Poultry Manual for Trainers and Producers

8/22/2019 Poultry Manual for Trainers and Producers

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GOOD PRACTICES

IN SMALL SCALE

POULTRY PRODUCTION:A manual for trainers and producers in East Africa

FAO ECTAD REGIONAL UNIT

EASTERN AFRICA, NAIROBI, KENYA


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GOOD PRACTICES

IN SMALL SCALE POULTRY PRODUCTION:

A manual for trainers and producers

in East Africa


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Good practices in small scale poultry production

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of contents 3

Acknowledgements 7

Introduction 8

1. The different production systems 101.1 The traditional free-range system 11

1.2 The improved free-range system 13

1.3 Thesmallscaleconnedsystem(Broilers) 13

1.4 Thesmallscaleconnedsystem(Layer) 14

2. Themanagementoffree-rangeandsmallscaleconnedpoultryunits 15

2.1 Whatyouwillndinthischapter 15

2.2 Biosecurityissues 15

2.3 Howtoimprovemanagement(free-rangesystems) 15

2.3.1 Flock management 16

2.3.2 Housing and hygiene 162.3.3 Feed and water 16

2.3.4 Health 19

2.3.5 Understandingpoultrybehaviour 20

2.3.6 Dailyrhythmandcarefulobservation 22

2.3.7 Controlledbrooding 22

2.3.8 Naturalincubationandhatching 23

2.3.9 Managementofyoungchickensusingabasketsystem 25

2.4 Simplerulesforbettermanagementinfree-rangesystems 27

2.5 Howtoimprovemanagement(small-scaleconnedsystems) 28

2.5.1 FlockManagement 28

2.5.2 Housingandhygiene 28

2.5.3 Feedandwater 28

2.5.4 Health 29

2.5.5 Behaviour 29

2.6 Simplerulesforbettermanagementinsmallscaleconnedsystems 29

3. Selection and breeds 30

3.1. Whatyouwillndinthischapter 30

3.2. Backgroundinformation 30

3.3. Howtoimproveselection 30

3.3.1 Animal Selection 31

3.3.2 Breedselection 333.3.3 Cross-breeding 35

3.3.4 Challengesofcockerelexchangeprograms 35

3.4. Simplerulestochoosetherightbreedandimproveselection 36

3.5.RecommendationsforimprovementofbiosecurityBreedingstockandtheirproducts364 Housing 37


4.2. Common practices in free-range systems 37

4.2.1 Biosecurityissuesrelatedtohousinginfree-rangesystems 37

4.3. How to improve sheltering in free-range systems 37

4.4. Simplerulestomakeabettershelterinfreerangesystems 454.5. Commonpracticesinsmallscaleconnedsystems 46

4.5.1. Broilers 46

4.5.2. Biosecurityissuesinbroilerhouses 46

4.5.3. Layers 46


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4.5.4. Biosecurityissuesinlayerhouses 46

4.6. Howtoimprovehousinginsmall-scaleconnedsystems 47

4.7. Simplerulesforbetterhousinginsmall-scaleconnedsystems 47

5. FeedsandFeeding 48


5.2. Scavenging 48

5.3. Supplementaryfeeding 49

5.3.1. Whatfeed? 495.3.2. Howmuch? 52

5.3.3. How? 53

5.4. Mixingandformulatingfeeds 55

5.5. Simpletechniquesforgrowingmaggotsandtermites 57

5.6. Feedsandfeedingforsmallscaleconnedchickens 59

5.7. Feedersanddrinkers 59

5.8. Feedsandriskofdiseasetransmission 61

5.9. Simplerulesforbetterfeeding 61

5.10. Requirementsforimprovedbiosecurity-Feedsandwater 62

6. Health and Disease Management 63


6.2. Backgroundinformation 63

6.3. Biosecurityissues 64

6.4. How to improve disease control 64

6.5. Briefdescriptionofthemaindiseasesaffectingpoultry 68

6.5.1 Viraldiseases 68

6.5.2 Bacterialdiseases 70

6.5.3 Parasites 70

6.5.4 Fungaldiseases 73

6.5.5 Nutritionaldiseases 73

6.6. Aboutvaccination 746.6.1 Vaccinationmethods 74

6.6.2 Vaccinationanddiseasepreventioncalendar 78

6.7. Simplerulesforbetterhealthofchickens 80

7. Protabilityandmarketingofproducts 81

7.1 Whatyouwillndinthischapter 81

7.2 Background 81

7.3 Biosecurityissues 81

7.4 How to improve marketing of poultry and poultry products 81

7.4.1 Marketingoffree-rangebirds: 82

7.4.2 Marketing of eggs 847.4.3 Keeping records 84

7.4.4 Materialsandfeed 85

7.5 Economicanalysisandsimpleriskassessment 88

7.5.1 Cost-benetcalculation 89

7.5.2 Riskassessment 90

7.6 Simplerulestoachievehigherprotability 92

7.7 Recommendationsforimprovementofbiosecurity-Marketingofproducts 94

8. Glossary 95


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Illustration1:Apoorlymanagedunit 13

Illustration2:Exampleofsimplehousingforuptovehens(nightbasket) 17

Illustration3:Exampleofasinglehousefor10-20birds(FromSenegal) 17

Illustration4:Thehouse,feedersanddrinkersshouldbecleanedregularly. 17

Illustration5:Lime-washingtheinsideofthehousefordisinfection 18

Illustration6:Drinkersandfeedersshouldbekeptcleantoavoidspreadofdiseases 19

Illustration7:Aseparateshedorcagemaybenecessarytoisolateillornewlypurchasedbirds 20

Illustration8:Dustbathingisimportantforpoultrytokeepclean 21Illustration9:Carefulobservationoftheockonadailybasisisimportant 22

Illustration10:Peckingoftenoccursifbirdsarekeptinsidefordays 22

Illustration11:Home-madeeggcandlersusingeitheryourhandorawoodenboxandatorch 23

Illustration12:a)infertileegg;b)eggwithadeadembryoc)eggafter7daysofincubation 24

Illustration13:Inadequatemanagementforbroodinghens 24

Illustration14:Goodmanagementforbroodinghens 25

Illustration15:Daybasketwithajutemat,afeederandadrinkerinside 26

Illustration16:Managementofyoungchickensusingthedaybasketsystem 27

Illustration17:Physiognomyofhealthyandstrongcockandegg-layer 31

Illustration18:Ahealthychick 31

Illustration19:a)Heninlay;b)henoutsidelay 32

Illustration20:Differentecotypes:Frizzledfeathers,nakedneckanddwarf 34

Illustration21:Classicalshapeofbreedsproducinga)eggs,b)meatandc)both 34

Illustration22:Housingshouldrstofallprotectagainstpredatorsandbadweatheratnight 38

