Predator Control for Sustainable & Organic Livestock Production

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ATTRA is the national sustainable agriculture information service, operated by the National Center for Appropriate Technology through a grant from the Rural Business-Cooperative Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. These organizations do not recommend or endorse products, companies, or individuals. NCAT has offices in Fayetteville, Arkansas (P.O. Box 3657, Fayetteville, AR 72702), Butte, Montana, and Davis, California. LIVESTOCK TECHNICAL NOTE Predator Control for Sustainable & Organic Livestock Production It is virtually impossible to eliminate all predators and the damage they cause to livestock, but good management can reduce this damage and still be consistent with sustainable or organic live- stock production. Because every farm is different, there is no single practice or single combination of practices that will be right for every situation. Therefore, when predators strike, it is important to be aware of all options available for their control and to act at once. Writing in the Ontario(Canada) Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs publication Management Practices Can Influence Predation, Anita OBrien says: By NCAT Staff, October 2002 Abstract: This publication examines how to identify livestock predators and how to control them. Many species of animals can be classified as predators, but coyotes and dogs account for more than three-quarters of all livestock lost to predators. This publication focuses primarily on the control of coyotes and dogs through management practices, such as fencing and secure areas, and the use of guard animals, such as dogs, donkeys, and llamas. Introduction Portions of this publication are based on the Predator FAQ <http:// www.18james.com/rural/predator.html >'2002 by Ronald Florence, with the permission of the author. 'www.arttoday.com 2002 For managing predation, a variety of methods must be avail- able; one method will not be effective for every producer. Most successful predator control programs use an integrated ap- proachcombining good husbandry with effective control meth- ods. Prevention cannot be stressed enough, because after preda- tors kill once they are more than likely to return and kill again. If predators have started killing sheep, it is important to stop the killing as quickly as possible. (1) All species of livestock are susceptible to predation, especially young animals, but sheep and goats suffer most. Therefore, while the information here is applicable to all livestock, it is directed especially toward protecting sheep and goats. Identifying Predator Attacks Livestock can die or disappear for many reasonspredators, disease, poisonous plants, bloat, exposure, theft, stillbirthand even clear evidence that a predator has been feeding on a carcass is not evidence that the predator was the killer, because most preda-

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Predator Control for Sustainable & Organic Livestock Production

Transcript of Predator Control for Sustainable & Organic Livestock Production

Page 1: Predator Control for Sustainable & Organic Livestock Production

ATTRA is the national sustainable agriculture information service, operated by the National Centerfor Appropriate Technology through a grant from the Rural Business-Cooperative Service, U.S.Department of Agriculture. These organizations do not recommend or endorse products,companies, or individuals. NCAT has offices in Fayetteville, Arkansas (P.O. Box 3657, Fayetteville,AR 72702), Butte, Montana, and Davis, California.

LIVESTOCK TECHNICAL NOTE

Predator Control forSustainable & OrganicLivestock Production

It is virtually impossible to eliminate all predators and the damage they cause to livestock, butgood management can reduce this damage and still be consistent with sustainable or organic live-stock production. Because every farm is different, there is no single practice or single combinationof practices that will be right for every situation. Therefore, when predators strike, it is important tobe aware of all options available for their control and to act at once. Writing in the Ontario(Canada)Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs publication Management Practices Can InfluencePredation, Anita O�Brien says:

By NCAT Staff, October 2002

Abstract: This publication examines how to identify livestock predators and how to control them. Many speciesof animals can be classified as predators, but coyotes and dogs account for more than three-quarters of all livestocklost to predators. This publication focuses primarily on the control of coyotes and dogs through managementpractices, such as fencing and secure areas, and the use of guard animals, such as dogs, donkeys, and llamas.

Introduction

Portions of this publication are based on the Predator FAQ <http://www.18james.com/rural/predator.html>©2002 by Ronald Florence, withthe permission of the author.

©www.arttoday.com 2002

For managing predation, a variety of methods must be avail-able; one method will not be effective for every producer. Mostsuccessful predator control programs use an integrated ap-proach�combining good husbandry with effective control meth-ods.

Prevention cannot be stressed enough, because after preda-tors kill once they are more than likely to return and kill again. Ifpredators have started killing sheep, it is important to stop thekilling as quickly as possible. (1)

All species of livestock are susceptible to predation, especiallyyoung animals, but sheep and goats suffer most. Therefore, whilethe information here is applicable to all livestock, it is directedespecially toward protecting sheep and goats.

Identifying Predator AttacksLivestock can die or disappear for many reasons�predators,

disease, poisonous plants, bloat, exposure, theft, stillbirth�and even clear evidence that a predatorhas been feeding on a carcass is not evidence that the predator was the killer, because most preda-

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Predator Number of Head % of Total Predators Total Value Number Percent 1,000 DollarsCoyotes 165,800 60.7 9,637Dogs 41,300 15.1 2,982Mountain Lions, Cougars, or Pumas 15,600 5.7 998Bears 7,800 2.9 555Foxes 8,100 3 400Eagles 10,700 3.9 522Bobcats 12,700 4.7 650All Other Animals 11,000 4 758

US 273,000 100 16,502

Table 1. Losses of Sheep and Lambs from Predators:Number of Head and Total Value, United States, 1999.

Reference NASS (4)

tors will scavenge on dead livestock (2). The bestproof that a predator has been at work�andthe best means of identifying it�is when a largeanimal has been attacked and is largely intact,although the disappearance of young animalsmay also be a sign of predator activity.

Predation can have a devastating effect notonly on livestock but on the livelihood of thefarmer as well. According to the National Agri-cultural Statistics Service (NASS) report Sheep andGoat Predator Loss, U.S. sheep and lamb losses topredators totaled 273,000 animals in 1999. As youcan see from Table 1 below, coyotes and dogscaused more than 75 percent of those losses. Thisrepresented more than one-third of the totallosses of sheep and lambs from all causes andresulted in a cost to farmers of more than $16million (3).

According to Something�s Been Killing MySheep�But What? How to Differentiate BetweenCoyote and Dog Predation, a publication of theOntario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural

Affairs, predation has risen rapidly during thepast 10 to 15 years, causing ever�increasing lossesto sheep operations. Ontario producers reportedalmost three times more sheep lost in 1995 (3,060)than in 1986 (1,149). The total would have beenhigher, the publication states, if losses to dogs�both feral and domestic�and unexplained dis-appearances had been included (4).

