PPA 503 – The Public Policy-Making Process Lecture 5a – Agenda Setting.

PPA 503 – The Public PPA 503 – The Public Policy-Making ProcessPolicy-Making Process

Lecture 5a – Agenda SettingLecture 5a – Agenda Setting

IntroductionIntroduction

Schattscheider – “The definition of Schattscheider – “The definition of the alternatives is the supreme the alternatives is the supreme instrument of power.”instrument of power.” The definition of alternative issues, The definition of alternative issues,

problems, and solutions is crucial, problems, and solutions is crucial, because it established which issues, because it established which issues, problems, and solutions will gain the problems, and solutions will gain the attention of the public and decision attention of the public and decision makers and which, in turn, are most makers and which, in turn, are most likely to gain broader attention.likely to gain broader attention.

IntroductionIntroduction

Elite theory suggests that relatively few Elite theory suggests that relatively few people in key positions in government, people in key positions in government, industry, academe, the media, and other industry, academe, the media, and other institutions control a disproportionate institutions control a disproportionate share of the nation’s economic and share of the nation’s economic and political resources.political resources.

However, while the system is biased, often However, while the system is biased, often the disadvantaged interests can coalesce the disadvantaged interests can coalesce and, when the time is right, find avenues and, when the time is right, find avenues for the promotion of their ideas.for the promotion of their ideas.

Agenda SettingAgenda Setting Agenda setting is the process by which problems Agenda setting is the process by which problems

and alternative solutions gain or lose public and and alternative solutions gain or lose public and elite attention.elite attention.

Group competition to set the agenda is fierce Group competition to set the agenda is fierce because no society or political system has the because no society or political system has the institutional capacity to address all possible institutional capacity to address all possible alternatives to all possible problems that arise at alternatives to all possible problems that arise at any one time.any one time.

Groups must therefore fight to earn their issues’ Groups must therefore fight to earn their issues’ places among all the other issues sharing the places among all the other issues sharing the limited space on the agenda or to prepare for the limited space on the agenda or to prepare for the time when a crisis makes their issue more likely to time when a crisis makes their issue more likely to occupy a more prominent space on the agenda.occupy a more prominent space on the agenda.

Agenda SettingAgenda Setting

An agenda is a collection of problems, An agenda is a collection of problems, understandings of causes, symbols, understandings of causes, symbols, solutions, and other elements of public solutions, and other elements of public problems that come to the attention of problems that come to the attention of members of the public and their members of the public and their governmental officials.governmental officials.

Agendas exist at all levels of government. Agendas exist at all levels of government. Every community and every body of Every community and every body of government has a collection of issues that government has a collection of issues that are available for discussion and disposition.are available for discussion and disposition.

Agenda SettingAgenda Setting Levels of the agenda.Levels of the agenda.

Agenda universe – all ideas that could possibly Agenda universe – all ideas that could possibly be brought up and discussed in a society or a be brought up and discussed in a society or a political system.political system.

Systemic agenda – all issues that are Systemic agenda – all issues that are commonly perceived by members of the commonly perceived by members of the political community as meriting public attention political community as meriting public attention and as involving matters within the legitimate and as involving matters within the legitimate jurisdiction of existing governmental authority.jurisdiction of existing governmental authority.

Institutional agenda – the list of items explicitly Institutional agenda – the list of items explicitly up for the active and serious consideration of up for the active and serious consideration of authoritative decision-makers.authoritative decision-makers.

Decision agenda – items about to be acted on Decision agenda – items about to be acted on by a governmental body.by a governmental body.

Agenda-SettingAgenda-Setting

Agenda SettingAgenda Setting

Because the agenda is finite, Because the agenda is finite, interests must compete with each interests must compete with each other to get their issues and their other to get their issues and their preferred alternative policies, on the preferred alternative policies, on the agenda.agenda.

They must also compete with each They must also compete with each other to keep their issues off the other to keep their issues off the agenda, using the power resources agenda, using the power resources at their disposal.at their disposal.

The Idea of Political PowerThe Idea of Political Power We know instinctively that some groups are more We know instinctively that some groups are more

powerful than others.powerful than others. But, what does power mean in this context.But, what does power mean in this context. Two faces of power.Two faces of power.

One face – the power to compel people to do things, even One face – the power to compel people to do things, even against their will, a against their will, a coercivecoercive power. power.

Second face – the ability to keep a person from doing Second face – the ability to keep a person from doing what he or she wants to do, a what he or she wants to do, a blockingblocking power. power.

In the first face of power, “A” participates in the In the first face of power, “A” participates in the making of decisions that affect “B”, even if B does making of decisions that affect “B”, even if B does not like the decisions or their consequences.not like the decisions or their consequences.