Illustration23:Abadlyconstructedchickenhouse 40

Illustration24:Awellconstructedchickenhouse 40

Illustration25:Perchesshouldhaveanappropriatediameter 41

Illustration26:Sticksshouldmatchthesizeofthebirdsfeet 41

Illustration27:Batteryofnestsforlayinghens 42

Illustration28:Nestsforbroodyhensshouldbeplacedinaquietplace 42

Illustration29:Simplenestsforbroodyhensareeasilymadeandcaneasilybemoved 43Illustration30:Preparinganestinthreesteps 43

Illustration31:Shelterforchicksafterhatching 44

Illustration32:Chickenrunsmaybeusedforfeeding,watering,andobservationoftheock 45

Illustration33:Correctfeedandwaterisessentialtoincreaseproduction 49

Illustration34:Feedtypessplitintosourcesofa)energy,b)proteins,c)minerals,d)vitamins 50

Illustration35:Scorchingbonesoreggshellstoproducecalcium-richbonemeal 51

Illustration36:Bonemealandsaltaremixedinmatchboxesina13:1ratio 54

Illustration37:Thecafeteriasystem. 54

Illustration38:Growingmaggots 58

Illustration39:Growingtermites 58Illustration40:Simpledrinkermadeofanoldtincanandaplate 60

Illustrations41,42:Feedersanddrinkersmayalsobemadelocallyfromwood,clay,ormetal 60

Illustration43:Commercialdrinker/feederinplasticormetal 60

Illustration44:Characteristicsofhealthyandunhealthybirds 65

Illustration45:Themostcommonmethodsforvaccination 66

Illustration46:Apoorlymanagedock 67

Illustration47:A)Newcastlediseaseinadvancedstage;B)Fowlpox;C)Gumborodisease 69

Illustration47:A)MareksDisease;B)Chronicrespiratorydisease;C)Diarrhoea 71

Illustration48:Internalparasitesasfoundinthefaeces 72

Illustration49:Behaviourofpoultryinfestedwithexternalparasitesplusea,miteandtick 72

Illustration50:Scalylegsatthreestagescausedbyscalylegmites 73

Illustration51:Symptomsofnutritionaldiseases:a)Featherloss;b)Legdeformation 73

Illustration52:Goodmanagementequalshealthybirds 74

Illustration53:Nevervaccinateasickbird 75


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Illustration54:Importantvaccinationtools 74

Illustration55:Boilingwatertodisinfectneedlesandsyringesbeforevaccination 76

Illustration56:Itisimportanttohandlethesyringeandneedlecorrectly 77

Illustration57:Onefull1mlsyringeisusuallyenoughfortenadultbirds 77

Illustration58:Themostcommonmethodsforvaccinatingadultpoultry 77

Illustration59:Twopersonsvaccinatingadultpoultrybyinjectioninthebreastmuscle 77

Illustration60:Exampleofvaccinationanddiseasepreventioncalendar 79

Illustration61:Transportationofchickensshouldbeincagesasillustratedontheright. 82Illustration62:Birdsforsale 83

Illustration63:Eggsforsale 84

Illustration64:Keeprecordsoftheproductionandsales 85

Illustration65:Recordkeepingforsmall-scalechickenproduction(forilliteratefarmers). 87

Illustration66:Recordkeepingforsmall-scalechickenproduction(fortheilliteratefarmer) 88

Illustration67:Revenuefrompoultryisexpressedinmoneyaswellasmeat,eggs,manure 89

Illustration68:Incomeisoftenspentonavarietyofitemsincludingfood,schooling,housing 93

Table1:Characteristicsofsmall-scalepoultryproductionsystems 11

Table2:Supplementrequirementandtotalfeedrequirementatdifferentages 52

Table3:Simplecalculationforsupplementrequirementperday 53

Table4:Simplerationsforsupplementinglocalchicksof0-6weeks(total930g) 54

Table5:Examplesofproteinandenergysources 55

Table6:Examplesofcompositionof1kgfeedmixtureforlocalchickensatdifferentages 56

Table7:Examplesofdietsforchickens(contentsof1kgfeed). 56

Table8:Problemsrelatedtosomefeeds 57

Table9:ExamplesofpoultryfeedpricesandquantitymeasuresinBenin(January2002) 57

Table10:Simplefeedpricecalculation(basedon 57

Table11:Typesofdiseasesandpossibletreatments 65

Table12:Recordkeepingforsmall-scalechickenproduction 86Table13:Recordkeepingforsmall-scalechickenproduction(investmentandrunningcosts) 86

Table14:Exampleofsmall-scalefree-rangesystem,52weeksplan(Tanzania2008) 90

Table15:Cost-benetanalysisbasedonexampleinTable14 91

Table16:Supplementaryfeedneededforaockof30free-rangebirdsinoneyear 92

Figure1:Sourcesofintroductionofdiseasesintoaock 64


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Acknowledgements

ThisManualisbasedonthemanualwhichwasrstdevelopedbytheDanishPoultry

Network.IthasbeenadaptedtotheEastAfricanlocalconditions,basedonananalysis

onbiosecurityinKenyamadebyProf.PhilipNyagainSeptember,2007andasimilar

analysisinTanzaniamadebyDr.HalifaMsamialsoinSeptember,2007.I ammost

gratefultobothfortheirreports.

Adaptedversionsoftherstmanualhavebeenusedinseveralcountriessupported

by Danida through the Agricultural Sector Programme Support or NGO supported

agriculturaldevelopmentactivities.InVietnam,Dr.JensPeterTangDalsgaard,ASPS

livestock advisor, his colleagues, and local technical advisors have given fruitful

feedbackontechniquesandtrainingissues.InBenin,Dr.ChristopheChrysostome,

FSA-UABandhiscolleagueshavetestedseveraltechniquesandapproachesand

givenvaluablefeedback.InBangladesh,BurkinaFaso,andSenegalruraldevelopmenteffortssupportedbyDanidaunderdifferentdevelopmentprogrammesandprojects

haveprovidedusefulinformationontechnicalaswellastrainingissues.Likewise,Dr.

Baba FunsoSonaiya from Nigeria has offered valuablecontributions. InDenmark,

theDanishPoultryNetworkhasreceivedimportantcritiquefrompoultrydevelopment

expertsMr.HansAskovJensen,Mr.PederLund,Mr.PeterWollesen,andDr.Hans

Ranvig.IwishtothankDr.EmmanuelleGuerneBleich,Prof.UswegeMingaandDr

PhilippeAnkersfromFAO/AGAPfortheirvaluablecontributionincriticallyeditingthe

Manual.IamgratefultoDr.ManuelSanchez,andDr.SimonMackfromFAO/AGAP

whogaveimportantfeedbackandadviceontherstdraftandfortheirsupportintermsofaccesstoprevioustrainingmaterialanddrawingspublishedthroughtheUN

system.