Once a carcass has begun to decompose orhas been scavenged, it�s often hard to determinewhether the animal was killed by a predator ordied of other causes. To differentiate between thetwo, it�s necessary to examine the overall appear-ance of the carcass, including the condition ofthe coat, the eyes, ears, and feces (firm or diar-rheic), even the position of the animal in death(animals that have died of natural causes are usu-ally found on their sides or on their chests withtheir legs folded under them) (5).

Although the pattern of killing typical of apredator species can sometimes help identify theproblem predator, an individual�s killing style can

Table of ContentsIntroduction ................................................................................................................................. 1Identifying Predator Attacks ........................................................................................................ 1Management Techniques to Minimize Predator Losses .............................................................. 5Guard Animals ............................................................................................................................ 7References ............................................................................................................................... 12Further Resources .................................................................................................................... 13Appendix: Disposal of Dead Livestock ..................................................................................... 16

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overlap the killing style of another species.Other types of evidence, such as tracks and fe-ces, are sometimes necessary to correctly iden-tify the kind of predator responsible (2).

The Wildlife Services (WS) of the USDA/Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service(APHIS) is the federal agency to contact withlivestock predation problems. They work withfarmers and ranchers to protect agricultural re-sources in a way that is practical, humane, ef-fective, and environmentally sound. They canhelp you identify predators and offer remediesthat will minimize the impact on wildlife (6).Each state�s Wildlife Service activity report,along with the state WS contact information, isavailable at <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ws/statereport index.html>.

An excellent publication, Procedures forEvaluating Predation on Livestock and Wildlife, islocated at <http://texnat.tamu. edu/ranchref/predator/b-1429-2.htm>. This pub-lication provides detailson many of the observa-tions that are needed todetermine whether apredator is the cause oflivestock death. It alsoprovides specific infor-mation on the typical kill-ing patterns for most ofthe predator species.

Prevention and Controlof Wildlife Damage�1994 has separate chapterson more than 90 species of wildlife that maycause damage to crops or livestock. Each ofthese chapters covers identification, damage-prevention, and control. The book is availableat <http://deal.unl.edu/icwdm/handbook.shtml>. The 90 species-chapters are listed al-phabetically. The book is also available on CD-ROM or in paper copy. (See Further Resources:Books, for ordering information.)

The 36-page Alberta Agriculture, Food andRural Development publication Methods of In-vestigating Predation of Livestock outlines how totell whether a predator killed an animal andhow to identify the predator. (See Further Re-sources: Books, for ordering information).

The Maryland Small Ruminant webpage�Predator and wildlife management� is a rich

source of information, with links to many dif-ferent sites and publications covering all areasof predator-damage control and management.The webpage is located at <http://www.sheepand goat.com/predator.html>.

COYOTES AND DOGS AS PREDATORS

When stock is killed or missing, it is mostlikely that the predator responsible is either acoyote or a dog. The NASS Sheep and GoatsPredator Loss table shown above reveals that in1999 coyotes and dogs caused more than 75percent of all predator losses for sheep, withlosses to coyotes alone topping 60 percent. Coy-otes have become a problem in almost all of theUnited States, Canada, and Mexico. The stateWildlife Service can verify the legal status of coy-otes in your state; contact information is avail-able at <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ws/

s t a t e r e p o r t i n d e x.html>. Most statesallow coyotes to beshot or trapped atany time, if they arecausing damage, butsome states have dif-ferent regulations orspecific hunting sea-sons only.

In some cases, aproducer may havedifficulty trying todecide whether acoyote, a neighbor�s

dog, or their own dog was the killer. TheOntario publication Something�s Been Killing MySheep � But What? How to Differentiate BetweenCoyote and Dog Predation lists ten criteria thatcan help determine the culprit. They are: timeof attack; duration of attack; temperament offlock; extent of attack or kill; location of attackor carcasses; target animals; attacking behav-ior; feeding behavior; tracks at site; and drop-pings (4). The publication is available at <http://www.gov.on. ca:80/OMAFRA/english/live-stock/sheep/facts/coydog2. htm>.

Some of the criteria used to distinguish be-tween coyote and dog predation are:

� Coyotes tend to kill quickly, at night or earlydawn, by biting sheep on the throat just be-hind the jaw and under the ears.

©www.arttoday.com 2002

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� Coyotes will generally kill only one or twoanimals, and only close to areas with plentyof cover to allow the coyotes to escape. Coy-otes eat their kill by first feeding on the ab-dominal cavity.

� Coyotes are probably responsible if lambs orsmall animals are missing, because coyoteswill take smaller animals back to their den,especially when feeding their pups.

� Dogs will attack at any time of the day ornight.

� Dogs are usually poor predators, and theirattacks last much longer, affecting more ofthe flock, so the animals are more nervousand confused after the attack.

� Dogs usually attack sheep or other livestockfor the chase, not for food. Dog attacks usu-ally cause more slashing and ripping woundsand the mutilation of legs, ears, tails, andhindquarters, on both the dead and surviv-ing animals (5).The 31�page Alberta book Coyote Predation of

Livestock provides information to help produc-ers prevent or reduce losses from coyotes. (SeeFurther Resources: Books, for ordering informa-tion.)

If a dog or pack of dogs is the culprit, whatcan the producer do? The Ontario publicationFamily Dogs Attack Sheep cites an Australian studyof 1,400 dogs that attacked livestock. In the study,the authorities used trained tracking dogs to fol-low the offending dogs home. The authoritiesfound that most of the dog owners would notbelieve that their dogs had attacked the livestock.Most of the owners believed that their dogs wereeither too small, young, or friendly to commitsuch an act. None-the-less, the publication states:

The researchers caught dogs from 3 months to12 years of age, intact and sterilized dogs ofboth sexes, purebred and mongrel; all attackinglivestock. Most of these dogs were well fed,friendly, family pets, running at large. Selec-tive breeding has not suppressed the tendency ofany breed of dog to attack and kill livestock.Animal behaviorists say it is not possible topredict whether a particular dog will attacksheep or not.

Owners should understand the reason whya dog attacks sheep�it�s all for the love of thegame (7).

Dr. C. V. Ross, in his book Sheep Productionand Management, suggests that livestock produc-ers learn their legal rights concerning the con-trol of dogs in their areas. He explains that thereis great variation among laws concerning preda-tory dogs. Livestock owners �have the right toprotect their property from damage, but thereare all kinds of variations in the interpretation ofprotecting property and therein lies the basis formany bitter and costly lawsuits� (8). Livestockproducers have lost cases in court when theyhave killed dogs on their property that were notcaught in the immediate act of killing livestock.

