ATTRA is the national sustainable agriculture information service operated by the National Centerfor Appropriate Technology under a grant from the Rural Business-Cooperative Service, U.S.Department of Agriculture. These organizations do not recommend or endorse products,companies, or individuals. ATTRA is headquartered in Fayetteville, Arkansas (P.O. Box 3657,Fayetteville, AR 72702), with offices in Butte, Montana and Davis, California.

By Lance E. GegnerNCAT Agriculture SpecialistApril 2002

LIVESTOCK TECHNICAL NOTE

Predator Control forSustainable & OrganicLivestock Production

IntrIntrIntrIntrIntroductionoductionoductionoductionoductionThis publication is intended as a guide to raise producers� awareness of predation, identify poten-

tial predator problem areas, and suggest management practices to prevent predation. Because everyperson and every pasture is different, there is no way that any or all of these predator control prac-tices will achieve perfect predator management, but they can help reduce the number of livestockkilled by predators. As Anita O�Brien explains in the Ontario (Canada) Ministry of Agriculture, Foodand Rural Affairs publication Management Practices Can Influence Predation:

©w

ww.

artto

day.

com

200

2

Table of ContentsIntroduction ...................................................................................................................................1Livestock Dead or Missing ............................................................................................................2Is a Predator Responsible? ...........................................................................................................2Management Techniques to Minimize Predator Losses ...............................................................4Guard Animals .............................................................................................................................. 8References ..................................................................................................................................12Further Resources ......................................................................................................................13Appendix: Disposal of Dead Livestock .......................................................................................16

For managing predation, a variety of methods mustbe available; one method will not be effective forevery producer. Most successful predator controlprograms use an integrated approach�combininggood husbandry with effective control methods.Prevention cannot be stressed enough, becauseafter predators kill once they are more than likelyto return and kill again. If predators have startedkilling sheep, it is important to stop the killing asquickly as possible. (1)

The following information is directed mainly to-ward predator control in sheep and goat production,but it relates to all species of livestock: cattle, goats,sheep, pigs, poultry, and horses as well as other live-stock species and even pets. All of these species, par-ticularly the young animals, are potential prey forpredators.

//PREDATOR CONTROL FOR SUSTAINABLE & ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIONPAGE 2

LivLivLivLivLivestocestocestocestocestock Dead or Missingk Dead or Missingk Dead or Missingk Dead or Missingk Dead or MissingLivestock deaths and disappearances have

many causes, including predators, parasites, bac-terial and viral diseases, poisonous plants, suf-focation, bloat, exposure, lightning, theft or rus-tling, and still birth. Evidence of predators feed-ing on a carcass may not be proof of a predatorproblem, because most predators will scavengeon dead livestock, even if they didn�t kill it (2).Proof of predation will usually be found when alarger animal is killed, but the disappearance ofsmall or newborn animals may also be a sign ofa predator problem.

Is a PrIs a PrIs a PrIs a PrIs a Predaedaedaedaedator Rtor Rtor Rtor Rtor Responsibesponsibesponsibesponsibesponsible?le?le?le?le?Predators�such as coyotes, dogs, bears,

mountain lions, foxes, eagles, hawks, feral hogs,feral cats, wolves, and even ravens�kill sheepand lambs, goats and kids, calves, piglets, foals,and other small livestock and pets throughoutthe United States (3). The loss of livestock topredators can sometimes make the differencebetween profit and loss for a livestock producer.According to the National Agricultural StatisticsService (NASS) report Sheep and Goats PredatorLoss, U.S. sheep and lamb losses from animalpredators totaled 273,000 during 1999. The re-port shows that coyotes and dogs caused morethan 75 percent of the losses. This representedmore than one-third of the total losses of sheepand lambs from all causes, and resulted in a lossexceeding $16 million (4).

According to the Ontario Ministry of Agri-culture, Food and Rural Affairs publicationSomething�s Been Killing My Sheep � But What?How to Differentiate Between Coyote and Dog Pre-dation, predation has risen rapidly over the past10 to 15 years, causing ever more serious finan-cial losses to sheep operations. Ontario sheepproducers reported almost three times moresheep lost in 1995 (3,060) than were lost in 1986(1,149). The study found that the total wouldprobably be higher, but that losses caused bydogs, domestic and feral, were not included norwere animals killed but not found (5).

Differentiating a predator-caused death fromother types of livestock deaths can be a problem,especially if the carcass has begun to decomposeor has been scavenged. To differentiate betweenpredator-caused and natural death, the producerwill need to examine the general external appear-ance of the carcass, such as coat condition, theappearance of the eyes and ears, the feces (firmor diarrhea), even the position of the carcass (ani-mals dying of natural causes usually die on theirsides or on their chests, with their legs foldedunder them) (6).

Although the pattern of killing typical of apredator species can sometimes help identify theproblem predator, an individual�s killing stylecan overlap the killing style of another species.Other types of evidence, such as tracks and fe-ces, are sometimes necessary to correctly iden-tify the responsible predator species (2).

Predator Number of Head % of Total Predators Total Value Number Percent 1,000 DollarsCoyotes 165,800 60.7 9,637Dogs 41,300 15.1 2,982Mountain Lions, Cougars, or Pumas 15,600 5.7 998Bears 7,800 2.9 555Foxes 8,100 3 400Eagles 10,700 3.9 522Bobcats 12,700 4.7 650All Other Animals 11,000 4 758

US 273,000 100 16,502

Table 1. Losses of Sheep and Lambs from Predators:Number of Head and Total Value, United States, 1999.

Reference NASS (4)

//PREDATOR CONTROL FOR SUSTAINABLE & ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION PAGE 3

The Wildlife Services (WS) section of theUSDA/Animal and Plant Health Inspection Ser-vice (APHIS) works with farmers and ranchersto protect agricultural resources in a way that ispractical, humane, effective, and environmen-tally sound. They can help identify predatorsand offer remedies that will minimize their im-pact on wildlife (7). Each state�s Wildlife Serviceactivity report, along with the state WS contactinformation, is available at <http://www.aphis.usda.gov /ws/statereportindex.html>.

An excellent publication, Procedures for Evalu-ating Predation on Livestock and Wildlife, is locatedat <http://texnat.tamu.edu/ranchref/predator/b-1429-2.htm>. It provides details on many ofthe observations that are needed to determinewhether a predator is the cause of the livestock�sdeath. It also provides specific information onthe typical killing patterns for most of the preda-tor species.