IamgratefultoFAOforofferingmetheInternationalconsultancypositionwhichmade

thepreparationofthisManualpossible.

AndersPermin

FAOConsultant


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Introduction

Nearlyallruralandperi-urban/urbanfamiliesinthedevelopingworldkeepaockof

poultry,eitherinafree-rangesystemorinasmallscaleconnedsystem.Thebirds

are mainly chickens.

Infree-rangesystems,birdsaretraditionallyownedandmanagedmostlybywomenand children. The poultry and their products are used for home consumption, as

gifts,orforreligiouspurposes.Additionallytheyaresoldtoearnsomeincometobuy

householdfooditems,suchassugarandsaltaswellasschoolprovisionsfortheir

children.

Insmallscaleconnedsystemsthechickensarekeptforcommercialpurposesin

order to support family income.

Small-scale poultry production is an obvious and well-documented opportunity forpoorfarmerstostartanincomegeneratingactivity.Poultryarecheap,easytorear,

andeasytomanage.Consequently,therehasbeenandthereisagrowingattention

andinterestinpoultryproductioninvillagesaswellasinperi-urbanandurbanareas

throughoutthedevelopingworld.However,existingmanualsandbookseithergive

advice on industrial production systems using improved (imported) breeds under

highlycontrolledconditions,orverysimpleeldguidesgivinglittleusefuladviceon

howtorearpoultrywithprotinmindatvillagelevel.Thismanualisbasedonexisting

knowledge on how to improve village poultry production systems with relatively few

inputs.

Thismanualwillexclusivelydealwithfree-rangesystemsconsistingofsmallocks

ofindigenouschickensortheircrossesandsmallholderocksofimprovedorhybrid

commercial chickens.

In the light of the spread of Avian Inuenza (AI) and the increased attention paid

tothisdiseaseworldwide,protectionagainstdiseasesis animportantfocus inthis

manual.Althoughnotmentionedinwordsallthetime,AIisthemainreasonforthe

suggested improvements in biosecurity and husbandry in general. For instance acommonpracticeforsmallholderfarmers,inthevillageaswellasinurbanorperi-

urban areas has been to eat or sell sick birds. This practice is not recommended

withthepresenceofAvianInuenzaandshouldinthefuturebeavoided,duetothe

highriskofinfectionfromthesickbird.Alsothecommonpracticeofkeepingpoultry

inthefamilyhouseistobediscouraged.Themanualisbasedontheauthorsown

experienceandresearch,internationalliteratureandonrecentcountryspeciccountry

reportsonpoultryproductionandbiosecurityinKenyaandTanzania.Alsothemanual

isbasedontheoutcomeofworkshopsheldinthetwocountriestodiscussbiosecurity

inpoultryproduction.Itwillbefoundusefulinmostdevelopingcountries.

The primary target groups of this manual are veterinarians, para-veterinarians

and animal production experts inthe government and private sector, involvedwith


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smallholderpoultrydevelopmentatvillage,peri-urbanandurbanlevel.Asecondary

target group is literate small-scale poultry farmers and local poultry workers. Safe

poultryproductionincludesseveralpossibleinterventions-overalltermedasbiosecure

production. The most important interventions are reected in the titles of the six

followingchaptersofthemanual:

1.GeneralManagement2.Animalselectionandbreeds

3. Housing

4. Feeds and feeding

5.HealthandDiseasemanagement

6.ProtabilityandMarketingofproducts

Each chapter gives background information and possible solutions to practical

problems ineveryday management of a small-scale indigenous and hybrid poultry

productionundervillage,peri-urbanandurbanconditionsindevelopingcountries.

Theimprovementofindigenouspoultryatvillage,peri-urbanandurbanlevelhasbeen

attempted for many years in terms of e.g. cockerel exchange schemes or vaccination

programmes. Unfortunately, very few oftheseprojectshave had success over the

years.Ouranalysisandresearchhaspointedtowardsanumberofproblems,i.e.lack

oftrainingofthefarmers,lackoforganisationandlackoffollow-upandsupportbeing

someofthemainproblems.

Similarlysmallholderfarmersofthehybridcommercialpoultrydoexperienceproductionconstraintsmainlyduetolackofsuitableextensionpackagesandtraininginpoultry

production.

Wheninstructingfarmersinimprovingpoultrymanagementandproduction,itisimportant

that the training takes place in a participatory manner. Involvement and learning are

enhanced when the participants are part of the training. It is therefore essential that

theparticipantsareencouragedtocomeforwardwiththeirownexperiences,andthat

thediscussionsarebasedontheirlocalpracticesandproblems.Likewise,practical

instruction,wheretheparticipantsprepareequipmentoutoflocalmaterials,mixlocalfeedsordiscusstheadvantagesofbuyingequipmentandfeed,highlyincreasestheir

abilitytorememberwhattheyhavelearned.Theparticipatoryapproachandlearning-

by-doingwillcreateadirectconnectionbetweenthetrainingandthechallengesthe

farmersencounterwhenimplementingnewmethods.Furthermore,itisimportantto

acknowledgetheneedforsupportandlongtermcommitment.Unfortunately,poultry

production is not done overnight by donating a ock or offering a vaccine free of

charge without the appropriate support.

Boththefreerangeandthesmallholdercommercialpoultryproductionsystemsarecoveredinthismanual.Theemphasisismainlyonchickensbecause,accordingto

thecountryreports,itisthemostpredominantpoultryraisedindevelopingcountries

andEastAfricainparticular.Althoughthepreparationofthemanualwasprompted


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1.The different production systems

Poultryproductionsystemscanbecategorizedintofourtypes(Sectors1-4).

Sector 1 refers to large scale integrated commercial producers, often including

productionofgreatgrandparentorgrandparentocks,i.e.,thebreedingocks.

Sector2referstolargescaleproductionfarms(over10000birds).

Themanagementpracticesdescribedinthismanualfocusonsectors3and4which

arethesmallscalecommercialandbackyardproductionsystems.Forthepurposeof

thismanual,thesehavebeendividedinto:

Thescavengingbackyardproductionsystemwithindigenouspoultry

(Traditionalfree-range)

Animprovedversionofthisbackyardsystem,sometimesinvolving

improvedbirds(Improvedfree-range)

The more intensive small scale commercial poultry production system with

hybridpoultry(Smallscaleconned).

Thesetypesofproductionarecurrentlypracticedbysmallholderfarmersinrural,

peri-urbanandurbanareas(Table1).

Itiseasiertohaveahigherlevelofbiosecurityiftheocksarekeptinconnedareas.

Itishoweveramajorchallengetointroducebiosecuritypracticesinockswithaccess

tooutdoorareas.Theseaspectswillbediscussedfurtherlaterinthismanual.