WOLVES AS PREDATORS

In states such as Minnesota and Wisconsinwhere wolves have been reintroduced, produc-ers need to consider the increased challenge ofprotecting livestock from these adaptable preda-tors. In most states where wolves have been re-introduced, livestock killed by wolves is compen-sated for by the state, upon presentation of evi-dence that it was a wolf kill. The publicationWolves in Farm Country: A Guide for MinnesotaFarmers and Ranchers Living in Wolf Territory pro-vides information on what to do if a wolf kill issuspected, whom to contact, and how to preservethe evidence. It is available at <http://www.mda.state.mn.us/AMS/wolf.htm>. Thepublication cautions:

Wolves are protected under federal law. It isillegal to harm or kill a wolf, except in defense ofhuman life. Any attempt to frighten awaywolves returning to kill other animals or to feedon dead livestock must be done without harmingthe wolf (9).

The Canadian Federation of Agriculture pub-lication Preventing Wolf Predation on Private Landprovides some specific methods to reduce wolfpredation, but remember that the wolf is not pro-tected in Canada and that hunting, trapping,and snaring are permitted there. The publica-tion is available at <http://www.cfa-fca.ca/english/publications/wildlife/wolf.htm>.

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Management Techniques toMinimize Predator LossesAll management techniques have advan-

tages and disadvantages. Some will work forone producer but not for another. It is impor-tant for producers to combine the managementtechniques best suited to their operations withthe most effective predator control methods fortheir circumstances.

FENCING

Specially constructed woven (mesh) wire orelectric fencing can be useful in a managementstrategy for deterring predators. The USDA/APHIS publication A Producers Guide to Prevent-ing Predation of Livestock states:

The success of various types of fencing inexcluding predators ranges from zero to 100percent. Density and behavior of coyotes,terrain and vegetative conditions, availability ofprey, size of pastures, season of the year, designof the fence, quality of construction, mainte-nance, and other factors interplay in determin-ing how effective a fence will be. Fencing ismost likely to be cost effective when the potentialfor predation is high, where there is a potentialfor a high stocking rate, or where existingfences can be electrified. Fencing is moreeffective when incorporated with other meansof predator control (10).

predator exclusion fences may restrict movementof other wild species, especially large game ani-mals, Federal or State regulations may prohibitconstruction of effective fences in some areas�(10).

Building a new mesh or woven wire fencefor predator management can be expensive. Aproperly constructed 5½- to 6-foot mesh wirefence should have horizontal spacing of less than6 inches and vertical spacing of 2 to 3 inches. Itshould have barbed wire at ground level andbarbed wire, electric wire, or wire overhangs ontop to help deter predators that will climb or digunder fences.

Multiple strands of single-wire electric fenc-ing can cost less than new mesh fencing. Sevenor nine strands of high-tensile smooth wire, withalternating charged and grounded wires (begin-ning with a charged bottom wire) can help re-duce predation. A Canadian predation study inthe mid 1970s showed a 90 percent reduction insheep lost to predation in pastures with electri-fied fences (11). Electric fences require mainte-nance to ensure proper livestock protection, andsnow and frozen ground can greatly reduce theeffectiveness of electric fencing (11).

Fencing is most successful if it is strung be-fore the predator has established a pattern ofmovement. If coyotes have been feeding on live-stock in a pasture, the construction of a fencewill probably not deter them, since they alreadyrecognize the livestock as food. The USDA/APHIS publication A Producers Guide to Prevent-ing Predation of Livestock comments that �because

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Adding electric wires at the top and electrictrip wires to the bottom and middle of a meshfence that is in good condition can help make itan effective predator barrier and is probably morecost�effective than replacement. An electric tripwire placed about 6 inches off the ground and 8inches outside the woven wire fence will helpprevent predators from digging under it. Elec-tric wires added to the top and at various inter-vals along the woven wire fence will help dis-courage predators from climbing or jumping thefence.

Detailed information on building fences isavailable from the following sources:

Courtesy of CanadianFederation of Agriculture

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� The Alberta publication Protecting Livestockfrom Predation with Electric Fencing at <http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdex/600/684-7.html>

� The 47-page book Fencing with Electricity pub-lished by the Alberta Agriculture, Food andRural Development Publication Office is in-tended to help producers choose and buildthe right electric fences for their operations.(See Further Resources: Books, for orderinginformation.)

� The book ...May Safely Graze: Protecting Live-stock Against Predators by Eugene Fytche hasa chapter on predator control fencing. (SeeFurther Resources: Books, for ordering infor-mation.)

� The article �Sheep In, Coyotes Out: High Ten-sile Electric Fencing� at <http://www.suite101.com/print_article.cfm/9948/63040>.

� The chapter entitled �Fencing Against Preda-tors� from the Sheep Production Handbook at<http://www.sheepusa.org/resources/predcontrol.shtml>.

� The 1983 Oregon State University publicationBuilding an Electric Antipredator Fence at<http://eesc.orst.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/PNW225.pdf>.

� The Maryland Small Ruminant Webpage isan excellent source of fencing information.It also has links to many publications on fenc-ing, as well as many fencing vendors at< h t t p : / / w w w . s h e e p a n d g o a t . c o m /fencing.html>.

RECORD KEEPING

Accurate records provide a ready way toknow when livestock is missing from a pasture.Knowing quickly that a loss has occurred helpsspeed the response to a predator problem. Inaddition, knowing the exact number and loca-tion of the losses can help to identify the preda-tion pattern and the problem areas on the farmor ranch (1).

NIGHT CONFINEMENT CLOSE TO

RESIDENCES

Because many predators, including coyotes,are usually active between dusk and dawn, con-

fining livestock in predator-proof pens at nightcan reduce losses. In addition, some predatorsare reluctant to approach any place where hu-mans are present. Livestock will learn to cometo the secure pens when they are regularly pennedat night. Additional labor and maintenance offacilities may be required (12).

LAMBING IN SHEDS OR SECURE LOTS

Lambing in sheds or secure lots can reducelosses to predators. Shed lambing allows theproducer greater access to the sheep to assist withlambing and will also provide the opportunityfor lambing earlier in the season. The main dis-advantages of shed lambing are the initial cost ofthe shed and the additional labor needed (13).