In the second face of power, A prevents B’s issues In the second face of power, A prevents B’s issues and interests from getting on the agenda or and interests from getting on the agenda or becoming policy, even when actor B really wants becoming policy, even when actor B really wants these issues raised.these issues raised.

The Idea of Political PowerThe Idea of Political Power

The blocking form of power does not The blocking form of power does not arise simply because of A’s superior arise simply because of A’s superior resources, but usually because the resources, but usually because the system itself (the nature and rules of system itself (the nature and rules of the game) is biased against B.the game) is biased against B. Mobilization of bias – Schattschneider.Mobilization of bias – Schattschneider.

Groups and Power in Public PolicyGroups and Power in Public Policy

Issues are more likely to be elevated to agenda status if the Issues are more likely to be elevated to agenda status if the scope of conflict is broadened.scope of conflict is broadened.

Two key ways that disadvantaged groups expand the scope Two key ways that disadvantaged groups expand the scope of conflict.of conflict. Going public by using symbols and images to induce greater Going public by using symbols and images to induce greater

media and public sympathy.media and public sympathy. Appeal to a higher decision level.Appeal to a higher decision level.

Conversely, dominant groups work to limit the scope of Conversely, dominant groups work to limit the scope of conflict.conflict. The dominant groups do so through The dominant groups do so through policy monopoliespolicy monopolies, ,

which attempt to keep problems and underlying policy issues which attempt to keep problems and underlying policy issues low on the agenda.low on the agenda.

Policy monopolies use agreed-upon symbols and images to Policy monopolies use agreed-upon symbols and images to construct their visions of problems, causation, solution. These construct their visions of problems, causation, solution. These agreements limit agenda access for other groups, symbols and agreements limit agenda access for other groups, symbols and ideas.ideas.

Groups and Power: Overcoming Groups and Power: Overcoming the Power Deficitthe Power Deficit

Baumgartner and Jones argue that Baumgartner and Jones argue that when powerful groups lose their when powerful groups lose their control of the agenda, less powerful control of the agenda, less powerful groups can enter policy debates and groups can enter policy debates and gain attention to their issues.gain attention to their issues.

This greater attention tends to This greater attention tends to increase negative public attitudes increase negative public attitudes toward the status quo, which then toward the status quo, which then allows lasting institutional and allows lasting institutional and agenda changes.agenda changes.


Several ways that groups can bring issues to Several ways that groups can bring issues to public attention.public attention. Kingdon’s streams metaphor.Kingdon’s streams metaphor.

Policy, politics, problem streams.Policy, politics, problem streams. Crossing of streams – windows of opportunity.Crossing of streams – windows of opportunity. Driven by group action and policy entrepreneurs.Driven by group action and policy entrepreneurs.

Indicators, focusing events, and agenda change.Indicators, focusing events, and agenda change. Kingdon suggests that changes in indicators and focusing Kingdon suggests that changes in indicators and focusing

events are two ways in which groups and society as a events are two ways in which groups and society as a whole learn of problems in the world.whole learn of problems in the world.

Changes in indicators are usually changes in statistics Changes in indicators are usually changes in statistics about a problem.about a problem.

Focusing events are sudden, relatively rare events that Focusing events are sudden, relatively rare events that spark intense media and public attention because of their spark intense media and public attention because of their sheer magnitude or, sometimes, because of the harm they sheer magnitude or, sometimes, because of the harm they reveal.reveal.

Can energize new problems or existing, dormant problems.Can energize new problems or existing, dormant problems.


Several ways that groups can bring issues Several ways that groups can bring issues to public attention.to public attention. Group coalescence and strategies for change.Group coalescence and strategies for change.

Disadvantaged groups are not all passive and elite Disadvantaged groups are not all passive and elite groups are not all monolithic.groups are not all monolithic.

Pro-change groups will often coalesce into advocacy Pro-change groups will often coalesce into advocacy coalitions (groups with shared interest in a particular coalitions (groups with shared interest in a particular problem definition).problem definition).

Brings countervailing power to bear.Brings countervailing power to bear. Venue shopping.Venue shopping.

Institutional – executive (rulemaking), legislative Institutional – executive (rulemaking), legislative (hearings), judicial (litigation).(hearings), judicial (litigation).

Vertical – federal (scope expansion), state, local Vertical – federal (scope expansion), state, local (grassroots).(grassroots).

News media.News media.

Social Construction of Problems Social Construction of Problems and Issuesand Issues

Humans and their governments are problem Humans and their governments are problem solvers.solvers. Many of the social and technological advances Many of the social and technological advances

are solutions to social problems.are solutions to social problems. At the same time, there are many social At the same time, there are many social

problems that people believe should be “solved” problems that people believe should be “solved” or, at least, made better. Poverty, illiteracy, or, at least, made better. Poverty, illiteracy, racism, immorality, disease, disaster, crime, and racism, immorality, disease, disaster, crime, and any number of other ills will lead people and any number of other ills will lead people and groups to press for solutions.groups to press for solutions.