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage�1994 has separate chapters for more than 90 spe-cies of wildlife that maycause damage to crops orlivestock. Each of thesechapters covers identifica-tion, damage prevention,and control methods. Thebook is available at <http://deal .unl .edu/icwdm/handbook.shtml>. The 90species-chapters are listedalphabetically. The book isalso available on CD-ROMor in paper copy. (See Further Resources: Books,for ordering information.)

The 36-page Alberta Agriculture, Food andRural Development publication Methods of Inves-tigating Predation of Livestock outlines how to tellwhether a predator killed an animal and how toidentify the predator. (See Further Resources:Books, for ordering information).

The Maryland Small Ruminant website�Predator and wildlife management� is a richsource of information, with links to many differ-ent sites and publications covering all areas ofpredator-damage control and management. It islocated at <http://www.sheepandgoat.com/predator.html>.

COYOTES AND DOGS AS PREDATORS

When stock is killed or missing, the predatorresponsible is most likely either a coyote or a dog.According to the NASS report Sheep and GoatsPredator Loss (see Table 1), in 1999 coyotes anddogs caused more than 75 percent of all sheeplost to predators, with the losses to coyotes top-ping 60 percent. Coyotes have become a prob-lem in almost all of the United States, Canada,and Mexico. The state Wildlife Service can verifythe legal status of coyotes in your state; contactinformation is available at <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ws/statereportindex .html>.Most states allow coyotes to be shot or trappedat any time, if they are causing damage, but somestates have different regulations or specific hunt-ing seasons only.

In some cases, the producer may have diffi-culty trying to decide whether a coyote, aneighbor�s dog, or their own dog was the killer.The Ontario publication Something�s Been KillingMy Sheep � But What? How to Differentiate Be-

tween Coyote and Dog Pre-dation lists ten criteriathat can help determinethe culprit. They are:time of attack; durationof attack; temperamentof flock; extent of attackor kill; location of attackor carcasses; target ani-mals; attacking behav-ior; feeding behavior;tracks at site; and drop-pings (5). The publica-

tion is available at <http://www.gov.on.ca/OMAFR/english/livestock/sheep/facts/coydog2.htm>.

Some of the criteria to distinguish betweencoyote and dog predation are:

� Coyotes tend to kill quickly, at night or earlydawn, by biting sheep on the throat just be-hind the jaw and under the ears.

� Coyotes will generally kill only one or twoanimals, and only close to areas with plentyof cover to allow the coyotes to escape. Coy-otes eat their kill by first feeding on the ab-dominal cavity.

©www.arttoday.com 2002

//PREDATOR CONTROL FOR SUSTAINABLE & ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIONPAGE 4

� Coyotes are probably responsible if lambs orsmall animals are missing, because coyoteswill take smaller animals back to their den,especially when feeding their pups.

� Dogs will attack at any time of the day ornight.

� Dogs are usually poor predators and their at-tacks last much longer, affecting more of theflock, so the animals are more nervous andconfused after the attack.

� Dogs usually attack sheep or other livestockfor the chase, not for food. Dog attacks usu-ally cause more slashing and ripping woundsand the mutilation of legs, ears, tails andhindquarters, on both the dead and surviv-ing animals (5).

The 31-page Alberta book Coyote Predation ofLivestock provides information to help produc-ers prevent or reduce losses from coyotes. (SeeFurther Resources: Books, for ordering informa-tion.)

If a dog or pack of dogs is the culprit, whatcan the producer do? The Ontario publicationFamily Dogs Attack Sheep cites an Australian studyof 1,400 dogs that attacked livestock. In thestudy, the authorities used trained tracking dogsto follow the offending dogs home. The authori-ties found that most of the dog owners wouldnot believe that their dogs had attacked the live-stock. Most of the owners believed that theirdogs were either too small, young, or friendly tocommit such an act. Nonetheless, the publica-tion states:

The researchers caught dogs from 3 months to12 years of age, intact and sterilized dogs ofboth sexes, purebred and mongrel; all attackinglivestock. Most of these dogs were well fed,friendly, family pets, running at large. Selec-tive breeding has not suppressed the tendencyof any breed of dog to attack and kill livestock.Animal behaviorists say it is not possible topredict whether a particular dog will attacksheep or not.

...Owners should understand the reason why adog attacks sheep�it�s all for the love of thegame. (8)

Dr. C. V. Ross, in his book Sheep Productionand Management, suggests that livestock produc-ers need to know their legal rights concerningthe control of dogs in their area. He explains thatthere is a great variation in dog laws. Livestockowners �have the right to protect their propertyfrom damage, but there are all kinds of varia-tions in the interpretation of protecting propertyand therein lies the basis for many bitter andcostly lawsuits� (9). Livestock producers havelost cases in court when they have resorted tokilling dogs on their property that were notcaught in the immediate act of killing livestock.

WOLVES AS PREDATORS

In states such as Minnesota and Wisconsinwhere wolves have been reintroduced, the pro-ducer needs to consider the increased challengeof protecting livestock from these adaptablepredators. In most states where wolves havebeen reintroduced, livestock killed by wolves iscompensated for by the state, upon presentationof evidence that it was a wolf kill. The publica-tion Wolves in Farm Country: A Guide for Minne-sota Farmers and Ranchers Living in Wolf Territoryprovides information on what to do if a wolf killis suspected, whom to contact, and how to pre-serve the evidence. It is available at <http://www.mda.state.mn.us/AMS/wolf.htm>. Thepublication cautions:

Wolves are protected under federal law. It isillegal to harm or kill a wolf, except in defense ofhuman life. Any attempt to frighten awaywolves returning to kill other animals or to feedon dead livestock must be done without harm-ing the wolf . (10)

The Canadian Federation of Agriculture pub-lication Preventing Wolf Predation on Private Landprovides some specific methods to reduce wolfpredation, but remember that the wolf is not pro-tected in Canada and that hunting, trapping, andsnaring are permitted there. The publication isavailable at <http://www.cfa-fca.ca/english/publications/wildlife/wolf.htm>.

ManaManaManaManaManagggggement Tement Tement Tement Tement Tececececechniques tohniques tohniques tohniques tohniques toMinimizMinimizMinimizMinimizMinimize Pre Pre Pre Pre Predaedaedaedaedator Lossestor Lossestor Lossestor Lossestor LossesAll management techniques have advantages

and disadvantages. Some will work for one pro-ducer, while others will work for another. Be-

//PREDATOR CONTROL FOR SUSTAINABLE & ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION PAGE 5

cause every livestock operation is different, notall of these management suggestions are practi-cal for everyone. It is important for producers tocombine the management techniques best suitedto their operations with the most effective preda-tor control methods for their circumstances.