PROMPT REMOVAL OF ALL

DEAD LIVESTOCK

Dead animals attract coyotes and other scav-enging predators. Unless the dead animals areremoved, the predators will return to feed onthem. Coyotes may depend on dead animals toremain in livestock-raising areas (12). One Cana-dian study found that on farms that promptlyremoved dead livestock, predator losses werelower than on farms where dead livestock werenot removed (13). See the Appendix for infor-mation on various livestock disposal methods.

USING LARGER LIVESTOCK IN ROUGHER

PASTURES WITH HISTORIES OF PREDATOR

PROBLEMS

Pastures with a history of predator problemsshould be avoided�especially during lambing.Pastures with rough terrain or dense vegetationprovide good cover for predators. Placing largeranimals in these pastures will usually reduce theincidence of predation (10).

NOISE, LIGHT, AND OTHER DETERRENTS

Predators can display uncanny abilities tooutwit a producer�s attempts to protect livestock.Producers may need to use more than one prac-tice concurrently, and probably will need to varythe practices occasionally. Most predators arewary of any changes in their territory and willshy away from anything different until they be-come familiar with it. The following are severaldevices that help discourage predators.

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Electronic GuardDeveloped by the USDA/APHIS/Wildlife

Service, the Electronic Guard is a light-sensingdevice that is activated at dusk and de-activatedat dawn. It combines a strobe light and a sirengoing off in random order. The random inter-vals help prevent predators from becoming ac-customed to it. According to William Paul andPhilip Gipson, authors of �Wolves,� in Preven-tion and Control of Wildlife Damage�1994, the Elec-tronic Guard may be useful in reducing livestockpredation for up to four months. They say that itis most effective in small, open pastures, aroundpenned livestock (14). Specific information onthe use of the Electronic Guard is available at<http://www.aphis/usda/gov/oa/pubs/eguard.html>. Producers can contact their stateWildlife Service to see whether there is an Elec-tronic Guard to rent; contact information for stateWildlife Services is available at <http://w w w . a p h i s . u s d a . g o v / w s / s t a t e r e p o r tindex.html>. The Electronic Guard costs about$270, not including the battery. An ElectronicGuard can be ordered by writing the WS PocatelloSupply Depot, 238 E. Dillon St., Pocatello, ID83201, or by calling (208) 236�6920.

Night lightingLighting corrals at night may serve to frighten

some predators away, but may also attract roam-ing dogs to the stock. Lights will allow the pro-ducer to see any predators that are in the pen.Lighting doesn�t usually affect the livestock, andthey adapt quickly (10). In a 1977 Kansas studyinvolving 100 Kansas sheep producers, lightingcorrals at night had the most obvious effect onlosses from predators. Of the 79 sheep killed bycoyotes in corrals, only 3 were lost in corrals withlights (15).

Propane exploderPropane exploders produce loud explosions

at random intervals. They work best when theinterval is fairly short and the location is changedevery couple of days. The Predator Defense In-stitute website publication Controlling CoyoteDamage to Livestock says that the exploders areeffective only temporarily, because coyotes be-come accustomed to the noise (12).

BellsProducers have put bells on sheep for years

to discourage predators; however, there are nodata to establish the usefulness of this practice.

Bells help to locate the sheep or to alert the pro-ducer to predator trouble in the flock (10). ThePredator Defense Institute website publicationControlling Coyote Damage to Livestock states that�A study in Kansas found that coyotes never at-tacked belled sheep in a flock, perhaps becauseof their �strangeness� �(12).

RadioAccording to the Predator Defense Institute,

�Use of a tractor radio or other loud radio tunedto an all night station (especially talk radio) is atleast temporarily effective at deterring coyotes�(12).

Parking vehicle in area of lossParking a car or pickup near the area where

losses are occurring may temporarily deter coy-otes, especially if the vehicle is moved frequently(17).

Other visual and noise distractionsEugene L. Fytche, author of ...May Safely

Graze, cites a producer who used visual distrac-tions around the edges of his pasture. These in-cluded large pieces of Styrofoam, wheel discs,aluminum pie plates, wind chimes, plastic oilcontainers filled with a variety of liquids, balloons,old clothes, and whatever came to hand. Fytchecommented that the producer didn�t have anylosses in three years despite living in a high-riskarea (16).

Guard AnimalsDogs, donkeys, and llamas can all serve as

full-time guard animals, but the effectiveness ofany of them will also depend on the bonding,training, instincts, and temperament of individualanimals. All guard animals require an invest-

Courtesy of Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa

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ment of time and money, and there is no guar-antee that they will be successful.

Sometimes a single guard animal will not beenough to protect the livestock. Several guarddogs may be necessary to patrol larger areas orto better protect against packs of predators. Allama and guard dog combination can be trainedto work cooperatively, but donkeys or llamas willnot properly bond to livestock if more than oneof their own species is present with the livestock.Rotational grazing can sometimes help, becausethe livestock are confined to a smaller area, al-lowing guard animals to be more effective.

Producers should research the costs and ad-vantages of the various guard animals, and seekadvice from other producers in the area withguard animal experience. Producers need to re-member that guard animals by themselves willprobably not be success-ful without implementa-tion of other predatorcontrol methods. Noone predator controlmethod will solve everyproducer�s predatorproblem, but combiningseveral methods canhelp.

The following aregood sources of generalinformation on livestockguard animals:� The Maryland Small

Ruminant webpage�Predator and wild-life management� at< h t t p : / / w w w .sheepandgoat.com/predator. html>.

� The Missouri De-partment of Conser-vation publicationUsing Guard Animals to Protect Livestock at<http://www.conservation. state. mo .us/d o c u m e n t s / l a n d o w n / w i l d /guard_animals.pdf>.

� The book ...May Safely Graze: Protecting Live-stock Against Predators by Eugene Fytche,which has several chapters on different guardanimals. (See Further Resources: Books, forordering information.)

GUARD DOGS

Livestock-guarding dogs originated in Europeand Asia. Most are large (80�120 pounds), mainlywhite breeds. Guard dogs do not herd sheep;they are full-time members of the flock. They staywith or near the flock most of the time and ag-gressively protect the sheep. In some instancesguard dogs may injure the stock they are guard-ing or attack other animals, such as pets that en-ter their territory. They may also confront unfa-miliar people (hikers, etc.) who approach the live-stock. Producers using guard dogs should postsigns to alert passers-by and plan to escort visi-tors going near the sheep (17). Neighbors shouldalso be notified that you are using a guard dog,because a patrolling guard dog may be mistakenfor a predator dog.

