Pre-Level 2 STRENGTH - World Rugby · some elite performers fail to accumulate the magic number of...

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LTAD overview

Introduction

This topic will describe the dominant Long Term Athlete Development model that is popular in team sports. The modelwill be critically examined in light of recent research and underpinned by practical experience of operating the model.Ten key headings will be used to critique the model and the coach is asked to reflect on his or her own interpretation oflong term development under these headings.

AimTo provide a critical review of a commonly used long term athlete development model within a Rugby Union context.

OutcomeThe S&C coach will be able to use a 10 step evaluation process in critiquing a long term player development model.

Key termsAdolescent Awkwardness:

The phase typically during peak height velocity when a player may display reduced coordination and power capacity.

Long Term Pathway:

The progression in terms of development and growth across several disciplines from early childhood years through toadulthood – all within a sport development context.

Peak Height Velocity:

The phase of most rapid growth in stature that typically occurs during the early teenage years.

Origins of LTAD

We have previously described the origins of Long Term Athlete Development models and noted the early work of Balyiand Way (2005) in providing a template for many sporting organisations in planning and implementing a long term playerdevelopment pathway.

Further, we acknowledge that the predominant model in place in sport (that is the model described by Balyi and Way(2005)) is not a prescriptive model but rather a model that seeks to provide guidelines for implementing a developmentpathway based on both scientific principles and experience. It has, however, become clear that while we may use themodel to help us prescribe a pathway of development based on a series of progressively challenging stages, thepopular LTAD model has been undergoing significant scrutiny over recent years.

In this topic, we will consider the LTAD as it exists in light of our experience in developing a Rugby specific pathwayover the last 8 years and also in light of more recent research and evaluation of the concept of LTAD.

IRB LEVEL 2 STRENGTH & CONDITIONING

STRENGTH &CONDITIONING

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Pre-LTAD practices

Until recently, most national sporting bodies were superimposing adult/male perspectives on all levels of participants.This was a common trend in sport internationally. The introduction of the LTAD model challenged the adult dominatedmethodology for athlete development and so most sports including Rugby Union have embraced the principles of theLTAD model as articulated by Balyi and Way (2005).

Recent reviews and studies however, on the appropriateness of different training methods and approaches lead us toreconsider many of the principles of long term player development.

Model disciplines

The Balyi and Way (2005) model, it can be argued, concentrates on physiological and biological disciplines. This isimportant for coaches to understand, as it illustrates the strengths and the limitations of the model. When other longterm development models are considered such as that proposed by Cote (2009) and Bailey and Morley (2006), we notethat the primary disciplines of social and development psychology, education and philosophy in guiding the process ofathlete development are emphasised.

Taken as a whole, the various models all have something to offer as the athlete is a living, social, emotional andcompetitive being. Further, rather than restricting our model to just a physiological/biological entity, it is appropriate toreflect on a broader, more comprehensive and dynamic approach to long term athlete development.



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10 key principles of LTAD

A 10 step reflection

In figure 1 below we present ten key principles that underpin any model and allow reflection on its strengths andlimitations. Reflecting on each of these principles will allow us to consider the positive elements and the gaps that mayexist in our LTAD approach.

Figure 1. A 10 step evaluation of LTAD model (from Balyi et al 2005).

The 10 year or 10,000 hour rule

The concept of a 10 year or 10,000 hour requirement for elite athlete development noted by Ericsson et al (1993) wasfurther promoted from the work of popular authors such as Malcom Gladwell. Balyi supported this contention by statingthat: “scientific research has concluded that it takes eight-to-twelve years of training for a talented player/athlete toreach elite levels.’’



LTAD - A Critique

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10 YEAR RULE

COMPETITION

PERIODISATION

SPECIALISATION

DEVELOPMENTALAGE

CONTINUOUSIMPROVEMENT

WINDOWS OFOPPORTUNITY

FUNDAMENTALPHYSICALLITERACY

SYSTEMALIGNMENT &INTEGRATION

MENTAL /COGNITIVE /EMOTIONAL

DEVELOPMENT

LONG TERMPLAYER

DEVELOPMENT

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This, in practical terms, he notes, translates to slightly more than three hours of physical practice daily for ten years andcites the work of numerous researchers being central in this research (Ericsson et al 1993; Ericsson and Charness 1994;Bloom 1985; Salmela et al 1998).

Figure 2. How long will it take for these young players to reach elite level?

While many studies note that elite performers trained more than near-elite performers, there is evidence to show thatsome elite performers fail to accumulate the magic number of 10,000 practice hours (Van Rossum 2000). Further, otherauthors have indicated that reducing the development of expertise in sport solely to deliberate practice fails toacknowledge important developmental, psycho-social and motivational factors of young athletes (Baker & Cote 2006).



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Fundamental movement skills

The LTAD model of Balyi and Way (2005) does not highlight the critical role of play (in its various forms) during the earlychildhood years (see Figures 5 and 6 below). During this period from infancy to approximately 6 years of age, severalresearchers content that the fundamental movement skills are honed and that their level of development willsubsequently influence later performance (Gallaghue and Donnelly 2003).