FENCING

Specially constructed woven (mesh) wire orelectric fencing can be a useful tool in a manage-ment strategy for deterring predators. TheUSDA/APHIS publication A Producers Guide toPreventing Predation of Livestock states:

The success of various types of fencing inexcluding predators ranges from zero to 100percent. Density and behavior of coyotes,terrain and vegetative conditions, availability ofprey, size of pastures, season of the year, designof the fence, quality of construction, mainte-nance, and other factors interplay in determin-ing how effective a fence will be. Fencing ismost likely to be cost effective when the poten-tial for predation is high, where there is apotential for a high stocking rate, or whereexisting fences can be electrified. Fencing ismore effective when incorporated with othermeans of predator control. (11)

Fencing is most successful if it is strung be-fore the predator has established a pattern ofmovement. If coyotes have been feeding on live-stock in a pasture, the construction of a fence willprobably not deter them, since they already rec-ognize the livestock as a food source. TheUSDA/APHIS publication comments that �be-cause predator exclusion fences may restrictmovement of other wild species, especially large

game animals, Federal or State regulations mayprohibit construction of effective fences in someareas� (11).

Building a new mesh or woven wire fencefor predator management can be expensive. Aproperly constructed 5½- to 6-foot mesh wirefence should have horizontal spacing of less than6 inches and vertical spacing of 2 to 3 inches. Itshould have barbed wire at ground level andbarbed wire, electric wire, or wire overhangs ontop to help deter predators that will climb or digunder fences.

The construction cost for multiple strands ofsingle-wire electric fencing can be lower than thecost of new mesh fencing. Seven or nine strandsof high-tensile smooth wire, with alternatingcharged and grounded wires (beginning with acharged bottom wire) can help reduce predation.A Canadian predation study in the mid 1970sshowed a 90 percent reduction in sheep lost topredation in pastures with electrified fences (12).Electric fences require maintenance to ensureproper livestock protection, and snow and fro-zen ground can greatly reduce the effectivenessof electric fencing (12).

Adding electric wires at the top and electrictrip wires to the bottom and middle of a meshfence that is in good condition can help make itan effective predator barrier and is probably morecost effective than replacement. An electric tripwire placed about 6 inches off the ground and 8inches outside the woven wire fence will helpprevent predators from digging under it. Elec-tric wires added to the top and at various inter-vals along the woven wire fence will discouragepredators from climbing or jumping the fence.C

ourte

sy o

f Can

adia

n Fe

dera

tion

of A

gric

ultu

re

Cou

rtesy

of C

anad

ian

Fede

ratio

n of

Agr

icul

ture

//PREDATOR CONTROL FOR SUSTAINABLE & ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIONPAGE 6

Detailed information on building fences isavailable from the following sources:

� The Alberta publication Protecting Livestockfrom Predation with Electric Fencing is availableat <http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdex/600/684-7.html>

� The 47-page book Fencing with Electricity, pub-lished by Alberta Agriculture, Food and Ru-ral Development Publication Office, is in-tended to help producers choose and buildthe right electric fence for their operation.(See Further Resources: Books, for orderinginformation.)

� The book ...May Safely Graze: Protecting Live-stock Against Predators by Eugene Fytche hasa chapter on predator control fencing. (SeeFurther Resources: Books, for ordering infor-mation.)

� The article �Sheep In, Coyotes Out: High Ten-sile Electric Fencing� is available at <http://www.suitee101.com/print_article.cfm/9948/63040>.

� The chapter entitled �Fencing Against Preda-tors� from the Sheep Production Handbook isonline at <http://sheepusa.org/resource/handbook/chpredtr.htm>.

� The 1983 Oregon State University publicationBuilding an Electric Antipredator Fence is onlineat <http://eesc.orst.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/PNW225.pdf>.

� The Maryland Small Ruminant Webpage isan excellent source of fencing information. Italso links to many publications on fencing,as well as many fencing vendors. Go to< h t t p : / / w w w . s h e e p a n d g o a t . c o m /fencing.html>.

RECORD KEEPING

Accurate records provide a ready way toknow when livestock is missing from a pasture.Knowing quickly that a loss has occurred helpsspeed the response to a predator problem. Inaddition, knowing the exact number and loca-

tion of the losses can help establish the preda-tion pattern and identify problem areas on thefarm or ranch (1).

NIGHT CONFINEMENT CLOSE TORESIDENCES

Because many predators, including the coy-ote, are usually active between dusk and dawn,penning livestock in predator-proof pens at nightshould reduce losses. In addition, some preda-tors are reluctant to approach any place wherehumans are present. Livestock will learn to cometo the secure pens when they are regularlypenned at night. Additional labor and mainte-nance of facilities may be required (13).

LAMBING IN SHEDS OR SECURE LOTS

Lambing in sheds or secure lots can reducelosses to predators. Shed lambing allows theproducer greater access to the sheep to assist withlambing and will also provide the opportunityfor lambing earlier in the season. The main dis-advantages of shed lambing are the initial costof the shed and the additional labor needed. Thecosts will vary depending on the accessibility oflambing facilities and feed, plus the availabilityof additional labor (14).

PROMPT REMOVAL OF ALL DEADLIVESTOCK

Dead animals attract coyotes and other scav-enging predators. Unless the dead animals areremoved, the predators will become accustomedto the taste of livestock. Coyotes may dependon dead animals to remain in livestock-raisingareas (13). One Canadian study indicates thaton farms that promptly removed dead livestock,predator losses were lower than on farms wheredead livestock were not removed (14). See theAppendix for information on various livestockdisposal methods.USING LARGER LIVESTOCK IN ROUGHERPASTURES WITH HISTORY OF PREDATOR

PROBLEMS

Pastures with a history of predator problemsshould be avoided�especially during lambing.Pastures with rough terrain or dense vegetationprovide good cover for predators. Placing onlylarger animals in these pastures will usually re-duce the incidence of predation (11).

//PREDATOR CONTROL FOR SUSTAINABLE & ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION PAGE 7

NOISE, LIGHT, AND VISUAL DEVICES

Predators can display uncanny abilities tooutwit the producer�s attempts to protect live-stock. Producers may need to use two or morepractices concurrently, and probably will needto vary the practices occasionally. Most preda-tors are wary of any changes in their territory andwill shy away from anything different until theybecome familiar with it. There are several de-vices that help discourage predators.