Usually, a success-ful guard dog is a stan-dard guard breed thathas been properlyreared and trained. Butsometimes, despitegood breeding andtraining, a dog justwon�t guard properly.Many, but not all, ofthese failures trace backto improper rearing orto the dog being too oldto bond with the sheep.Research and surveysindicate that only aboutthree-fourths of guarddogs are temperamen-tally suited to beinggood guardians (17). Inorder to properly raisethe best guard dog, theproducer needs to un-derstand what a goodguard dog does, assess

the temperament of the pup, and raise it correctly.The nearest office of the USDA/APHIS Wild-

life Services (WS) should have additional infor-mation about using dogs to guard livestock. StateWS contact information is available at <http://w w w . a p h i s . u s d a . g o v / w s / s t a t e r e p o r tindex.html>.

The USDA/APHIS/WS has two predatorprevention publications, Livestock Guarding Dogs

Some key points for raising a guard dog are:

� Select a suitable breed and reputablebreeder.

� Rear pups singly from 8 weeks of age withsheep, minimizing human contact (prob-ably the most critical ingredient for suc-cess).

� Monitor the dog and correct undesirablebehaviors.

� Encourage the dog to remain with or nearthe livestock.

� Ensure the dog�s health and safety.

� Manage the livestock in accordance withthe dog�s age and experience (e.g., usesmaller pastures while the dog is youngand inexperienced).

� Be patient and allow plenty of time to trainyour dog. Remember that a guardian dogmay take 2 years or more to mature. (17)

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Protecting Sheep from Predators and A ProducersGuide to Preventing Predation of Livestock, as wellas a loaner video on using guardian dogs. Thesefree publications and the video are available bycontacting USDA/APHIS/LPA, Wildlife ServicePublications, 4700 River Road, Unit 51, Riverdale,MD 20737, or by phone at (301) 734�7799. Thepublications are also available at <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/oa/pubs/guarddog. pdf>or </prodguide. pdf>.

Additional information about using guardiandogs is also available by contacting any of theseUSDA/APHIS /WS specialists: Roger A. Woo-druff (18), Jim Luchsinger (19), or Jeffrey S. Green(20).

For additional information on livestock guarddogs:� The 1988 Oregon State University publication

Raising and Training a Livestock-guarding Dogis available for $1.50 (postage and shippingincluded) from Publications Orders, Exten-sion & Station Communications, OregonState University, 422 Kerr Administration,Corvallis, OR 97331�2119, (541) 737-2513, orat <http://eesc.orst.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/EC1238.pdf>.

� The 2001 book Dogs: A Startling New Under-standing of Canine Origin, Behavior, and Evolu-tion by Raymond Coppinger and LornaCoppinger, Scribner Publisher, ISBN #: 0-684-85530-5, has an excellent chapter on LivestockGuardian Dogs. This book is available fromAmazon.com and many other bookstores.

� The C&C Farm Website, <http://www.c-c-farms.com>, is a good source of practical in-formation on guard dogs. C&C Farm�sBeverly Coate is the author of the book Ain�tLife Grand with a Great Pyrenees Guarding theFlock. (See Further Resources: Books, for or-dering information.)

DONKEYS

Donkeys make good guard animals becausethey naturally hate dogs and coyotes, are notafraid of them, and like to intimidate them. Don-keys also are social animals that will associatewith other species of livestock in the absence ofother donkeys; however, it can take a donkeyfour to six weeks to fully bond with a sheep flock.Because they can eat what the sheep eat, guard

donkeys can be low maintenance; however, it isalso important to feed the donkey something atthe same time the sheep are fed. This will helpthe donkey understand that if it stays by the flockit will not miss a meal. Do not overfeed the don-key or let it become overweight. Never feed thedonkey away from the flock; you want the don-key to stay always with the flock (21). It is veryimportant that donkeys do not receive any feedthat contains Rumensin, Bovatec, urea, or otherproducts intended only for ruminant animals, asthey can be poisonous to single-stomached ani-

Some additional guard donkey guidelinesare:

� Select donkeys from medium� to large�size stock. Do not use extremely smallor miniature donkeys.

� Do not acquire a donkey that cannot beculled or sold if it fails to perform prop-erly.

� Use jennies and geldings. Jacks are usu-ally too aggressive.

� Test a new donkey�s guarding responseby challenging the donkey with a dog ina corral or small pasture.

� Use only one donkey or jenny and foalper pasture.

� Isolate guard donkeys from horses,mules, or other donkeys.

� To increase the probability of bonding,donkeys should be raised from birth orplaced at weaning with livestock.

� Raise guard donkeys away from dogs.Avoid or limit the use of herding dogsaround donkeys.

� Monitor the use of guard donkeys atlambing, calving, or kidding, as somemay be aggressive to newborns or toopossessive. Remove the guard animalsfor a period of time if necessary.

� Use donkeys in open pastures with nomore that 200 head of sheep, goats, orcattle for best results. Large pastures,rough terrain, dense brush and too largea herd lessen the effectiveness of guarddonkeys. (21)

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mals like donkeys. Donkeys need routine vet-erinary care, such as hoof trimming, teeth filing,and parasite management. Hoof care is very im-portant, and all donkeys need to be trained toaccept hoof trimming.

Additional information on using guard don-keys is available from the following sources:� The Ontario publication Guidelines for Using

Donkeys as Guard Animals with Sheep providesexcellent information on many of the consid-erations for determining whether using guarddonkeys is best for a producer�s situation. Itis available at <http://www.gov. on.ca/OMAFRA/english/livestock/sheep/facts/donkey2.htm>.

� The Alberta publication The Donkey: Manage-ment is a good source of general informationon donkeys and is available at <http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdex/400/6700201b.html>.

� The American Donkey and Mule Society, Inc.,is a good source of information and can becontacted at PO Box 1210, Lewisville, TX75067, by phone at (972) 219�0781, or at<http://www.lovelongears.com>.

LLAMAS

Llamas are aggressive toward coyotes anddogs. When they spot a predator or intruder,most llamas give a warning call, walk or run to-ward the intruder, and then begin to chase, kick,and paw at it. Llamas are easy to handle, canusually be trained in a few days, and have a highsuccess rate. Once a llama is attached to thesheep and area, the area and sheep become thellama�s territory and family. The llama becomesan active leader and protector. Llamas oftenplay with lambs. Llamas seem to bond with cattleas well as they bond with sheep and goats (21).

Llamas with long hair may need shearing occa-sionally. Llamas that have bonded with humansby bottle-feeding or excessive handling may notmake good guard animals (22).

