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10 Learning objectives
10.1 – Why memory does not work like a camera—
and how it does work
10.2 – Why errors can creep into our memories of
even surprising or shocking events
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10 Reconstructing the past
Memory
The capacity to retain and retrieve information, and also to the
structures that account for this capacity
The case study of H.M.
Could no longer remember new experiences after he had brain
surgery to treat his severe epilepsy.
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10 The manufacture of memory Memory is the capacity to retain and retrieve information. Memory is a reconstructive process. Source misattribution
The inability to distinguish what you originally experienced from what you heard or were told later about an event.
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10 Flashbulb memories
Some unusual, shocking, or tragic events hold a special place in memory.
Called flashbulb memories because of their surprise, illumination, and photographic detail
Even flashbulb memories have errors.
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10 Conditions of confabulation Confabulation
Confusion of an event that happened to someone else with one that happened to you.
A belief that you remember something when it never actually happened.
Confabulation is most likely when. . .
you have thought or heard about the event many times.
the image of the event contains many details.
the event is easy to imagine.
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10 Which is correct?
The inability to distinguish what you originally
experienced from what you heard or were told later
about an event is the definition of:
A. Confabulation
B. Source misattribution
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10 Learning objectives
10.3 – How memories of an event can be affected
by the way someone is questioned about it
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10 The eyewitness on trial
Eyewitnesses are not always reliable.
Factors influencing accuracy
Cross race identification
Question wording (e.g., “crashed” vs “hit”)
Misleading information
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10 What do you know?
Loftus and Palmer (1974) found that participants
had a better recall of events when words like
“smashed” or “collided” were used to describe a
car accident.
A. True
B. False
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10 Children’s testimony
Under what conditions are children more suggestible?
When they are very young
When interviewers’ expectations are clear
When other children’s memories for events are accessible
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10 Children’s testimony When asked if a visitor committed acts that had not occurred, few 4 to 6- year-olds said yes.
100% of 3-year-olds said yes.
When investigators used techniques taken from real child-abuse investigations, most children said yes.
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10 Learning objectives
10.4 – Whether you can know something without
knowing that you know it
10.5 – Why the computer is often used as a
metaphor for the mind
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10 Explicit memory
Conscious, intentional recollection of an event or item of information
Recall: The ability to retrieve and reproduce from memory previously learned material
Recognition: The ability to identify previously encountered material
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10 What do you know?
When you take a multiple-choice exam, which type
of explicit memory do you use?
A. Recall
B. Recognition
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10 Implicit memory
Unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced
by the effect of a previous experience or
previously encountered information on current
thoughts or actions
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10 Priming
A person reads or listens to information and is later tested to see whether the information affects performance on another type of task.
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10 Relearning
Compares the time required to relearn material with the time used in the initial learning of the material
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10 Three-box model of memory
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10 Parallel distributed processing (PDP) Model of memory in which knowledge is represented as connections among thousands of interacting processing units, distributed in a vast network, and all operating in parallel
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10 What do you know?
The parallel distributed processing theory of
memory suggests that memory works like a
computer.
A. True
B. False
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10 Learning objectives
10.6 – How the three “boxes” in the three-box model of
memory operate
10.7 – Why short-term memory is like a leaky bucket
10.8 – Why a word can feel like it’s “on the tip of your
tongue” and what errors you are likely to make when
you finally recall it
10.9 – The difference between “knowing how” and
“knowing that”
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10 Sensory register
A memory system that momentarily preserves extremely accurate images of sensory information
Pattern recognition
The identification of a stimulus on the basis of information already contained in long-term memory
Information that is not quickly passed to short-term memory is gone forever.
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10 Short-term memory
A limited capacity memory system involved in the retention of information for brief periods
Also used to hold information retrieved from long-term memory for temporary use
Chunk Meaningful unit of information that may be composed of smaller units
Working memory A memory system that includes STM and mental processes that control retrieval of information from LT memory and interpret that information appropriately for a given task
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10 Long-term memory
The memory system involved in the long-term storage of information
One way information is organized is in semantic categories (e.g., animals).