Electronic GuardDeveloped by the USDA/APHIS/Wildlife

Service, the Electronic Guard is a light-sensingdevice that is activated at dusk and de-activatedat dawn. It combines a strobe light and a sirengoing off in random order. This random arrange-ment helps prevent predators from becomingaccustomed to it. According to William Paul andPhilip Gipson, authors of �Wolves,� in Preven-tion and Control of Wildlife Damage�1994, the Elec-tronic Guard may be useful for up to four monthsin reducing livestock predation. They say that itis most effective in small open pastures, aroundpenned livestock (15). Specific information onthe use of the Electronic Guard is available at<http://www.aphis/usda/gov/oa/pubs/eguard.html>. Producers can contact their stateWildlife Service to see whether there is an Elec-tronic Guard to rent; contact information for stateWildlife Services is available at <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ws/statereportindex.html>. The Electronic Guard costs about $270,not including the battery. An Electronic Guardcan be ordered by writing the WS Pocatello Sup-ply Depot, 238 E. Dillon St., Pocatello, ID 83201orby calling (208) 236�6920.

Night LightingLighting corrals at night may serve to frighten

some predators away, but may also attract roam-ing dogs to the stock. Lights will allow the pro-ducer to see any predators that are in the pen.Lighting doesn�t usually affect the livestock andthey adapt quickly (11). In a 1977 Kansas studyinvolving 100 Kansas sheep producers, lightingcorrals at night had the clearest effect on lossesfrom predators. Of the 79 sheep killed by coy-otes in corrals, only 3 were lost in corrals withlights (16).

Propane ExploderPropane exploders produce loud explosions

at random intervals. They work best when the

interval is fairly short and the location is changedevery couple of days. The Predator Defense In-stitute website publication Controlling CoyoteDamage to Livestock says that the exploders areeffective only temporarily, because coyotes be-come accustomed to the noise (13).

BellsProducers have put bells on sheep for years

to discourage predators; however, no data estab-lishes the usefulness of this practice. Bells helpto locate the sheep or to alert the producer topredator trouble in the flock (11).

RadioAccording to the Predator Defense Institute,

�Use of a tractor radio or other loud radio tunedto an all night station (especially talk radio) is atleast temporarily effective at deterring coyotes�(13).

Parking Vehicle in Area of LossParking a car or pickup near the area where

losses are occurring may temporarily deter coy-otes, especially if the vehicle is moved frequently(16).

Other Visual and Noise DistractionsEugene L. Fytche, author of ...May Safely

Graze, cites a producer who used visual distrac-tions around the edges of his pasture. These in-cluded large pieces of styrofoam, wheel discs andaluminum pie plates, wind chimes, plastic oilcontainers filled with a variety of liquids, bal-loons, old clothes, and whatever came to hand.Fytche commented that the producer didn�t haveany losses in three years despite living in a high-risk area (17).

//PREDATOR CONTROL FOR SUSTAINABLE & ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIONPAGE 8

GuarGuarGuarGuarGuard Animalsd Animalsd Animalsd Animalsd AnimalsDogs, donkeys, and llamas can all serve as

full-time guard animals. Which animal or ani-mals are best depends on the type of livestock,the number and kind of predators, the type ofterrain and acreage of pasture, as well as theproducer�s personal preferences. The effective-ness of any of these guard animals will also de-pend on the bonding, training, instincts, and tem-perament of individual animals. All guard ani-mals require an investment of time and money,and there is no guarantee that they will be suc-cessful.

Sometimes a single guard animal will not beenough to protect the livestock. Several guarddogs can be used to patrol larger areas or to worktogether to better protect against packs of preda-tors. A llama and guard dog combination can betrained to work cooperatively, but donkeys orllamas will not properly bond to livestock if morethan one of their own species is present with thelivestock. Rotational grazing can sometimeshelp, because the livestock are confined to asmaller area, allowing guard animals to be moreeffective.

Producers should research the costs and ad-vantages of the various guard animals, and seekadvice from other producers in the area withguard animal experience. Producers need to re-member that guard animals by themselves willprobably not be successful without implemen-tation of other predator control methods. No onepredator control method will solve everyproducer�s predator problem, but combining sev-eral methods can help.

Some good general information on livestockguard animals is available from:

� The Maryland Small Ruminant webpage�Predator and wildlife management,� an ex-cellent source of information on all types ofguard animals, <http://www.sheepandgoat.com/predator.html>.

� The Missouri Department of Conservationpublication Using Guard Animals to ProtectLivestock at <http://www.conservation.state.mo.us/documents/ landown/wi ld/guard_animals.pdf>.

� The book ...May Safely Graze: Protecting Live-stock Against Predators by Eugene Fytche,which has several chapters on different guardanimals. (See Further Resources: Books, forordering information.)

GUARD DOGS

Livestock-guarding dogs originated in Eu-rope and Asia. Most are large (80�120 pounds) ,mainly white breeds. Guard dogs do not herdsheep; they are full-time members of the flock.They stay with or near the flock most of the timeand aggressively protect the sheep. In some in-stances guard dogs may injure the stock they areguarding or attack other animals, such as petsthat enter their territory. They may also confrontunfamiliar people (hikers, etc.) who approach thelivestock. Producers using guard dogs shouldpost signs to alert passers-by, and escort visitorsgoing near the sheep (18). Neighbors should alsobe notified that you are using a guard dog, be-cause a patrolling guard dog may be mistakenfor a predator dog.

Usually, a successful guard dog is a standardguard breed that has been properly reared andtrained. However, sometimes despite goodbreeding and training, a dog just won�t guardproperly. Many, but not all, of these failures traceback to improper rearing or to the dog being tooold to bond with the sheep. Research and sur-veys indicate that only about three-fourths ofguard dogs are temperamentally suited to beinggood guardians (18). In order to properly raisethe best guard dog, the producer needs to un-derstand what a good guard dog does, assess thetemperament of the pup, and raise it correctly.

Courtesy of Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa

//PREDATOR CONTROL FOR SUSTAINABLE & ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION PAGE 9

The nearest office of the USDA/APHIS Wild-life Services (WS) should have additional infor-mation about using dogs to guard livestock.State WS contact information is available at<http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ws/statereportindex.html>.

The USDA/APHIS/WS has two predatorprevention publications, Livestock Guarding DogsProtecting Sheep from Predators, and A ProducersGuide to Preventing Predation of Livestock, as wellas a loaner video on using guardian dogs. Thesefree publications and the video are available bycontacting USDA/APHIS/LPA, Wildlife ServicePublications, 4700 River Road, Unit 51, Riverdale,Maryland 20737, or by phone at (301) 734�7799.The publications are also available at <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/oa/pubs/guarddog.pdf>or </prodguide.pdf>.