Although llamas are good guardians againstsingle coyotes and some other predators, they(like other guard animals) can be killed by packsof coyotes or dogs, or even a single neighbor-hood dog that is not intimidated by the guardanimal�s aggressive attitude. If the llama�s ag-gressive attitude is not sufficient to scare off thepredator, the llama may become prey itself, be-cause it is about as defenseless as the animals itis guarding. Good fencing is a must to help lla-mas better protect themselves, but even that maynot be enough in all circumstances (23).

In a 1990�91 Iowa State University study (24),researchers interviewed 145 sheep producersthroughout the United States who were usingguard llamas. The study looked at the character-istics of guard llamas and at their husbandry.Some of the report�s results are:� Most introductions require only a few days

or less for sheep and llama to adjust to eachother.

� The average ranch uses one gelded malellama pastured with 250 to 300 sheep on 250to 300 acres.

� Sheep and lamb losses average 26 head peryear (11 percent of flock) before using guardllamas and 8 head per year (1 percent offlocks) after.

� More than half of guard llama owners re-port 100 percent reduction in predator losses.

� Llamas are introduced to sheep and pasturedwith sheep under a variety of situations.

Courtesy of Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa

The Iowa State report is summarized inthe publication Guard Llamas: A Part ofIntegrated Sheep Protection, availablefor $0.75 plus $1 shipping from Exten-sion Distribution Center, 119 Printing andPublications Building, Iowa State Univer-sity, Ames, IA 50011�3171, by phone at(515) 294�5247 or on their website at<http://www.extension. iastate.edu/Pub-lications/PM1527.pdf>.

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� Multiple guard llamas are not as effective asone llama.

� Ranchers estimate an annual savings of $1,034,and 85 percent say they would recommendguard llamas to others.

� Protectiveness of sheep and easy maintenanceare the two most commonly cited advantages.

� Problems encountered include aggressivenessand attempted breeding of ewes, overprotec-tion of flock, and sheep interference with thefeeding llama.

� Overall, llamas are effective guards with highsheep producer satisfaction.The Website Llamapaedia is another good

source of general management, maintenance, andother practical information about llamas. TwoLlamapaedia publications onguard llamas are: SheepGuarding and Guarding Behav-ior at <http://www.llamapaedia .com/uses/guard.html> and<http://www.llamapaedia.com/behavior/guardbehav.html>.

MULTISPECIES GRAZING

Dr. Dean M. Anderson atthe USDA Jornada ExperimentRange (JER) in New Mexico has been working onusing bonding between cattle and sheep to cre-ate what is called a �flerd,� a bonded herd ofcattle and flock of sheep for free-ranging condi-tions. The flerd is created by pen bonding a smallgroup of around 7 weaned lambs of the samegender with 3 non-aggressive or non-abusive heif-ers or cows for about a month and a half or twomonths. The pen bonding process conditions thesheep to bond with the cattle and stay close tothe cattle when they are foraging in the pasture,rather than forming two separate groups. Whena threat appears, the bonded sheep run amongthe cattle and stay there until the threat is over.(When a threat appears, non-bonded sheep bunchtogether and stay independent of the cattle.) Thenumber and size of the cattle apparently protectsbonded sheep. The bonding seems to work onlyone�way, with the sheep changing their behav-ior, and the cattle seeming just to tolerate thepresence of the sheep (25).

Pen confinement to establish bonding can beincorporated into other management strategiessuch as pen lambing or winter feeding. Whenpen bonding is initiated, it is important to have asafe area where the sheep can escape if the cattlebecome aggressive. During the first day of bond-ing, the sheep should be confined in a safe areawith the cattle on the other side. After the firstday the sheep should be allowed into the cattlearea to begin eating and socializing together.The sheep�s location in the pen can highlight prob-lems; sheep with abusive cattle will spend twiceas much time in the safe area as sheep with non-abusive cattle. Dr. Anderson�s research suggeststhat penning recently weaned lambs or kids withdocile, gentle cattle for a minimum of 40 to 50consecutive day of uninterrupted confinement can

result in a consistent bond. Dr.Anderson is attempting to findways to reduce the necessarybonding time (25).

Besides predator protec-tion, bonded flerds provide thebenefits of multi-species graz-ing. Grazing both species to-gether makes a better use ofthe forage in the pasture.Anderson recommends�sheep-proof� boundaryfences but adds that �sheep-

proof� internal fencing is not necessary for theflerd, because the sheep consistently remain withthe cattle during both foraging and resting. Flerdsare not limited to sheep and cattle. Dr. Ander-

Other ATTRA publications on multispeciesgrazing and pasture management:

Multispecies Grazing

Sustainable Pasture Management

Rotational Grazing

Matching Livestock and ForageResources in Controlled Grazing

Introduction to Paddock Design &Fencing-Water Systems for ControlledGrazing

Assessing the Pasture Soil Resource

Nutrient Cycling in Pastures

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son has also bonded 5-month-old mohair kids and100-day-old Spanish kids with cattle. Some ofthe Spanish kids demonstrated few flocking ten-dencies, but Dr. Anderson considers it possibleto create a Spanish goat flerd by selecting onlyanimals that stay with the flerd, and eliminatingany that refuse. The mohair kids seemed to flockreadily and to bond well with both the cattle andthe sheep (25).

For additional information on bonding cattle,sheep, and/or goats, contact Dr. Dean M. Ander-son, at USDA/ARS, MSC 3JER, New Mexico StateUniversity, PO Box 30003, Las Cruces, NM 88003�0003, or phone at (505) 646-5190.

References1) O�Brien, Anita. 1997. Management

Practices Can Influence Predation.Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food andRural Affairs. 2 p. <http://www.gov.on.ca:80/OMAFRA/english/livestock/sheep/facts/info_mgmtpredinf.htm>.

2) Main, Martin B. 2000. Interpreting thePhysical Evidence of Predation on Domes-tic Livestock. Southwest Florida Researchand Education Center. 3 p. <http://www.imok.ufl.edu/wild/coyote/pred_id.htm>.

3) National Agricultural Statistics Service.2000. Sheep and Goats Predator Loss.Agricultural Statistics Board, U. S. Depart-ment of Agriculture. p 1. <http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/reports/nassr/livestock/pgg-bbsg/predan00.pdf>.