Improvedsmallholderpoultrymanagementimpliesaddressinganumberofpractices

in the traditional free-range systems and to some extent in small scale connedsystems.Firstofall,itisessentialtoimprovethebiosecurityandprotecttheanimals

againstdiseasesbyvaccination(whenappropriate)andtotreatsickanimalswiththe

rightmedicationsorquarantinetoavoidfurtherspread.

Othermanagementissuesarealsolargelyneglected,i.e.housingagainstbadweather,

predatorsandtheft;hygiene,feedingandmarketingoftheproducts.Moreover,itis

importantthatthepoultrykeepermakessurethattheockhastherightocksize

inrelationtofeedandspaceavailable,andthatthebestanimalsareselectedfor

breeding.Alltheseaspectsofpoultryproductionneedtobeconsideredinordertoincreaseproductivity,incomeandimprovepoultryhealthandbiosecurityingeneral.

Sincethemainpurposeofpoultryproductionistogenerateincome,thecostsmustbe

kepttoaminimumsoastoensurethatthesellingpricecoversallcostsplusaprot.

bytheHPAIoutbreaks,ithascoveredmostoftheimportantpoultryproductionissues

andwillbeusefulevenafterHPAIhasbeencontrolled,sincethebiosecuritymeasures

recommendedforHPAIarethesameasforotherinfectiouspoultrydiseases.


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Table 1: Characteristics of small-scale poultry production systems

Traditional free-range Improved free-range Small-scaleconned

Lowinput/lowoutput Lowinput/mediumoutput Highinput/highoutput

Ownedmostlybywomen Ownedbywomen&family Businessmen,women

Homeconsumption,saleatgate(traders)andat

local market

Home consumption and saleatgate(traders)andatlocal

markets

Soldatgate(traders),livebirdmarkets,restaurants,supermar-

kets

Small cash income Family income Businessincome

Social&cultural

importance(gifts,

religious)

Social importance Littlesocialimportance

Lowinput Micro-credit Creditbasedonassets

Indigenousbreeds Indigenous/improvedbreeds Hybrids(broilersorlayers)

LimitedhealthcareImprovedhusbandryandhealth

care, With good health management

No vaccination Newcastle Disease vaccination Several vaccination schemes

Nomedication, Limitedmedication/localrem-

ediesFull medication

High mortality Moderate mortality Lowmortality

Nofeeding(scavenging) Localfeeds(semi-scavenging) Balancedfeeds

Simple housing or no

housing

Simple housing Houses with cages or deep litter

Eggproduction:30-50eggs/y/hen Eggproduction:50-150eggs/y/hen Eggproduction:250-300eggs/y/hen

Longbroodyperiods Shortbroodyperiods Nobroodiness

Growthrate=5-10g/day Growthrate=10-20g/day Growthrate=50-55g/day

1.1 The traditional free-range system

The present situation in most of the developing world is that village poultry is left

withminimalcare.Thebirdsndtheirfeedbyscavengingincompoundsaroundhouseholds. In addition they may get leftovers from the harvest and from the kitchen.

Thistypeofproductionisverycheap,butnutritionalneedsofthebirdsaredifcultto

meet.

Itisoftenobservedthat:

Ownersdonotprovidewaterandbirdsdonotgetenoughwater,ortheyget

dirty water that can transmit diseases.

Birdsdonothaveaccesstoanenclosureorasheltertoprotectthemfrom

windandrain,ortokeepthemsafefrompredatorsandtheftexceptatnightin some communities or during early crop growing season.

Nestsforhensarerarelyprovided,causingthebirdstolaytheireggson

theground.Manyeggsgobadbeforetheyarenothatchedbecauseof


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disturbances,lackofproperfeedandwater,andannoyingexternalparasites

whichmakethehenleavetheeggsandresultsinlowhatchability.

Young chicks follow the mother hen immediately after hatching. When young

chicksareleftscavengingtogetherwithadultbirds,theyhavetocompetefor

feeds.Asaresultthereisveryhighchickmortalityduringtherstweeksof

life,mainlyduetoinsufcientnutrition,chilling,diseases,predationbyeagles

andsnakes,drowninginpoolsofwaterandroadaccidents.Consequentlymanybirdsdieveryyoung,oftenveoutoftenor50%ofthechicksdiewithin

therst8-12weeks.Withsimpleinterventionsbeingadvocatedinthis

manualhowever,thismortalitycanbebroughtdowntoalossofonly1-2birds

outof10.

These practices are summarized in Illustration 1.

Thefreerangescavengingsystemisbasedonhenswithanabilitytogobroodyand

reartheirownchicks.Thishasmanyadvantages,butthelongbroodyperiodsreduceeggproduction.Oftenchickensarethemainproducttobesold,andafeweggsare

consumedinthehousehold,notsold.

Inthis system, birdsare seldom vaccinated orgivenmedicineagainst diseasesor

parasites, as veterinary treatment is not available or not seen as being important

andprotable.Differentpoultryspecies,likeforinstance,chickens,ducks,pigeons,

turkeysandguineafowlsareoftenkepttogetherandbirdsboughtinthemarketor

other villages are mixed with the household ocks, increasing the risk of disease

transmissionamongbirdsandbetweenbirdsandhumans.

Ifthereisagenerallackofessentialnutrients,resistanceagainstdiseasesislow,and

manybirdsmaygetill.Theygrowslowlyandunevenly,producingfewereggsandless

meat.Birdsthatroameverywheremayeasilygetinfectedandspreaddiseases.

Whenonebirdhasacontagiousdisease,thereisaseriousriskthatmanybirdsinthe

ockorvillagewillbeinfected.Itmightspreadtohumansifitisazoonoticdisease.

Villagepoultryproductionoftenencountersproblemsrelatedtolackoforganisation,whichimpliesthatinputs,suchasfeed,medication,veterinaryservices,andtraining,

are rarely available. Without organisation and knowledge about the potentials of

villagepoultry,thepoultrykeepersreceiveverylittlesupportandadvicefromeach

otherorfromlivestockextensionworkers.Asaconsequence,thetraditionalpoultry

productionremainsrudimentary,withlowmonetaryprot.

Anenablingenvironmentincludestraining,the availabilityofdailysupport, services,

feeds,propercareofchicks,veterinaryservicesandmaybeavailabilityofcredits.


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Illustration1:Apoorlymanagedunit

Notethedeadbirdslyingaround,offals,predators,poorlymaintainedchickenhouse

and lack of water.

1.2 The improved free-range system

Chickensinthissystemaresometimesselectedashighyieldingindigenousbirds.