Figure 3. Fundamental movement skill development in the early childhood years is regarded as an important contributorto later sport performance.

Also, the prior involvement of a player in the different types of child play is, for the most part, ignored in the model. Ofinterest to us is whether there is a relationship between early childhood free play involvement (that is the type of playand the quantity of it) and later player performance. Currently, while several authors may express an opinion that suchrelationships may exist, such questions have not received adequate attention within the scientific research community.We look forward to such questions being addressed in the near future.



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Figure 4. The later childhood years, again an important period for FMS development.

The important role of the FMS skills are well articulated in general in the model of Balyi and Way (2005). This is now arelatively common part of any LTAD approach across a broad range of sports including Rugby Union. The practicalapplication of FMS coaching and practice is however, not quite as well developed in terms of actual coaching practice.Many coaches still struggle to understand how FMS skills can be incorporated into the coaching session. Given the factthat informal play is now significantly less in terms of time than it was 25 years ago, coaches and educators arechallenged to devise methods and means to allow for greater FMS integration into the Rugby Union coaching planespecially for the growing child.

While there seems to be an acknowledgement that having children exposed to a variety of sports in their early formativeyears is a positive thing, it is by no means clear that participation in a variety of sports is essential for elite performance.A study by Moesch and colleagues (2011) notes that participation in a variety of sports in the formative early teenageyears neither differs between the non-elite and elite groups nor does it predict eventual success.



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Specialisation

It can be argued that there is no evidence that an early and high amount of sport-specific training is associated withgreater success at a later stage (Vaeyens et al 2009). In addition, there is evidence that early specialisation may lead tonegative outcomes for players or athletes, such as drop out and injuries (DeFiori et al 2014, Jayanthi et al 2011,VanSicle 2006). However, the S&C coach must be clear regarding what early specialisation is and is not. Is coaching a 6year old player to pass a Rugby ball to a team mate evidence of early specialisation? It is likely not, provided that theyoung player is exposed to a broad range of fundamental movement skills during his or her activity time.

Figure 5. Practising the basic skills of the game in conjunction with a broader FMS range is highly desirable for theyoung player.

Developmental age

The relative age effect (RAE) is common in team sports. The RAE refers to the selection of players who are born early inthe age cycle. For example, a 12 year old born in January will have 11 months growth and development advantage overa player born in December of the same year. Further, the RAE is based on the fact that coaches tend to prioritise theirselection of players on their physical and physiological maturation as opposed to their skills of movement and skills ofthe sport. The danger of such an approach is that later maturing players are sidelined and not given game time (andperhaps attention in coaching practice) and that as a result, they may be lost to the sport. Further, some Rugby Unionprogrammes have actually taken into account this effect and have created opportunities for later maturing players todevelop in a systematic programme with some success (Hennessy 2013).



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Figure 6. The selection of early maturing players and the impact on the later maturing player is an important issue inRugby Union.

As we have previously noted, the RAE impacts on the development of players and their participation in the sport.Further, coaches need to be conscious of the physical growth effect that occurs between 11 and 15 years of age. Oneimportant growth related phenomenon is that the early maturing player may experience what is now called ‘adolescentawkwardness’. The awkwardness may be displayed in movement and skill execution. The coach of the youth playerneeds to be aware of this and should seek to ensure that the growing youth’s potential awkwardness is managed asbest possible.



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Windows of opportunity

We previously noted in Level 1 that an understanding of the windows of opportunity has been seen as important forguiding the type of activity emphasised at a certain stage of development. However, it may also be that a rigidadherence to this concept can mislead coaches into thinking that they must ensure high volumes of particular trainingthat meet the particular age of onset of these sensitive development periods. While the research does suggest thatyoung athletes may display a reduced capacity for power and characteristics of reduced skill (that is adolescentawkwardness) for example during PHV, it is clear that at all ages, children and young athletes will gain from a properlyplanned and supervised strength and conditioning programme. Evidence suggests that long term resistance training forexample for teenagers will result in not only greater strength and power but also will contribute to ongoing movementimprovement (Keiner et al 2013, Johnson et al 2011).

Figure 7. The Windows of Opportunity or Sensitive Phases for Development.

A further point to emphasize is that all fitness related components are trainable at all stages of the LTAD pathway. Oncethe S&C coach plans appropriately, taking into account the stage of development of the youth player and the previousbackground in Resistance Training, the teenager between 13 and 19 years of age should be physically and emotionallyready to benefit from a well-designed Resistance Training programme – be it AA, a circuit based strength programme ora more formal Gym based programme.

The development model as described by Lloyd et al (2011), see Figure 8 below, highlights the physical qualities that areimportant to develop during the adolescent years, and this includes: agility, speed, power and strength. Also note inFigure 8 that Hypertrophy (that is the development of greater muscle mass) is regarded as a trainable quality during thelatter teenage years.



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Figure 8. Long Term Physical Development as described by Lloyd et al 2011.

