated at university level
200 subjects from the various universities who participated in
the north zone inter-university level competitions were selected for the
present study