CrossesbetweenindigenouschickensandpurebreedssuchastheRhodeIsland

Red (RIR) are sometimes encountered.The productivity of such birds is high. By

improvingsomemanagementprocedureswithregardtohousing,feedingandhealth,

smallholderfree-rangepoultryproductioncangenerateaconsiderableincome,not

negligibleforpoorruralhouseholds.Oftenimprovementofthecareofchicksand

vaccination (mainly against Newcastle Disease and Fowl pox) can minimize the

losses.

Inthisproductionsystem,afarmermaydecidewhethertoproduceeggsormeatfor

sale.Thus,ifafarmerwantstoselleggs,itisessentialtopreventthehensfromgoing

broody,whereasthisisdesirablewhenfarmerwantstorearchickensforthemarket.

1.3Thesmallscaleconnedsystem(Broilers)

This sector comprises small scale production systems with smallholder farms keeping

upto2,000broilersperfarmforcommercialpurposes.Thisnumberissometimes

higher.


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Thefarmerssourcedayoldchicksfromahatchery.Theybuycommercialfeedsfrom

feed shops and drugs from the nearest supplier. There are normally many small-scale

feedmillersandthesupplymeetsthedemand.Butthequalitymayvaryfromone

sourcetoanother.Sometimes,farmersaddingredientsintocommercialfeedswith

theintentiontoimprovequality.Thisisnotrecommendedunlessthefarmerissureof

theingredientswhicharemissingorinadequateinthefeedspurchased.

Chickenhousesmayhaveearthorcementoorsbuttheupperhalfofthewallshave

wirenettingwhilethebottomhalfismadeofmudwalls,woodenplanks,ironsheets

orbrickwallingdependingonthenancialabilityofthefarmer.Corrugatedironsheets

arenormallyusedfortheroong.Woodshavingsareusedforthedeeplitterand

waterissuppliedincommercialdrinkersorhomemadedrinkersbothmanuallylled

withwater.Feedersareusuallywoodentroughs,plasticormetalcommercialfeeders

placed conveniently in the poultry house.

1.4Thesmallscaleconnedsystem(Layer)

This sector comprises small scale production systems with smallholder farms keeping

hybridlayerocks.InEastAfrica,farmersobtaindayoldlayerchicksandfeedsfrom

thesamesourcesasfarmersproducingbroilers.Somefarmerskeepbothcommercial

layersandbroilers.Theocksizemayvaryfrom200to4000birds,however,most

farmerskeepinglayershavemediumsizedockof400-600birds.

Thegeneralstructureofthelayerhousesarethesameasforthebroilersexceptthatlayingboxesareprovidedandthatthereismorespacepersquarefootperbirdfor

thelayerhousescomparedtothebroilershouses.Feedersanddrinkersaresimilarto

thosedescribedaboveforbroilers.

Pulletsmatureandstartlayingwhentheyreachtheageofvetosixmonths(20-24

weeks).Vaccinationisnormallydoneasrecommendedbytheveterinarydepartment

orbythemanufacturerdependinguponthediseasechallengeinthearea.Whenthe

eggproductiondropstobelow45percentthebirdsareculled,whichmaybeat18-24

months of age.

InEastAfrica,disposalofculledbirdsandspentlayersentailsarisk.Thereareno

organizedmarketsforsuchbirds.

Birdsaresometimestransportedliveontopofbuses,inopenpickupsoronbicycles,

withthe riskofsickbirds sheddingdiseaseagentsalongthetransportrouteto the

cities or the municipal chicken markets.


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2.Themanagementoffree-rangeandsmallscaleconnedpoultryunits

2.1Whatyouwillndinthischapter

The chapter gives an overall picture of aspects related to management. Some of

theseaspectsarefurtherdevelopedinsubsequentchapters.Managementpractices

whichareusedinEastAfricaandotherdevelopingcountriesaredescribedandareasofimprovementaredescribed.Thechaptershouldassisttrainerstohelpthefarmer

adoptbettermanagementpracticesinorattheirfarms.

Furthermore,thischaptergivesanoverviewofinterventionsthatwillimproveproduction

and makethe farmasaferand moreprotableplace.Someoftheseinterventions

imply a move from the traditional free-range system into what is often called a semi-

scavengingsystemortheimprovedfree-rangesystem,whichismoreefcientbut

requirescapitalinvestmentandasecuredmarketfortheproduct.Fromthere,afarmer

with the additional skills found in this manual may choose to change to go from a free-rangesystemintoasmall-scaleconnedsystemwiththeuseofcommerciallayersor

broilersandcompoundedhomemadeorcommercialfeeds.

2.2 Biosecurity issues

Traditional and improved free-range systems

Birdsboughttoreplacebreedingstockmayintroducediseases.Inthetraditionalsector,

breedingbirdsarenormallyacquiredfromlivebirdmarkets,boughtfromneighborsor

receivedasgiftsfromfriendsandrelatives.Inexceptionalcasesbreedingbirdsmay

beboughtfromanationalindigenouspoultrybreeding/researchstation.

Diseasemanagement(vaccinationandtreatment)rarelyexistinfree-rangeproduction

systems.Bynotvaccinatingortreatingagainstdiseases,birdsareathighriskofbeing

infectedbydiseases.

Connementandhousingortheabsenceofthemalsobringriskswiththem.Inmany

cases,traditionalfree-rangepoultrydonothaveaseparateshelterandsharethe

livingquartersorkitchenofthefarmer.Thesheltersareusedbypoultryduringthe

nightonly.Ontheotherhand,farmerswhohaveshelters,buildverysimplestructures

whoseoorsmaybemadeofearthorinrarecases,cement.Thestructuresaremostly

grass thatched and in a few cases roofed with corrugated iron sheets. The shelters

are rarely cleaned and hence un-hygienic. The shelters, husbandry and slaughter

practicesaswellasmarketingfacilitiesinthetraditionalsystemlackthebiosecurity

dimension.Likewise,theaccesstooutdoorareaswherethebirdsarescavengingis

a risk.

Smallscaleconnedsystem-Broilers

Entryofdayoldchicksonthefarmentailsrisk.Chicksmightintroducediseasestoa

farm.Shelterswherewildbirds,domesticanimalsandvermincanenterposearisk.


18/9916


Unrestrictedhumanmovement,absenceoffootbathsanddisinfectantsposearisk.

Poorhygieneofthesheltersincreaserisk.Improperuseofpoultrymanureentails

risks.

Smallscaleconned-Layers

Improper cleaning and disinfection of houses and the common practice of farmers

of not restricting entry of visitors to the ock house expose the birds to potentialinfection.Otherexamplesofriskfactorsare:poorpersonalhygieneparticularlylack

ofregularwashingofhands,reuseofeggtrayswithoutproperdisinfectionlackof

footbaths,homeslaughterofspentchickensanddisposalofchickenmanurewithout

composting.