4) Tapscott, Brian. 1997. Something�s BeenKilling My Sheep � But What? How toDifferentiate Between Coyote and DogPredation. Ontario Ministry of Agricul-ture, Food and Rural Affairs. 5 p.<http://www.gov.on.ca:80/OMAFR/english/livestock/sheep/facts/coydog2.htm>.

5) Wade, Dale A., and James E. Bowns.1997. Procedures for Evaluating Predationon Livestock and Wildlife. 15 p. <http://texnat.tamu.edu/ranchref/predator/b-1429-2.htm>.

6) Wildlife Services. No date. ProtectingAmerican livestock: An Important andSuccessful Federal Role. USDA/APHIS. 2p. <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ws/introreports/livestock.pdf>.

7) Richardson, Craig. 2001. Family DogsAttack Sheep. Ontario Ministry of Agri-culture, Food and Rural Affairs. 2 p.<http://www.gov.on.ca:80/OMAFRA/english/livestock/sheep/facts/familydog.htm>.

8) Ross, C. V. 1989. Controlling predatorlosses in sheep. In: Sheep Production andManagement. Prentice-Hall, Inc., NewJersey. p. 388�402.

9) White, Blane. 2000. Wolves in FarmCountry: A Guide for Minnesota Farmersand Ranchers Living in Wolf Territory.Minnesota Department of Agriculture. 5p. <http://www.mda.state.mn.us/AMS/wolf.htm>.

10) Animal and Plant Health InspectionService. 1994. A Producers Guide toPreventing Predation of Livestock. USDAAgriculture Information Bulletin No. 650.14 p. <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/oa/pubs/prodguide.pdf>.

11) Anon. 1997. Protecting Livestock fromPredation with Electric Fences. AlbertaAgriculture, Food, and Rural Develop-ment. 5 p. <http://www.agri.gov.ab.ca/agdex/600/684-7.html>.

12) Predator Defense Institute. 1997. Con-trolling Coyote Damage to Livestock. 6 p.<http://pdi.enviroweb.org/alternat.htm>.

13) McAdoo, J. Kent, and Hudson A. Glimp.2000. Sheep management as a deterrentto predation. Rangelands. June. p. 21�24.

14) Paul, William J., and Philip S. Gipson.1994. Wolves. In: Prevention and Controlof Wildlife Damage�1994. p. C-123�C-129.

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15) Henderson, F. Robert, and Clifford W.Spaeth. 1980. Managing Predator Prob-lems: Practices and Procedures for Pre-venting and Reducing Livestock Losses.Cooperative Extension Service. KansasState University, Manhattan, KS. 20 p.<http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/wldlf2/c620.pdf>.

16) Fytche, Eugene L. 1998. ...May SafelyGraze. Eugene Fytche, Almonte, Ontario.103 p.

17) USDA/APHIS. 1998. Livestock GuardingDogs Factsheet. Wildlife Services. Janu-ary. 3 p. <http://www.aphis.usda.gov /oa/pubs/gdog.html> or </gdogs.pdf>.

18) Roger A WoodruffUSDA/APHIS/WS720 O�Leary Street, NWOlympia, WA 98502(360) 753�9884

19) Jim LuchsingerUSDA/APHIS/WS5949 S. 58th StreetP.O. Box 81866Lincoln, NE 68501-1866(402) 434-2340

20) Jeffrey S. GreenUSDA/APHIS/WS12345 W. Alameda Parkway, Suite 204Lakewood, CO 80228(303) 969-6565, Extension 233

21) Braithwait, Jim. 1996. Using GuardAnimals to Protect Livestock. MissouriDepartment of Conservation. 14 p.<http://www.conservation.state.mo.us/documents/landown/wild/guard_animals.pdf>.

22) International Llama Association. 1995.Guard Llamas: An Alternative for Effec-tive Predator Management. EducationalBrochure # 2. 4 p. <http://www.internationalllama.org/html/pdf/(2)%20guard%20llamas.pdf>.

23) Castalia Llama. 2000. Llamas as Guard-ians�NOT! 6 p. <http://www.rockisland.com/~castalia/guard.html>.

24) Franklin, William L., and Kelly J. Powell.1994. Guard Llamas: A part of IntegratedSheep Protection. Pm-1527 Iowa StateUniversity. 12 p. <http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1527.pdf>.

25) Anderson, Dean M. 1998. Pro-activelivestock management�Capitalizing onAnimal Behavior. Journal of Arid LandManagement. p. 113�116.

Further Resources

WEBSITES

USDA/APHIS/WShttp://www.aphis.usda.gov/ws/statereportindex.html

Each state�s Wildlife Service activity reportand state WS contact information.

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/oa/pubs/guarddog.pdf

Publication Livestock Guarding Dogs ProtectingSheep from Predators.

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/oa/pubs/prodguide.pdf

Publication A Producers Guide to PreventingPredation of Livestock.

National Association of State Departments ofAgriculturehttp://www.nasda-hq.org/nasda/nasda/member_information/gen_main.htm

Each state�s Department of Agriculture con-tact information listed in a directory.

Maryland Small Ruminant Pagehttp://www.sheepandgoat.com/predator.html

�Predator and Wildlife Management� haslinks to many different sources of informa-tion and publications in all areas of predatordamage control and management.

http://www.sheepandgoat.com/fencing.html�Fencing� has links to many publications onfencing, as well as many fencing vendors.

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Alberta Agriculture, Food, and RuralDevelopment Ministry

http://www.gov.on.ca:80/OMAFR/english/livestock/sheep/facts/coydog2.htmPublication Something�s Been Killing My Sheep� But What? How to Differentiate Between Coy-ote and Dog Predation.

http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdex/600/684-7.htmlPublication Protecting Livestock from Predationwith Electric Fencing.

http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdex/400/6700201b.htmlPublication The Donkey: Management.

Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food andRural Affairs

http://www.gov.on.ca/OMAFRA/english/livestock/sheep/facts/donkey2.htmPublication Guidelines for Using Donkeys asGuard Animals with Sheep.

Canadian Federation of Agriculturehttp://www.cfa-fca.ca/english/publications/

wildlife/wolf.htmPublication Preventing Wolf Predation on Pri-vate Land.

Iowa State Universityhttp://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publica-

tions/SA8.pdfPublication Composting Dead Livestock: A NewSolution to an Old Problem.

http://www.suite101.com/print_article.cfm/9948/63040Article �Sheep In, Coyotes Out: High Ten-sile Electric Fencing.�

http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1527.pdfPublication Guard Llamas: A Part of IntegratedSheep Protection.