Additional information about using guard-ian dogs is also available by contacting any ofthese USDA/APHIS/WS specialists: Roger A.Woodruff (19), Jim Luchsinger (20), or Jeffrey S.Green (21).

Additional information on livestock guarddogs is available at:

� The 1988 Oregon State University publicationRaising and Training a Livestock-guarding Dog,

available for $1.50 (postage and shipping in-cluded) from Publications Orders, Extension& Station Communications, Oregon StateUniversity, 422 Kerr Administration,Corvallis, OR 97331�2119, (541) 737-2513, orat <http://eesc.orst.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/EC1238.pdf>.

� The 2001 book Dogs: A Startling New Under-standing of Canine Origin, Behavior, and Evolu-tion by Raymond Coppinger and LornaCoppinger, Scribner Publisher, ISBN #: 0-684-85530-5, which has an excellent chapter onLivestock Guardian Dogs. This book is avail-able from Amazon.com and many otherbookstores.

� The C&C Farm website, <http://www.c-c-farms.com>, a good source of practical infor-mation on guard dogs. C&C Farm�s BeverlyCoate is the author of the book Ain�t LifeGrand with a Great Pyrenees Guarding the Flock.(See Further Resources: Books, for orderinginformation.)

DONKEYSDonkeys make good guard animals because

they naturally hate dogs and coyotes, are notafraid of them, and like to intimidate them. Don-keys also are social animals that will associatewith other species of livestock in the absence ofother donkeys; however, it can take a donkey fourto six weeks to fully bond with a sheep flock.Because they can eat what the sheep eat, guarddonkeys can be low-maintenance; however, it isalso important to feed the donkey something atthe same time the sheep are fed. This will helpthe donkey understand that if it stays by the flockit will not miss a meal. Do not overfeed the don-key or let it become overweight. Never feed thedonkey away from the flock; you want the don-key to stay always with the flock (22). It is veryimportant that donkeys do not receive any feedthat contains Rumensin, Bovatec, urea, or otherproducts intended only for ruminant animals, asthey can be poisonous to single-stomached ani-mals like donkeys. Donkeys need routine vet-erinary care, such as hoof trimming, teeth filing,and parasite management. Hoof care is veryimportant, and all donkeys need to be trained toaccept hoof trimming.

Some key points for raising a guard dog are:

� Select a suitable breed and reputablebreeder.

� Rear pups singly from 8 weeks of age withsheep, minimizing human contact (prob-ably the most critical ingredient for suc-cess).

� Monitor the dog and correct undesirablebehaviors.

� Encourage the dog to remain with or nearthe livestock.

� Ensure the dog�s health and safety.� Manage the livestock in accordance with

the dog�s age and experience (e.g., usesmaller pastures while the dog is youngand inexperienced).

� Be patient and allow plenty of time to trainyour dog. Remember that a guardian dogmay take 2 years or more to mature. (18)

//PREDATOR CONTROL FOR SUSTAINABLE & ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIONPAGE 10

Additional information on using guard don-keys is available from the following sources:

� The Ontario publication Guidelines for UsingDonkeys as Guard Animals with Sheep providesexcellent information on many of the consid-erations for determining whether usingguard donkeys is best for a producer�s situa-tion. It is available at <http://www.gov.on.ca/OMAFRA/english/livestock/sheep/facts/donkey2.htm>.

� The Alberta publication The Donkey: Man-agement is a good source of general infor-mation on donkeys and is available at<http://www .agric.gov.ab.ca/agdex/400/6700201b.html>.

� The American Donkey and Mule Society,Inc., is a good source of information and canbe contacted at PO Box 1210, Lewisville, TX75067, by phone at (972) 219�0781, or at<http://www.lovelongears.com>.

LLAMAS

Llamas are aggressive toward coyotes anddogs. When they spot a predator or intruder,most llamas give a warning call, walk or runtoward the intruder, and then begin to chase,kick, and paw at it. Llamas are easy to handle,can usually be trained in a few days, and havea high success rate. Once a llama is attached tothe sheep and area, the area and sheep becomethe llama�s territory and family. The llama be-comes an active leader and protector. Llamasoften play with lambs. Llamas seem to bondwith cattle as well as they bond with sheep andgoats (22). Llamas with long hair may needshearing occasionally. Llamas that havebonded with humans by bottle-feeding or ex-cessive handling may not make good guardanimals (23).

Llamas are good guardians against singlecoyotes and some other predators. However ,llamas (like other guard animals) can be killedby packs of coyotes or dogs, or even a singleneighborhood dog that is not intimidated bythe guard animal�s aggressive attitude. If thellama�s attitude is not sufficient to scare off thepredator, the llama may become prey itself, be-

Additional Guard Donkey Guidelines

� Select donkeys from medium- to large-size stock. Do not use extremely smallor miniature donkeys.

� Do not acquire a donkey that cannot beculled or sold if it fails to perform prop-erly.

� Use jennies and geldings. Jacks are usu-ally too aggressive.

� Test a new donkey�s guarding responseby challenging the donkey with a dog ina corral or small pasture.

� Use only one donkey or jenny and foalper pasture.

� Isolate guard donkeys from horses,mules, and other donkeys.

� To increase the probability of bonding,donkeys should be raised from birth orplaced at weaning with livestock.

� Raise guard donkeys away from dogs.Avoid or limit the use of herding dogsaround donkeys.

� Monitor the use of guard donkeys atlambing, calving, or kidding, as somemay be aggressive to new borns or overlypossessive. Remove the guard animalsfor a period of time if necessary.

� Use donkeys in open pastures with nomore that 200 head of sheep, goats, orcattle for best results. Large pastures,rough terrain, dense brush, and too largea herd lessen the effectiveness of guarddonkeys (22).

Courtesy of Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa

//PREDATOR CONTROL FOR SUSTAINABLE & ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION PAGE 11

cause it is about as defenseless as the animals itis guarding. Good fencing is a must to help lla-mas better protect themselves, but even that maynot be enough in all circumstances (24).

In a 1990��91 Iowa State University study, re-searchers interviewed 145 sheep producersthroughout the United States who were usingguard llamas. The study looked at the charac-teristics of guard llamas and at their husbandry.Some of the report�s results are:

� Most introductions require only a few daysor less for sheep and llama to adjust to eachother.