Socio-cultural, cognitive and emotional development

We noted earlier that a biological LTAD model may not be holistic enough to capture all the factors that needconsideration when reviewing a LTAD model for any sport including Rugby Union. Factors and traits other than thephysical development of the player are important to consider in the overall long term development approach.



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Figure 9. Social, cultural, cognitive and emotional factors all play a key role in a player’s involvement and development inthe sport.

It is important that the long term model helps the S&C coach to understand the impact of other factors such as thesocial and cultural factors as well as cognitive and emotional development of the player. Such factors help the coach tounderstand the processes involved in the manner in which players interact with each other and the coaching staff aswell as respond in a given coaching context and in competition. Also the S&C coach should recognise that while aplayer may be physically mature, the emotional maturation of a youth player may not keep pace with his or her physicaldevelopment.

Periodisation

The concept of Periodisation was introduced and discussed in Level 1. Periodisation has been shown to be an effectiveplanning and organisational tool in ensuring that long term player development continues to effect improvement inphysical fitness and skill application (Bompa and Haff 2009, Keiner et al 2013). Thus S&C coaches should be wellversed in the options that are available within a sport-specific context for periodised programming. Here in this Level 2course the S&C coach will be expected to bring these basic periodisation principles to bear in planning and managingan 8 week programme of development for the squad or team.



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System alignment and integration

The IRB model that integrates the various disciplines (physical, technical, social etc) is summed up as a generalstatement in the model presented in Figure 10 below.

Figure 10. IRB integrated and progressive Long Term Development model.

The important point here is that the model described is not a prescriptive statement. Recent reviews and proposalsregarding long term development approaches articulate the importance of a dynamic and flexible development model(Gulbin et al 2013). Understanding that players of any given age will differ in several areas such as physically,emotionally, socially and cognitively is important for all adults involved in coaching. Further, it is important for allinvolved in the sport to be aware of the both the positives and limitations and gaps of any long term developmentapproach. Ensuring that a model or pathway is regularly reviewed in light of experience, efficacy, newly availableresearch and reflection on the development process allows all concerned to become more competent and informed,with the ultimate aim of enhancing the experience and involvement of all involved in the sport.

The integration of several systems is a key concept in ensuring that players are central in the process and that the sportis an exciting and safe one in terms of preparation and participation in match play. The Coach-Player-Team-Stages ofdevelopment model has at its core the aim of aligning all systems. This ‘integrated pathway’ is also influenced byadvances and new findings that may occur within reviews, applied research and changes to the rules of the game thatregularly occur.



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Competition

The long term development pathway has to be reflected in the competitive approach and structures that operate withinthe sport. This is a major challenge for all sports. In practice the game at the child and youth level has many differencesto the adult game and this reflects the different stage of development within the long term development pathway.

Figure 11. Competition while at the heart of any sport is built upon participation and engagement.

Changes in the rules of the game have been influenced by the need to ensure maximum participation and engagementfor all players especially at the child-youth level. These changes are central to a philosophy that relates to the meaningof ‘competition’ and reflect a greater awareness of the need to ensure that all players have a worthwhile and involvedrole in match play regardless of age and physical development.



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Continuous improvement

There is recognition in not only the Balyi and Way (2005) LTAD model but also in the adopted and amended versionsthat exist and are noted at the start of our topic that long term development should be a dynamic and evolving concept.Further, while we recognise the gaps and limitations of any given model, it is our readiness to be open-minded that isimportant in ensuring that we strive for continuous improvement - not only in the coaching process but also in thealignment of the systems that constitute the sport.

Figure 12. Continuous improvement requires open, honest and regular review of models and processes.

Summary

The S&C coach is by now well versed in understanding the principles that underpin Long Term Player development.However, in this topic we reviewed in a critical manner the model currently used to guide the decision making for LongTerm Player Development planning. A 10 step approach to evaluating the LTAD model was described here. The 10 stepsare by no means the only model that can be used to reflect on, critique and consider the merits or limitations of anyLong Term Development model. In fact and much like the LTAD model itself, the process of ongoing and regular reviewand evaluation is important for all involved in the game.



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References

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Baker et al. Sportspecific practice and the development of expert decision-making in team ball sports. J Appl SportPsychol 2003: 15:12–25.

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Ericsson KA. Development of elite performance and deliberate practice: an update from the perspective of the expertperformance approach. In: Starkes JL, Ericsson KA, eds Expert performance in sports. Advances in research on sportexpertise. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2003: 49–83.

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Hodges & Starkes. Wrestling with the nature of expertise; a sport specific test of Ericsson, Krampe and Tesch-Romer’s(1993) theory of deliberate practice. Int J Sport Psychol 1996: 27:400–424.

Law et al. Characteristics of expert development in rhythmic gymnastics: a retrospective study. Int J Sport ExercPsychol 2007: 5: 82–103.

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Vaeyens et al. Talent identification and promotion programmes of Olympic athletes. J Sports Sci 2009: 27: 1367–1380.

Ward et al. Deliberate practice and expert performance. Defining the path to excellence. In: Williams AM, Hodges NJ,eds Skill acquisition in sport: research, theory and practice. London, New York: Routledge, 2004.



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