2.3Howtoimprovemanagement(free-rangesystems)

2.3.1 Flock management

Toproducefertile,hatchableeggs,onecockisneededforapproximately10-15hens.

When surpluscocksreacha marketable size,theyshould besold,slaughtered, or

givenawayaspresents,topreventthecocksfromeatingthescarcefeedresources,

aswellasfromghtingandstressingthehens.Thismaybeavoidedbysellingyoung

cocks.

Youngcockscaneasilyberecognizedbytheirtailfeathers,theircomb,andtheir

general(aggressive)behaviorandappearanceincomparisontothehens.

Alwaystakeintoconsiderationthatthesizeoftheockshouldmatchthesizeofthe

house,theamountoffeedonecanproduceoraffordtobuy,andthefeedresources

intheenvironment(scavengingfeedresourcebase).

2.3.2 Housing and hygiene

Asimplenight-basketor chickenhouse(Illustration2 andIllustration 3)willdiminish

theriskoflossbecauseofbadweather,predators,andtheft.Insideachickenhouse

thebirdsneedperchestositonwhentheysleep.Ifoneputsthenestsinsidethe

chickenhouseaswell,itiseasytondtheeggs,andthehenswillnotbedisturbed

when laying eggs.


19/9917


Illustration3:Exampleofasinglehousefor10-20birds(FromSenegal)

Inordertopreventdiseases,includinginternalandexternalparasites,goodhygiene

isamust(Illustration4).Thus,feedersanddrinkersshouldalwaysbekeptclean,and

thehouseandthenestsmustbecleanedfordroppings,insectsetc.Freshstrawor

hayshouldbeputinthenestsweekly.Addingalittleashontopcanpreventparasites

(seechapterfouronhousingformoredetails).

Illustration4:Thehouse,feedersanddrinkersshouldbecleanedregularly.

Illustration2:Exampleofsimplehousingforuptovehens(nightbasket)


20/9918


Thehouse,theperches,andthenestsshouldbethoroughlycleanedandsubsequently

paintedwithlimeatleasttwiceayear,andalwaysafterseriousoutbreaksofdiseases,

(Illustration5).

Ifproblemspersistinsmallwoodencagesorhouses,thebestthingistoburnthem

andbuildanewone,asparasitesmayhideineventhesmallestcracks.Additional

adviceonhousingwillbefoundinchapterfour.

Illustration5:Lime-washingtheinsideofthehousefordisinfection

2.3.3 Feed and water

To produce well and have good resistance against diseases, birdsneed adequate

quantitiesofgoodquality feedandcleanwater.Dependingonthetimeof theyear

theywillbeabletondpartoftheirfeedbyscavenginginthesurroundingsofthe

household.Butoftentheyneedanextrasupplyofnutrientsinordertogainweightand

tolayagoodquantityofeggs.Supplementaryfeedandcleanwatershouldbegiven

atleastearlyinthemorningandagainintheeveningwhenthebirdsarereturningto

thehouseforthenight.Itisimportantthatthefeedersanddrinkersarekeptclean,so

thatinfectionsdonotspreadthroughdirtyfeedandwater(Illustration6).

Day-old and small chicks need protein-rich feeds or mixtures from simple supplementary

sourcessuchasmaggots,snailsandtermites.Youngchickensshouldbefedseparately


21/9919


awayfromtheadultbirds.Itisbestforthemtohaveaspecialdiet,andnottohaveto

compete with the adults for feed. It is very important for small chicks always to have

accesstocleanwater,astheymayeasilydiefromdehydrationorinfection.Thereis

more information on management of young chickens later in this chapter. See chapter

veformoreadviceonfeedsandfeeding.

Illustration6:Drinkersandfeedersshouldbekeptcleantoavoidspreadofdiseases

2.3.4 Health

Itisrecommendedthatafarmershouldnotbuyanimalsatthelivebirdmarketorfrom

uncontrolledorunknownsources,especiallynotduringperiodswhenoutbreaksof

diseasesareoccurring,sincecontagiousdiseasesmaybeintroducedintotheock.

AllbirdsmustbevaccinatedagainstNewcastleDiseaseandotherdiseasesprevailing

inaspecicareasuchasFowlPox,topreventmortality.Chicksshouldbevaccinated

against the common contagious diseasesatthe age of2-3weeks. Re-vaccination

shouldalwaysbeperformedaccordingtotheinstructionsoftheveterinariansorhealth

workers.

Ifaseriousdiseaseissuspected,thefarmershouldisolateorkillthebird,callthe

veterinarian,orusedrugstotreatthebirdwhenadequateandifoneisabsolutely

sureofhis/herdiagnosis.Ifthebirdisnotkilledatonce,itmustbeseparatedfromthe

others.Deadbirds(orpartsfromdeadbirds)shouldbeburnedorburieddeepenough

(about1m)toavoidandpreventdogsandotheranimalsfromdiggingthemupand

spreadthedisease.Iftherearemanysickanimals,thecauseofthediseasemustbe

establishedbeforeintroducingnewbirdsorvaccinating.IfcasesofNewcastledisease

orAvianInuenzaaresuspected,thefarmermustalwayscalltheveterinarianinorder

tohavethissuspicionconrmedorrejected.


22/9920


Illustration7:Aseparateshedorcagemaybenecessarytoisolateillornewly

purchasedbirds

Beforeintroducingnewbirdsintoaock,theymustbekeptisolatedfortwoweeksin

ashedorcage(Illustration7).Thesamestructurecanbeusedfortheisolationofsick

birds.Forfurtheradviceseechaptersixondiseaseandhealthmanagement.

2.3.5Understandingpoultrybehaviour

In the wild, chickens will form small ocks of 1-5 hens with one cock. Normally

smallholderfarmerswillkeepsmallocksof4-10hensandonecock,butocksmay

vary from one up toaround 30 adultsand young growers, depending on the feed

resourcebaseanddiseaselevelinthearea.Uptothisnumbertheywillstillbeableto

recognizeeachother,whichwillhelpminimizeconictsamongthebirds.Eachcock

orhenintheockenjoyshisorherspecialstatusinrelationtotheothers,implying

thatsomehavepriorityoverotherswhenchoosingplacesfornesting,forresting,for

scavenging,etc.High-rankinganimalswillhavenicefeathersandcombs,andtheir

posture will show their dominant position. If a low-ranking hen comes too close to ahenofhigherrank,thelattermayindicatethisbystretchingherneckandturningher

billtowardstheintruder.Normallythiswillsufcefortheothertoretire.Theranking

may change according toage,brooding, and otherfactors.Thesystem ofmoreor

lessstabledominanceisverypractical,sincetheanimalscanbefreetoconcentrate

onndingfoodandwatchoutforenemiesoncethepeckingorderisestablished.