Minnesota Department of Agriculturehttp://www.mda.state.mn.us/AMS/wolf.htm

Publication Wolves in Farm Country: A Guidefor Minnesota Farmers and Ranchers Living inWolf Territory.

http://www.mda.state.mn.us/composting/compostguide.pdfPublication Composting Animal Mortalities.

Missouri Department of Conservationhttp://www.conservation.state.mo.us/

documents/landown/wild/guard_animals.pdfPublication Using Guard Animals to ProtectLivestock.

University of Nebraska-Lincolnhttp://deal.unl.edu/icwdm/handbook.shtml

Book Prevention and Control of Wildlife Dam-age�1994 has separate chapters for morethan 90 species of wildlife that may causedamage to crops or livestock. Each of thesechapters provides identification, damage pre-vention, and control methods.

Oregon State Universityhttp://eesc.orst.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/

PNW225.pdfPublication Building an Electric AntipredatorFence.

http://eesc.orst.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/EC1238.pdfPublication Raising and Training a Livestock-guarding Dog.

Texas A&M Universityhttp://texnat.tamu.edu/ranchref/predator/b-

1429-2.htmPublication Procedures for Evaluating Predationon Livestock and Wildlife.

American Sheep Industry Association, Inc.http://www.sheepusa.org/resources/

predcontrol.shtmlThe book Sheep Production Handbook chapterentitled �Fencing Against Predators.�

American Donkey and Mule Society, Inc.http://www.lovelongears.com

Good source of general information on don-keys and guard donkeys.

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IP196

C&C Farm Websitehttp://www.c-c-farms.com

Good source of general management andgreat practical information on guard dogs.

Livestock and Poultry EnvironmentalStewardship

http://www.lpes.org/Lessons/Lesson51/51_Mortality_Management.htmlCurriculum: Lesson 51: Mortality Managementon composting dead livestock.

Llamapaedia Websiteh t t p : / / w w w . l l a m a p a e d i a . c o m / u s e s /

guard.htmlPublication Sheep Guarding.

http://www.llamapaedia.com/behavior/guardbehav.htmlPublication Guarding Behavior.

BOOKS

...May Safely Graze: Protecting Livestock AgainstPredators

Eugene FytcheR.R. 1Almonte, Ontario K0A 1A0(613) 256�1798Book is $12.95 including shipping to U.S.

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Hand-book�1994

Wildlife Damage Handbook202 Natural Resources HallUniversity of NebraskaLincoln, NE 68583-0810(402) 472-2188http://wildlifedamage.unl.edu/Book is $40 plus $5 shipping. CD-ROM is$40 plus $3 shipping.

Coyote Predation of Livestock�Agdex 684-19 for $8Canadian plus shipping orFencing with Electricity�Agdex 724-6 for $10 Ca-nadian plus shipping orMethods of Investigating Predation of Livestock�Agdex 684-14 for $8 Canadian plus shipping

Alberta Agriculture, Food and RuralDevelopment Publication Office(780) 427-0391http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdex/000/orderin.htmlVisa and MasterCard orders only

Ain�t Life Grand with a Great Pyrenees Guarding theFlock

C&C FarmsRoute 3, Box 6815Stigler, OK 74462(918) 967-4871http://www.c-c-farms.com/book_order_pg.htmlBook is $23.95 including postage to U.S.

By NCAT Staff

Edited by Paul WilliamsFormatted by Gail Hardy

October 2002

The electronic version of PredatorControl for Sustainable & OrganicLivestock Production is located at:HTMLhttp://www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/predator.htmlPDFhttp://www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/predator.pdf

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Appendix: Disposal of Dead Livestock

Regulations for disposal of livestock mortalities vary from state to state. Most states require timelydisposal of mortalities, usually within 24 to 48 hours. A state�s Department of Agriculture is usually incharge of regulations concerning the allowable methods of disposal, including incineration, burying,rendering, and/or composting. Producers should contact their local Extension Agent or their Depart-ment of Agriculture (Department of Health in Arkansas) for specific regulations and requirements.The National Association of State Departments of Agriculture has each state�s contact informationlisted in a directory located at<http://www.nasda-hq.org/nasda/nasda/member_information/gen_main.htm>.

Incineration of the carcass is one disposal method. Incinerators can be expensive to buy and oper-ate, and their capacity is generally limited to smaller animals. Some incinerators may generate airpollution and objectionable odors. Incinerators are not very practical for small or mid-size livestockproducers, if other disposal methods are available.

Burial is a common practice and is generally regulated by the state. The livestock carcass usuallyneeds to be buried 4 to 8 feet deep, and the possible problem of contamination leaching into theground water needs to be considered. Handling animal mortalities by burial in the winter with theground frozen can also pose problems. Scavengers can uncover improperly buried mortalities.

Renderers� pickup services vary greatly from one area to another. Renderer pickup, if available, maybe costly and be limited to certain quantities and/or species (sheep and goats are usually not pickedup because of concerns about scrapie infection) (1).

Composting livestock carcasses may also be regulated by the state; some states do not allow sheepor goat composting because of concerns about scrapie. If composting is allowed, producers shouldconsider it because composting is cost effective, environmentally sound, and relatively easy.Composting dead animals is achieved by layering the carcasses and the organic waste amendmentsaccording to a prescribed plan and not mixing the materials until the composting has finished and thedead animals are fully decomposed (longer time for larger carcasses). Compost piles that are prop-erly constructed and correctly covered with compost mixed to capture odors will not attract scaven-gers. However, fencing should be used around compost piles to keep out predators and dogs.

The Natural Resource, Agriculture and Engineering Service (NRAES) has two excellent publicationson composting that provide specific mortality composting guidelines. They are On-Farm CompostingHandbook, NRAES-54 for $25 plus postage, and the Field Guide to On-Farm Composting, NRAES-114 for $14 plus postage. They can be ordered at (607) 255�7654 or at <http://www.nraes.org>.

Other sources of information on composting livestock carcasses are:

� The publication Composting Animal Mortalities at <http://www.mda.state.mn.us/composting/compostguide.pdf>

� The website Livestock and Poultry Environmental Stewardship Curriculum: Lesson 51: MortalityManagement at <http://www.lpes.org/Lessons/Lesson51/51_Mortality_Management.html>

� The publication Composting dead livestock: A new solution to an old problem at <http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/SA8.pdf>

Reference: 1) Stanford, K., et al. 2000. Composting as a means of disposal of sheep mortalities. Compost Scienceand Utilization. Spring. p. 13-146.