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10 Conceptual grid
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10 Tip-of-the-tongue states
In addition to semantic categories, verbal
information in long-term memory is indexed by
sound and form, and it is retrievable on that basis.
Incorrect guesses often have the correct number
of syllables, the correct stress pattern, the correct
first letter, or the correct prefix or suffix.
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10 Types of long-term memories
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10 Your turn
What kind of memory is your memory for the fact that the earth is round?
1. Procedural memory
2. Semantic memory
3. Episodic memory
4. Flashbulb memory
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10 Your turn
What kind of memory is your memory for the fact that the earth is round?
1. Procedural memory
2. Semantic memory
3. Episodic memory
4. Flashbulb memory
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10 Contents of long-term memory Procedural memories Memories for performance of actions or skills
“Knowing how”
Declarative memories Memories of facts, rules, concepts, and events; includes semantic and episodic memory
“Knowing that”
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10 Contents of long-term memory Semantic memories
General knowledge, including facts, rules, concepts, and propositions
Episodic memories
Personally experienced events and the contexts in which they occurred
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10 Serial-position effect
The tendency for recall of first and last items on a list to surpass recall of items in the middle of the list
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10 Your turn
You are asked to recall the following list of letters:
Z, S, E, R, F, V, B, H, U, I, K, M, N, G, B, F, O
Which letters are you most likely to remember in long-term memory?
1. Z, S, E, R
2. F, V, B, H
3. U, I, K, M
4. G, B, F, O
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10 Your turn
You are asked to recall the following list of letters:
Z, S, E, R, F, V, B, H, U, I, K, M, N, G, B, F, O
Which letters are you most likely to remember in long-term memory?
1. Z, S, E, R
2. F, V, B, H
3. U, I, K, M
4. G, B, F, O
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10 Learning objectives
10.10 – Changes that occur in the brain when you
store a short-term versus a long-term memory
10.11 – Where in the brain memories for facts and
events are stored
10.12 – Which hormones can improve memory
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10 The biology of memory
Forming a memory involves chemical and structural changes at the level of neurons.
In short-term memory, changes within neurons temporarily alter the neurons’ ability to release neurotransmitters.
In long-term memory, long-term potentiation, a long-lasting increase in the strength of synaptic responsiveness, occurs.
Most researchers believe this is the process underlying learning and memory, yet exact biochemical changes still debated.
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10 Brain areas involved in memory
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10 Consolidation
The process by which a long-term memory becomes durable and stable
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10 Which is correct?
Which part of the brain is responsible for the
formation, consolidation, and retrieval of
emotional memories?
A. Amygdala
B. Frontal lobes
C. Hippocampus
D. Cerebral cortex
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10 Which is correct?
Which part of the brain is responsible for short-
term memory and working memory tasks?
A. Hippocampus
B. Cerebral cortex
C. Cerebellum
D. Frontal lobes
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10 Which is correct?
Which part of the brain is responsible for the
storage of long-term memories, possibly in areas
involved in the original perception of the
information?
A. Cerebellum
B. Hippocampus
C. Cerebral cortex
D. Prefrontal cortex
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10 Locating memories
New brain imaging and testing show that: During short-term memory tasks, areas of the frontal lobes show activity.
During long-term memory tasks, the hippocampus shows activity.
During encoding of pictures and words, the prefrontal cortex and areas adjacent to the hippocampus show activity.
Procedural memories involve specific changes to the cerebellum.
The formation of long-term memories involves the cerebral cortex.
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10 Hormones, emotion, and memory Hormones released by the adrenal glands during stress and emotional arousal enhance memory.
These include epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Memory formation may also be affected by the amount of glucose available in the brain.