Atpointoflayanindigenoushenoften weighs1.21.5kg.Amaturecocknormally

weighs1.42.0kg.Oftenafree-rangehenwilllaythersteggattheageof22-32

weeks(6to8months)andlayin3-4clutchesof10-15eggseachclutchayearandthatis30to60eggsperyear,dependingonavailabilityoffeeds.Ahenwilloftennd

adark,quietplaceforlayingeggsandforbrooding.After21daysofincubation,fertile

eggswillhatch.Inmostcases,outof10eggsaround8willcontainlivechicks.


23/9921


Illustration8:Dustbathingisimportantforpoultrytokeepclean

Toprotectagainstveryhighorlowtemperaturesandtobettoescapepredators,it

isimportantforbirdstohavegoodfeathers.Theythereforespendmuchtimecleaningandpreeningtheirfeatherswiththeirbeaks.Further,atleastonceaday,theywilldust

bathe,whichalsoprotectsthemagainstexternalparasites(Illustration8).Thebirds

shouldalwayshaveaccesstoadryplacefordustbathing.Iftheypreferacertainplace,

the farmer should add a little dry lime or ash to protect them against parasites.

2.3.6 Daily rhythm and careful observation

Itisveryimportantthefarmerspendssometimeeachdayobservingtheockcarefully

(Illustration9).Inthiswayearlysignsofdisease,malnutrition,orotherproblemsmaybediscovered,andthenecessaryprecautionstaken.Knowingeachhenwillalsohelp

youchooseeggsfromthebesthenforhatching,sothatthechicksmayinherither

goodqualities.

Eggsforsaleshouldbecollectedinthemorningandagainintheevening.Inthisway

theywillnotbedirtyorcrackedwhenthehenssitonthem,andthehenswillnotbe

temptedtobroodaswhentherearemanyeggsinthenests.Eggsshouldbestored

inacool(below20C)andhumidplaceuntilsaleorbrooding.

Afarmermayencounterproblemswithhenspeckingeachother(Illustration10),but

mostlythishappensinockswithhighdensity,orifthebirdsarekeptinsideduring

theday.Woundsfrompeckingshouldbetreatedimmediatelywithwoundremedies

toavoidcannibalismintheock.Accesstogreenfodder,rootsortuberswilllimit

cannibalism.

Farmers must keep records of their poultry production. This will make it easy for farmer

toknowsuccessesandproblemsatanearlystage.Seechaptersevenforadviceon

record keeping.

Poultryhaveaveryconstantrhythmdayinanddayout.Intheearlymorningandlate

afternoontheyscavengeforfood.Laterinthemorningthehenswilloftenlayeggs,

andatnoontheywillrest.Whentheysleepatnight,theyprefertosithighinordernot

tobeeasypreysforpredators.


24/9922


Illustration9:Carefulobservationoftheockonadailybasisisimportant

Illustration10:Peckingoftenoccursifbirdsarekeptinsidefordays

2.3.7 Controlled brooding

As stated above, hens start laying eggs at the age of 22-32 weeks, depending on

thebreed,theirhealth,anddevelopment.Oftenindigenoushenswillstartmuchlater

thanimported(exotic)breeds.Hensaround40-50weeks(10to12months)ofagelay

mosteggs,andthentheireggproductiongraduallydecreases.Ifamaturehenlays

veryfeweggs,itshouldbesoldoreaten.Insmallocks,itisrelativelyeasytocheck

whetherthehensarelayingeggsornot(Illustration19).Layinghensshouldhaveeasyaccesstocalciumrichfeedthatmaybesupplementedbycalciumrichsources

suchascrushedsnails,sea-shellsorburnedegg-shells.

Farmershouldprovidenestsinthehenhouseforlaying.Inthiswayitiseasytond


25/9923


theeggs,andtheycanbekeptclean.Inordertoteachthehenstolaytheireggsinthe

nests,farmermayplaceacoupleofeggsorstoneslookinglikeeggsinthenests.The

eggsshouldbemarkedproperlytoknowwhicheggsarenewandshouldbecollected.

Whenhensgobroodyandsitontheeggs,theyalwaysstoplaying.Bycollectingeggs

severaltimesaday,thefarmermayavoidthatthehensbecomebroody.Ifahengoes

broody,andthefarmerdoesntwantherto,thehenshouldbeseparatedimmediately

fromtherest.Thehenmayforexamplebeisolatedinasmallcageinacoolplace,without access to nest material for a few days.

Othermethodsaresometimesused,butwithnoevidenceofsuccess.Themethods

includeforexample,dippingthebroodyhenincoldwatertwicedailyuntilthehen

stopsbrooding,dippingventsofbroodyhensincoldwateronceadayforthreedays

and plucking the tail feathers.

The farmer should not hatch new chicks if one does not have enough feed for them.

Iftoomanychicksarehatched,theymaydiefromstarvationormalnutrition,ortheirresistancetodiseaseswillbereduced.

2.3.8Naturalincubationandhatching

An indigenous hen lays 15-20 eggs before she starts incubating and hatching the

eggs.Forchickensittakes21daysofincubationforeggstohatch,forducksittakes

28days.Eggsshouldbefreshbeforeincubation.Theageofeggsshouldbenomore

than10days,whenstoredattemperaturesbelow20Corinacoolhumidplaceunder

ashelterorinsideahouseinaboxplacedontheoorofthecoolestpartofthehouse.Ifthetemperatureishigher,theeggsshouldbenomorethan5daysold.Eggsfrom

differenthenscanbecolletedforincubationbyonehen.Toobtainthebestincubation

result,theeggsselectedforincubationshouldbeofaveragesizeandnormalshape.

Further,theeggsshouldhaveasmoothshellwithoutcracks.Iftherearecracksinthe

shell,thelossofmoisturefromtheeggcanbetoohighandthechickmaydie.There

isalsoariskofbacteriaenteringtheegg,whichmayleadtounhealthyordeadchicks.

Eggsforsalemayalsobe stored inthesameplace.Duringincubationoneshould

alwayscheckwhicheggsarefertileandwhicharenotfertile.Fertileeggsveryquickly

developbloodvessels,whichmaybeseenagainstasharplightfromatorch.

Illustration11:Home-madeeggcandlersusingeitheryourhandorawooden

boxandatorch


26/9924


Illustration12:a)infertileegg;b)eggwithadeadembryoc)eggafter7days

ofincubation

After7-10daysofincubationtheeggscanbecandled,andtheinfertileeggsandeggs

withdeadembryoscanberemovedfromthenest.Illustration11showstwosimple

eggcandlesandgureIllustration12showshowfertileeggs,infertileeggs,andeggs

withdeadembryosareidentiedattheageof7days.Whencandling,afertileegghasvisiblebloodvesselsandadarkspot,iftheembryoisdead.Thebloodvessels

canbemoreorlessdevelopeddependingonhowstrongtheembryois.Ifthechickis

dead,aringofbloodcanbeseenaroundtheembryo.Aninfertileegghasanenlarged

airspaceandtheyolkcausesavisibledarkareaintheegg.Itisimportantthatinfertile

eggsandeggswithdeadembryosareremovedfromthenestastheywilldecompose

andmaybreakandspoilthefresheggsunderincubation.

