““The Nation and its The Nation and its Fragments”Fragments”

Moderating & Resisting State-Moderating & Resisting State-sponsored Nation-Building in Turkeysponsored Nation-Building in Turkey

A Kurdish man in southeast Turkey, 2004. Photo: N.F. Watts

“Türkiye’de 71½ millet var/In Turkey there are 71½ nations.” -Turkish proverb

The New Turkish Nation (in sum): The New Turkish Nation (in sum): what were its key characteristics?what were its key characteristics?

ModernModern WesternWestern National (Turks=nation)National (Turks=nation) SecularSecular Scientific, rationalScientific, rational

Turkish businessmen walk across the street and past the subway station in Levent, one of Istanbul's most famous living and financial areas. EPA PHOTO / KERIM OKTEN

The New Turkish nation: The New Turkish nation: Who & what didn’t belong?Who & what didn’t belong?

““Traditionals”Traditionals”– Customary ways of lifeCustomary ways of life

Religious figuresReligious figures IslamIslam Kurds, ArabsKurds, Arabs Christians, JewsChristians, Jews Folk lore/superstitionFolk lore/superstition

Kurdish leader Seit Riza, 1930

Fragments of the nation: Those who didn’t belong

State-sponsored nationalism: State-sponsored nationalism: Who resisted, and how?Who resisted, and how?

Many Kurds, especially in the Many Kurds, especially in the southeastsoutheast– Rebellions (1925, 1938-39, Rebellions (1925, 1938-39,

1984-1999)1984-1999)– Ballot box, political activism Ballot box, political activism

(1960s onward)(1960s onward) Muslim leadersMuslim leaders Many ordinary peopleMany ordinary people

– Challenging edict through Challenging edict through practice and timepractice and time

call to prayer in Arabiccall to prayer in Arabic– Through the ballot boxThrough the ballot box

Consistent support for more Consistent support for more populist, less reformist populist, less reformist partiesparties

Continued pressure for Continued pressure for popular participation, respect popular participation, respect for the popular willfor the popular will

Former Turkish Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, elected in Turkey’s first multi-party elections in 1950, and later executed.

Some details on the Kurdish Some details on the Kurdish “response”“response”

Response: Response: Kurdish peripheral nationalismKurdish peripheral nationalism

Early uprisingsEarly uprisings Rise of a new Rise of a new

counter-elite and counter-elite and the re-creation of the re-creation of Kurdish identity, Kurdish identity, 1960s1960s

PKK guerrilla PKK guerrilla activism, 1984-activism, 1984-19991999

Modes of ConflictModes of Conflict Guerrilla warGuerrilla war

– Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK)Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) Conventional politicsConventional politics

– Pro-Kurdish political partiesPro-Kurdish political parties Civil contention and protestCivil contention and protest

– Kurdish newspapers, cultural Kurdish newspapers, cultural organizationsorganizations

– Human rights organizationsHuman rights organizations

Kurds

I can't talk because I don't know my languageI'd like to tell you about my self but I don't know my historyI have no education because there are no schoolsI don't have a brother, he was a politician, he got killed

No I'm sorry, no friends either, they are all in prison

I don't have a village because it's burned downI don't have a house because tanks destroyed itI couldn't stay in my land because mines cover itI have no sister, she was a journalist, she just disappeared

No I'm sorry, no relatives either, they fled from the war

I don't know any songs, they are bannedI can't dance, it's forbiddenI can't tell you any stories because no one ever told me anyI don't have parents, they were hanged

No, I'm sorry, no country either, it has been stolen

S.W.Z

Boys at a Kurdish New Year celebration in the early 1990s. Photo: Kevin McKiernan.

PKK guerrillas, early 1990s.

Who is involved?Who is involved? Turkish Armed ForcesTurkish Armed Forces Kurdistan Workers Kurdistan Workers

Party (PKK)Party (PKK) Pro-Kurdish Pro-Kurdish

politicians in various politicians in various political partiespolitical parties

Liberal Turkish media Liberal Turkish media and civil society and civil society organizationsorganizations

Kurdish diaspora Kurdish diaspora community and other community and other transnational actorstransnational actors

Ordinary peopleOrdinary people

Effects of the conflictEffects of the conflict 35,000 dead35,000 dead New attention to New attention to

status of Kurds in status of Kurds in Turkey on domestic Turkey on domestic and international and international agendaagenda

Some political Some political gainsgains

Human rights Human rights abusesabuses

Pro-Kurdish newspapers such as this one are often closed down for expressing support for PKK leader Abdullah Ocalan.

Current status: stalemate?Current status: stalemate? 1999 capture of PKK 1999 capture of PKK

leader Abdullah leader Abdullah Öcalan; PKK guerrillas Öcalan; PKK guerrillas lay down armslay down arms

Reformation of PKK?Reformation of PKK? Emergency law lifted Emergency law lifted

in the southeastern in the southeastern provincesprovinces

2002 “Mini-2002 “Mini-democratization”democratization”

PKK guerrillas in PKK guerrillas in northern Iraqi northern Iraqi mountainsmountains PKK leader Abdullah Ocalan was captured by

Turkish special forces in Kenya in Feb. 1999 and flown, drugged and tied up, back to Turkey for trial.