� The average ranch uses one gelded malellama pastured with 250 to 300 sheep on 250to 300 acres.

� Sheep and lamb losses average 26 head peryear (11 percent of flock) before using guardllamas and 8 head per year (1 percent of flock)after.

� More than half of guard llama owners report100-percent reduction in predator losses.

� Llamas are introduced to sheep and pasturedwith sheep under a variety of situations.

� Multiple guard llamas are not as effective asone llama.

� Ranchers estimate an annual savings of$1,034, and 85 percent say they would rec-ommend guard llamas to others.

� Protectiveness of sheep and easy mainte-nance are the two most commonly cited ad-vantages.

� Problems encountered include aggressive-ness and attempted breeding of ewes, over-protection of flock, and sheep interferencewith feeding the llama.

� Overall, llamas are effective guards with highsheep-producer satisfaction. (25)

Other excellent sources of information onguard llamas include:

� The International Llama Association, whichhas many great brochures on llama manage-ment, including Guard Llamas: An Alternativefor Effective Predator Management and GuardLlama Guidelines: Recommendations for Selec-tion & Placement of Guard Llamas. Go to<http://internationalllama.org/html/se-cure/silabrochures.html>.

� The Website Llamapaedia, a good source ofgeneral management, maintenance, andother practical information about llamas.Two Llamapaedia publications on guard lla-mas are: Sheep Guarding and Guarding Behav-ior at <http://www.llamapaedia.com/uses/guard.html> and <http://www.llamapaedia.com/behavior/guardbehav.html>.

MULTISPECIES GRAZING

Dr. Dean M. Anderson at the USDA JornadaExperiment Range (JER) in New Mexico has beenworking on using bonding between cattle andsheep to create what is called a �flerd,� a bondedherd of cattle and flock of sheep for free-rangingconditions. The flerd is created by pen bondinga small group of around 7 weaned lambs of thesame gender with 3 non-aggressive or non-abu-sive heifers or cows for about a month and a halfor two months. The pen bonding process condi-tions the sheep to bond to the cattle and stay closeto them when they are foraging in the pasture,

rather than forming two separategroups. When a threat appears, thebonded sheep run among the cattleand stay there until the threat isover (whereas non-bonded sheepbunch together and stay indepen-dent of the cattle.) The sheep areevidently protected by the numberand size of the cattle. The bonding

The report from the Iowa State University study is summa-rized in the publication Guard Llamas: A Part of IntegratedSheep Protection, available for $0.75 plus $1 shipping fromExtension Distribution Center, 119 Printing and PublicationsBuilding, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011�3171, byphone at (515) 294�5247 or on their website at <http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1527.pdf>.

//PREDATOR CONTROL FOR SUSTAINABLE & ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIONPAGE 12

seems to be only one-way, with the sheep chang-ing their behavior, and the cattle seeming just totolerate the presence of the sheep (26).

Pen confinement to establish bonding can beincorporated into other management strategiessuch as pen lambing or winter-feeding. Whenpen bonding is initiated, it is important to have asafe area where the sheep can escape if the cattlebecome aggressive. On the first day of bonding,have the sheep confined in a safe area with thecattle on the other side. After the first day allowthe sheep into the cattle area to begin eating andsocializing together. The sheep�s location in thepen can highlight problems; sheep with abusivecattle will spend twice as much time in the safearea as sheep with non-abusive cattle. Dr.Anderson�s research suggests that penning re-cently weaned lambs or kids with docile, gentlecattle for a minimum of 40 to 50 consecutive dayof uninterrupted confinement can result in a con-sistent bond. Dr. Anderson is attempting to findways to reduce the necessary bonding time (26).

Besides predator protection, bonded flerdsprovide the other benefits of multispecies graz-ing. Grazing both species together makes betteruse of the forage in the pasture. Anderson rec-ommends �sheep-proof� boundary fences butadds that �sheep-proof� internal fencing is notnecessary for the flerd, because the sheep con-sistently remain with the cattle during both for-aging and resting. Flerds are not limited to sheepand cattle. Dr. Anderson has also bonded 5-month old mohair kids and 100-day-old Spanishkids with cattle. Some of the Spanish kids dem-

onstrated few flocking tendencies, but Dr. Ander-son considers it possible to create a Spanish goatflerd by selecting only animals that stay with theflerd, and eliminating any that refuse. The mo-hair kids seemed to flock readily and to bond wellwith both the cattle and the sheep (26).

For additional information on bonding cattle,sheep, and/or goats, contact Dr. Dean M. Ander-son, at USDA/ARS, MSC 3JER, New MexicoState University, PO Box 30003, Las Cruces, NM88003�0003, or phone at (505) 646-5190.

RRRRRefefefefeferererererencesencesencesencesences1) O�Brien, Anita. 1997. Management

Practices Can Influence Predation. OntarioMinistry of Agriculture, Food and RuralAffairs. 2 p. <http://www.gov .on.ca:80/OMAFRA/english/livestock/sheep/facts/info_mgmtpredinf.htm>.

2) Main, Martin B. 2000. Interpreting thePhysical Evidence of Predation on DomesticLivestock. Southwest Florida Research andEducation Center. 3 p. <http://www.imok.ufl.edu/wild/coyote/pred_id.htm>.

3) Florence, Ronald. 2001. Predator FAQ. 11 p.<http://www.18james.com/rural/predator.html>.

4) National Agricultural Statistics Service. 2000.Sheep and Goats Predator Loss. AgriculturalStatistics Board, U. S. Department of Agricul-ture. p 1. <http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/reports/nassr/livestock/pgg-bbsg/predan00.pdf>.

5) Tapscott, Brian. 1997. Something�s BeenKilling My Sheep � But What? How toDifferentiate Between Coyote and Dog Preda-tion. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Foodand Rural Affairs. 5 p. <http://www.gov.on.ca/OMAFR/english/livestock/sheep/facts/coydog2.htm>.

6) Wade, Dale A. and James E. Bowns. 1997.Procedures for Evaluating Predation onLivestock and Wildlife. 15 p. <http://texnat.tamu.edu/ranchref/predator/b-1429-2.htm>.

7) Wildlife Services. No date. Protecting Ameri-can Livestock: An Important and SuccessfulFederal Role. USDA/APHIS. 2 p. <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ws/introreports/livestock.pdf>.