Many of the these problems are “public” goods Many of the these problems are “public” goods or bads.or bads.


The process of defining problems and The process of defining problems and of selling a broad population on this of selling a broad population on this definition is called social construction.definition is called social construction. How we structure and tell stories about How we structure and tell stories about

how problems come to be the way they how problems come to be the way they are.are.

A group that can create and promote the A group that can create and promote the most effective depiction of an issue has most effective depiction of an issue has an advantage in the battle over what, if an advantage in the battle over what, if anything, will be done about a problem.anything, will be done about a problem.


Stone – People tell stories about how Stone – People tell stories about how problems come to be by using symbols, problems come to be by using symbols, numbers, and stories about causes.numbers, and stories about causes.

The key to problem definition is not just The key to problem definition is not just reducing policy uncertainty because one reducing policy uncertainty because one person’s solution is another person’s person’s solution is another person’s problem.problem.

The key to problem definition is persuading The key to problem definition is persuading others that the problem is real or that the others that the problem is real or that the problem cited is the real problem.problem cited is the real problem.

The social construction of a problem is linked The social construction of a problem is linked to the existing social, political, and to the existing social, political, and ideological structures at the time.ideological structures at the time.


Conditions and problems.Conditions and problems. Conditions can develop into problems as Conditions can develop into problems as

people develop ways to address people develop ways to address conditions.conditions.

The advancement of technology turned polio The advancement of technology turned polio from an unavoidable condition into a social from an unavoidable condition into a social problem.problem.

The interruption of a solution (power failure) The interruption of a solution (power failure) can lead to a problem.can lead to a problem.


Symbols.Symbols. A symbol is anything that stands for something A symbol is anything that stands for something

else.else. Politics and policy are full of symbols.Politics and policy are full of symbols. Stone- four elements of the use of symbols.Stone- four elements of the use of symbols.

Narrative stories – told about how things good or bad Narrative stories – told about how things good or bad happen. Things are getting worse or declining. Simple happen. Things are getting worse or declining. Simple solutions to complex problems.solutions to complex problems.

Helplessness and control – something could not be Helplessness and control – something could not be done in the past, but now it can.done in the past, but now it can.

Synecdoche – a figure of speech in which the whole is Synecdoche – a figure of speech in which the whole is represented by one of its parts. Use of anecdotes or represented by one of its parts. Use of anecdotes or prototypical cases. Cheating welfare queens, etc.prototypical cases. Cheating welfare queens, etc.


Causal stories.Causal stories. The telling of causal stories. These The telling of causal stories. These

stories attempt to explain what caused a stories attempt to explain what caused a problem or an outcome. Four categories problem or an outcome. Four categories of causes: mechanical, accidental, of causes: mechanical, accidental, intentional, and inadvertent.intentional, and inadvertent.

Contestants in policy disputes will fight Contestants in policy disputes will fight over the depiction of the cause of a over the depiction of the cause of a problem that is most consistent with problem that is most consistent with their goals.their goals.


Causal stories Causal stories (contd.).(contd.).


Causal stories.Causal stories. Exxon-Valdez.Exxon-Valdez.

Act of God (accident).Act of God (accident). Drunken captain (inadvertent).Drunken captain (inadvertent). Willfully negligent company (intentional).Willfully negligent company (intentional).

Numbers as indicators of problems.Numbers as indicators of problems. Aggregate data appears to give problem Aggregate data appears to give problem

legitimacy.legitimacy. The decision to use numbers is a policy decision The decision to use numbers is a policy decision

in itself.in itself. Political pressure to keep gathering numbers so Political pressure to keep gathering numbers so

that we can see if problems are getting better.that we can see if problems are getting better.


Numbers as indicators of problems.Numbers as indicators of problems. But numbers are not necessarily objective But numbers are not necessarily objective

indicators of a problem.indicators of a problem. Numbers are only indicators, not the problem.Numbers are only indicators, not the problem.

Numbers are of questionable accuracy (census, Numbers are of questionable accuracy (census, achievement tests, UCR).achievement tests, UCR).

Is the indicator the best (most valid) measure of the Is the indicator the best (most valid) measure of the problem?problem?

The choice of statistic has a big impact on how the The choice of statistic has a big impact on how the problem is portrayed (median versus mean income).problem is portrayed (median versus mean income).

Numbers are political weapons and a number is not Numbers are political weapons and a number is not the same as its interpretation.the same as its interpretation.

PPA 503 – The Public Policy-Making Process Lecture 5a – Agenda Setting.

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