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10 Learning objectives
10.13 – How memory can be improved, and why
rote methods are not the best strategy
10.14 – Why memory tricks, although fun, are not
always useful
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10 Effective encoding
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10 Rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal
Rote repetition of material in order to maintain its availability in memory
Elaborative rehearsal
Association of new information with already stored knowledge and analysis of the new information to make it memorable
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10 Which is correct?
Andrea needs to learn the material for her next
Introductory Psychology test. As she reads the
concepts in the book, she associates them with
the knowledge she has accrued from listening to
her professor’s lectures. This describes:
A.Maintenance rehearsal
B.Elaborative rehearsal
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10 Deep processing
In the encoding of information, the processing of meaning rather than simply the physical or sensory features of a stimulus
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10 How to remember better
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10 Mnemonics
Strategies and tricks for improving memory, such
as use of a verse or a formula
Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally
ROYGBIV
Thirty days hath September. . .
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10 Learning objectives
10.15 – The problem with remembering everything
10.16 – The major reasons we forget even when
we’d rather not
10.17 – Why most researchers are skeptical about
claims of repressed and “recovered” memories
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10 Why we forget
Forgetting is adaptive.
We need to forget some things if we wish to
remember efficiently.
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10 Forgetting curves
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10 Decay theory
The theory that information in memory eventually
disappears if it is not accessed
Applies more to short-term than long-term memory
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10 Replacement
The theory that new information entering memory can wipe out old information
In one study, researchers showed subjects slides of a traffic accident.
The experimental group was misled into thinking there was a stop sign instead of a yield sign.
Even after being debriefed on the purpose of the study, subjects insisted that they really saw the stop sign.
The new information which came from the researchers replaced what the subjects saw.
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10 Interference
Similar items interfere with one another. Retroactive interference: forgetting that occurs when recently learned material interferes with the ability to remember similar material stored previously
Proactive interference: forgetting that occurs when previously stored material interferes with the ability to remember similar, more recently learned material
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10 Cue-dependent forgetting
The inability to retrieve information stored in memory because of insufficient cues for recall
Physical state can be a memory cue.
State-dependent memory
The tendency to remember something when the rememberer is in the same physical or mental state as during the original learning
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10 Mood-congruent memory
The tendency to remember experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood and overlook or forget experiences that are not
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10 Which is correct?
While Susan is studying for an exam, she drinks a
large cup of coffee. The next day, during the exam,
she makes sure she is drinking a similar amount of
coffee. This is an example of:
A. Mood-congruent memory
B. State-dependent memory
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10 Amnesia
The partial or complete loss of memory of important personal information
Psychogenic amnesia
The causes of forgetting are psychological, such as the need to escape feelings of embarrassment, guilt, shame, disappointment.
Traumatic amnesia
The forgetting of specific traumatic events, sometimes for many years
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10 What do you think?
There is no such thing as a repressed memory.
Recovered memories of traumatic events are the
result of therapeutic manipulation.
A. True
B. False
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10 The repression controversy Repression
In psychoanalytic theory, the selective, involuntary pushing or threatening of upsetting information into the unconscious
Individuals are more likely to struggle with forgetting traumatic events.
It is hard to distinguish repression from other forms of forgetting.
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10 When should we question recovered memories? If a person claims memories of first year or two of life
If over time the memories become more and more implausible
If therapist used suggestive techniques such as
hypnosis, dream analysis, age regression, guided
imagery, or leading questions
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10 Learning objectives
10.18 – Why the first few years of life are a mental
blank
10.19 – Why human beings have been called the
“storytelling animal”
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10 What do you think?
Jonathan tells you that he distinctly remembers
his parents reading to him when he was six
months old. Do you think this is an accurate
memory?
A. Yes
B. No
PSYCHOLOGY 10 E
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10 Childhood amnesia
The inability to remember events and experiences that occurred during the first two or three years of life
Cognitive explanations:
Lack of sense of self
Impoverished encoding
A focus on the routine
Different ways of thinking about the world