Other ATTRA Publications onMultispecies Grazing and Pasture

Management:

Multispecies GrazingSustainable Pasture ManagementRotational GrazingMatching Livestock and Forage Resources in

Controlled GrazingIntroduction to Paddock Design & Fencing-

Water Systems for Controlled GrazingAssessing the Pasture Soil ResourceNutrient Cycling in Pastures

//PREDATOR CONTROL FOR SUSTAINABLE & ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION PAGE 13

8) Richardson, Craig. 2001. Family Dogs AttackSheep. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Foodand Rural Affairs. 2 p. <http://www.gov.on.ca:80/OMAFRA/english/livestock/sheep/facts/familydog.htm>.

9) Ross, C. V. 1989. Controlling predator lossesin sheep. In: Sheep Production and Manage-ment. Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey. p. 388�402.

10) White, Blane. 2000. Wolves in Farm Country:A Guide for Minnesota Farmers and RanchersLiving in Wolf Territory. Minnesota Depart-ment of Agriculture. 5 p. <http://www.mda.state.mn.us/AMS/wolf.htm>.

11) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service.1994. A Producers Guide to PreventingPredation of Livestock. USDA AgricultureInformation Bulletin No. 650. 14 p. <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/oa/pubs/prodguide.pdf>.

12) Anon. 1997. Protecting Livestock fromPredation with Electric Fences. AlbertaAgriculture, Food, and Rural Development. 5p. <http://www.agri.gov.ab.ca/agdex/600/684-7.html>.

13) Predator Defense Institute. 1997. ControllingCoyote Damage to Livestock. 6 p. <http://pdi.enviroweb.org/alternat.htm>.

14) McAdoo, J. Kent and Hudson A. Glimp. 2000.Sheep management as a deterrent to preda-tion. Rangelands. June. p. 21�24.

15) Paul, William J. and Philip S. Gipson. 1994.Wolves. In: Prevention and Control of Wild-life Damage�1994. p. C-123�C-129.

16) Henderson, F. Robert and Clifford W. Spaeth.1980. Managing Predator Problems: Practicesand Procedures for Preventing and ReducingLivestock Losses. Cooperative ExtensionService. Kansas State University, Manhattan,KS. 20 p. <http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/wldlf2/c620.pdf>.

17) Fytche, Eugene L. 1998. ...May Safely Graze.Eugene Fytche, Almonte, Ontario. 103 p.

18) USDA/APHIS. 1998. Livestock GuardingDogs Factsheet. Wildlife Services. January. 3p. <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/oa/pubs/gdog.html> or </gdogs.pdf>.

19) Roger A WoodruffUSDA/APHIS/WS720 O�Leary Street, NWOlympia, WA 98502(360) 753�9884

20) Jim LuchsingerUSDA/APHIS/WS5949 S. 58th StreetP.O. Box 81866Lincoln, NE 68501-1866(402) 434-2340

21) Jeffrey S. GreenUSDA/APHIS/WS12345 W. Alameda Parkway, Suite 204Lakewood, CO 80228(303) 969-6565, Extension 233

22) Braithwait, Jim. 1996. Using Guard Animalsto Protect Livestock. Missouri Department ofConservation. 14 p. <http://www.conservation.state.mo.us/documents/landown/wild/guard_animals.pdf>.

23) International Llama Association. 1995. GuardLlamas: An Alternative for Effective PredatorManagement. Educational Brochure # 2. 4 p.<http://www.internationalllama.org/html/pdf/(2)%20guard%20llamas.pdf>.

24) Castalia Llama. 2000. Llamas as Guardians�NOT! 6 p. <http://www.rockisland.com/~castalia/guard.html>.

25) Franklin, William L. and Kelly J. Powell. 1994.Guard Llamas: A Part of Integrated SheepProtection. Iowa State University. Pm-1527.12 p. <http://www.extension. iastate.edu/Publications/PM1527.pdf>.

26) Anderson, Dean M. 1998. Pro-active livestockmanagement�Capitalizing on animal behav-ior. Journal of Arid Land Management. p.113�116.

FurFurFurFurFurther Rther Rther Rther Rther Resouresouresouresouresourcescescescesces

WEBSITESUSDA/APHIS/WS:

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ws/statereportindex.html

Each state�s Wildlife Service activity report andstate WS contact information.

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/oa/pubs/guarddog.pdf

Publication Livestock Guarding Dogs ProtectingSheep from Predators.

//PREDATOR CONTROL FOR SUSTAINABLE & ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIONPAGE 14

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/oa/pubs/prodguide.pdf

Publication A Producers Guide to PreventingPredation of Livestock.

National Association of State Departments ofAgriculture:

http://www.nasda-hq.org/nasda/nasda/member_information/gen_main.htm

Each state�s Department of Agriculture contactinformation listed in a directory.

Maryland Small Ruminant Page:

http://www.sheepandgoat.com/predator.htmlPredator and Wildlife Management has links tomany different sources of information andpublications in all areas of predator damagecontrol and management.

http://www.sheepandgoat.com/fencing.htmlFencing has links to many publications onfencing, as well as many fencing vendors.

Alberta Agriculture, Food, and Rural DevelopmentMinistry:

http://www.gov.on.ca/OMAFR/english/live-stock/sheep/facts/coydog2.htm

Publication Something�s Been Killing My Sheep �But What? How to Differentiate Between Coyoteand Dog Predation.

http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdex/600/684-7.html

Publication Protecting Livestock from Predationwith Electric Fencing.

http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdex/400/6700201b.html

Publication The Donkey: Management .

Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and RuralAffairs:

http://www.gov.on.ca/OMAFRA/english/livestock/sheep/facts/donkey2.htm

Publication Guidelines for Using Donkeys asGuard Animals with Sheep.

Canadian Federation of Agriculture:

http://www.cfa-fca.ca/english/publications/wildlife/wolf.htm

Publication Preventing Wolf Predation on PrivateLand .

Iowa State University:

http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/SA8.pdf

Publication Composting Dead Livestock: A NewSolution to an Old Problem.

http://www.suitee101.com/print_article.cfm/9948/63040

Article �Sheep In, Coyotes Out: High TensileElectric Fencing.�

http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1527.pdf

Publication Guard Llamas: A Part of IntegratedSheep Protection.

Minnesota Department of Agriculture:

http://www.mda.state.mn.us/AMS/wolf.htmPublication Wolves in Farm Country: A Guide forMinnesota Farmers and Ranchers Living in WolfTerritory.

http://www.mda.state.mn.us/composting/compostguide.pdf

Publication Composting Animal Mortalities.

Missouri Department of Conservation:

http://www.conservation.state.mo.us/documents/landown/wild/guard_animals.pdf

Publication Using Guard Animals to ProtectLivestock.

University of Nebraska-Lincoln:

http://deal.unl.edu/icwdm/handbook.shtmlBook Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage�1994 has separate chapters for more than 90species of wildlife that may cause damage tocrops or livestock. Each of these chaptersprovides identification, damage prevention, andcontrol methods.

Oregon State University:

http://eesc.orst.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/PNW225.pdf

Publication Building an Electric AntipredatorFence.

http://eesc.orst.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/EC1238.pdf

Publication Raising and Training a Livestock-guarding Dog.

Texas A&M University:

http://texnat.tamu.edu/ranchref/predator/b-1429-2.htm

Publication Procedures for Evaluating Predation onLivestock and Wildlife.

American Sheep Industry Association, Inc.:

http://sheepusa.org/resource/handbook/chpredtr.htm

The book Sheep Production Handbook chapterentitled �Fencing Against Predators.�

//PREDATOR CONTROL FOR SUSTAINABLE & ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION PAGE 15

American Donkey and Mule Society, Inc.:

http://www.lovelongears.comGood source of general information on donkeysand guard donkeys.

C&C Farm Website:

http://www.c-c-farms.comGood source of general management and greatpractical information on guard dogs.

International Llama Association:

http://internationalllama.org/html/secure/silabrochures.html

Brochures on llama management, includingGuard Llamas: An Alternative for Effective PredatorManagement and Guard Llama Guidelines: Recom-mendations for Selection & Placement of GuardLlamas.

Livestock and Poultry Environmental Stewardship:

http://www.lpes.org/Lessons/Lesson51/51_Mortality_Management.html

Curriculum: Lesson 51: Mortality Management oncomposting dead livestock.

Llamapaedia Website:

http://www.llamapaedia.com/uses/guard.htmlPublication Sheep Guarding.

http://www.llamapaedia.com/behavior/guardbehav.html

Publication Guarding Behavior.

BOOKS

...May Safely Graze: Protecting Livestock AgainstPredators

Eugene FytcheR.R. 1Almonte, Ontario K0A 1A0(613) 256�1798Book is $12.95 including shipping to U.S.

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Hand-book�1994

Wildlife Damage Handbook202 Natural Resources HallUniversity of NebraskaLincoln, NE 68583-0810(402) 472-2188http://wildlifedamage.unl.edu/Book is $40 plus $5 shipping. CD-ROM is $40plus $3 shipping.

Coyote Predation of Livestock�Agdex 684-19 for $8Canadian plus shipping or Fencing with Electric-ity�Agdex 724-6 for $10 Canadian plus shipping orMethods of Investigating Predation of Livestock�Agdex 684-14 for $8 Canadian plus shipping

Alberta Agriculture, Food and RuralDevelopment Publication Office(780) 427-0391http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdex/000/orderin.htmlVisa and MasterCard orders only

Ain�t Life Grand with a Great Pyrenees Guardingthe Flock

C&C FarmsRoute 3, Box 6815Stigler, OK 74462(918) 967-4871http://www.c-c-farms.com/book_order_pg.htmlBook is $23.95 including postage to U.S.

By Lance E. GegnerNCAT Agriculture Specialist

Edited by Paul Williams andRichard EarlesFormatted by Gail M. Hardy

April 2002

The electronic version of Predator Controlfor Sustainable & Organic Livestock Pro-duction is located at:HTMLhttp://www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/predator.htmlPDFhttp://www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/predator.pdf

IP196

//PREDATOR CONTROL FOR SUSTAINABLE & ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIONPAGE 16

Appendix: Disposal of Dead Livestock

Regulations for disposal of livestock mortalities vary from state to state. Most states require timelydisposal of mortalities, usually within 24 to 48 hours. A state�s Department of Agriculture is usually incharge of regulations concerning the allowable methods of disposal, including incineration, burying,rendering, and/or composting. Producers should contact their local Extension Agent or their Depart-ment of Agriculture (Department of Health in Arkansas) for specific regulations and requirements. TheNational Association of State Departments of Agriculture has each state�s contact information listed ina directory located at <http://www.nasda-hq.org/nasda/nasda/member_information/gen_main.htm>.

Incineration of the carcass is one disposal method. Incinerators can be expensive to buy and operate,and their capacity is generally limited to smaller animals. Some incinerators may generate air pollutionand objectionable odors. Incinerators are not very practical for small or mid-size livestock producers,if other disposal methods are available.

Burial is a common practice and is generally regulated by the state. The livestock carcass usuallyneeds to be buried 4 to 8 feet deep, and the possible problem of contamination leaching into theground water needs to be considered. Handling animal mortalities by burial in the winter with theground frozen can also pose problems. Scavengers can uncover improperly buried mortalities.

Renderers� pickup services vary greatly from one area to another. Renderer pickup, if available, maybe costly and be limited to certain quantities and/or species (sheep and goats are usually not picked upbecause of concerns about scrapie infection) (1).

Composting of livestock carcasses may also be regulated by the state; some states do not allowsheep or goat composting because of concerns about scrapie. If composting is allowed, producersshould consider it because composting is cost effective, environmentally sound, and relatively easy.Composting dead animals is achieved by layering the carcasses and the organic waste amend-ments according to a prescribed plan and not mixing the materials until the composting has finishedand the dead animals are fully decomposed (longer time for larger carcasses). Compost piles thatare properly constructed and correctly covered with compost mixed to capture odors will not attractscavengers. However, fencing should be used around compost piles to keep out predators anddogs.

The Natural Resource, Agriculture and Engineering Service (NRAES) has two excellent publicationson composting that provide specific mortality composting guidelines. They are On-Farm CompostingHandbook, NRAES-54 for $25 plus postage, and the Field Guide to On-Farm Composting, NRAES-114 for $14 plus postage. They can be ordered at (607) 255�7654 or at <http://www.nraes.org>.

Other sources of information on composting livestock carcasses are:

� The publication Composting Animal Mortalities at <http://www.mda.state .mn.us/composting/compostguide.pdf>

� The website Livestock and Poultry Environmental Stewardship Curriculum: Lesson 51: MortalityManagement at <http://www.lpes.org/Lessons/Lesson51/51_Mortality_Management.html>

� The publication Composting Dead Livestock: A New Solution to an Old Problem at <http://www.extension. iastate.edu/Publications/SA8.pdf>

Reference:1) Stanford, K., et al. 2000. Composting as a means of disposal of sheep mortalities. Compost Science and Utiliza-

tion. Spring. p. 13�146.