Abroodinghenshouldbeseparatedfromtheocktopreventotherhensfromdisturbing

her.Thehenshouldbekeptinaseparatenestwithfreeaccesstofreshwaterand

feed within a short distance. The hen should be provided with a brooding nest or

basketbigenoughtocontainallhereggs.Fresh hay orstrawshouldbeputinthe

nest and some ashes added to avoid parasites. More eggs from other nests should

beaddeduntilthehenhasenoughaccordingtoitssize.Asaruleofthumpahencan

sitonanumberofeggsequalto10timesherbodyweight,e.g.ahenof1.5kgcan

sitonmaximum15eggs.

Illustration13:Inadequatemanagementforbroodinghens

Intheillustrationabove,thehenisdisturbedbyothers.Shedoesnothaveeasyaccess

tofeedandwater.Thetemperatureistoohigh.Thehenisinfestedwith parasites,

whichdisturbsher.Theresultisthatfeweggswillbehatched,andthattoofewofthe

hatched chicks survive as they easily get ill and die.


27/9925


Illustration14:Goodmanagementforbroodinghens

Intheillustrationabove,thehenisnowleftalonewitheasyaccesstofeedandwater.

Sheleavesthenestonlyshortlytodrinkandfeed.Thetemperatureisagreeable.The

nest is well managed with clean hay and anti-parasitic remedies. The result is high

hatchabilityandhealthyandlivelychicksmostofwhichsurvive.

Inthedryandhotseason,farmeroughttospraythebreastofthehenwithwaterto

increase the humidity around the eggs. The hen will do the work of hatching perfectly

if she has the right conditions, for example a clean and suitable nest and quietsurroundings.

Ifonlyasmallnumberofchicksistobehatched,afree-rangehenisabetterbrooder

thananarticialincubator,asshewillnormallyhaveahigherrateofhatching

(80-100%)thananincubator(60-80%).

Afterhatchinganduntilthechicksareoldenoughtobeontheirown-usuallyaround

six weeks of age - the hen will protect the chickens from adverse weather conditions

andpredatorsbycoveringthemwithherwings.Indirectly,thehenwillhaveprotectedthenewlyhatchedchicksagainstdiseasesforthersttwoweeksviaantibodiesinthe

yolk;andslowlyshewilltransferhernaturalbehaviortothechicks.Naturalbehavior

meansknowinghowtosearchforfoodandwater,whichfeedtotakeandwhichto

avoid,howtoavoidpredatorsbyhidingorseekingshelterinbushesandtrees,how

tokeephealthybydustbathing,etc.Thehennormallystartslayingagain6-8weeks

afterhatch,butastrongbondbetweenhenandchicksstillexists.

2.3.9Managementofyoungchickensusingabasketsystem

Inhotclimates,thebestandcheapestmethodtoguardtheyoungnewlyhatched

chicks is the so-called basket system. Young chickens should be kept with their

motherovernightinanightbasketwhichisaroundconicalcagewithaoor,see

Illustration15.Analternativetothebasketmaybemadeprovideditservesthesame

purposeadequately.Anightbasketmaybemadefrombambooorthinpiecesof

wood.Drycutstraw,ricehusks,sawdustorwoodshavingsof8-10cmdepthcanbe

used as litter.Inthemorning,thechicksshouldberemovedfromthenightbasketand

keptinadaybasket,whichisabottomlessconicalcage,seegures1.17and1.18.A

dryjuteorstrawmatshouldbeplacedinthecageifthesoilisdamporwet.Theday

basketshouldbemovedtoanewcleanspoteverydaytoavoiddiseases.Thenight

basketisclosedinordertopreventpredatorsfromenteringandinordertokeepthe

hen and chicks warm at night.


28/9926


Thebasketcaneasilybemovedaround.Thedaybasketneedstobebiggerandmore

open in order for the chicks to move around without the hen stepping on them and in

ordertosecuregoodventilation.Therehastoberoomforasmallfeederanddrinker.

Whentheweatherishot,thechicksoftendonotneedextraheat,buttheyshouldbe

protected against wind and rain.

Illustration15:Daybasketwithajutemat,afeederandadrinkerinside

Thebasketsystemmaybeusedaccordingtotheschedulepictured

inIllustration16:

A:0-1weekofage:Shouldkeepthehenwiththechicksfrom4to7daystoprotectthem

andtoadjustthetemperature.Shewillknowexactlyhowtoadjustthetemperature

according to the sound of the chicks. Farmer must make sure that there is easy access

tocleanwaterandhigh-proteinfeedforthechicks.Ensurethatthebasketisalwayskeptclean,byremovingdroppingsandspilledfeedonapieceofpaperorawoven

matplacedbeneaththebasket.

B:1-3weeksofage:Shouldkeepthechicksinthecageallthetime,butletthehen

outforscavengingduringtheday.Sheshouldbeabletohearthechicksfromwhere

shemoves.Ifshewantstoenterthecageandiftheweatheriscold,sheshould

beallowedtodosobylettingherin.Farmermustmakesurethechickshaveeasy

accesstocleanwaterandhigh-proteinfeed,andensurethatthebasketiskeptclean

at all times. Keep hen and chicks together during the night.

C:3-6weeksofage:Henandchicksmustbekepttogetherduringthenight,but

graduallyasthechicksgrow,shouldbeletouttoscavengewiththeirmotherduring

daytime,atrstonlyforafewhoursinthemorningandthengraduallyalittlelonger.

However the chicks should still have easy access to clean water and high-protein feed

underthebasket,buttheentranceshouldbetoosmallforolderbirdstoenter(creep

feeding).Thebasketandthegroundmustbekeptcleanatalltimes.

D:After 6 weeks:At 6 weeks ofage, the basket system should be removed, andthe chicks let out to scavenge freely together with the mother hen and other adult

chickens.Supplementaryfeedingmustbegivenintheeveningforthewholeock,

accordingtotheirneeds(seechapteronfeed).


29/9927


Illustration16:Managementofyoungchickensusingthedaybasketsystem

2.4 Simple rules for better management in free-range systems

Thefarmermust:

Receivetraininginpoultryrearing;

Provideahouseorshelterwithperchesinsidethehouse;

Cleananddisinfectthehouseonaweeklybasis;Giveunlimitedaccesstocleanwaterandmakesurethatfeedingmeetsthe

nutritionalneedsofthebirds;

Vaccinatebirdsregularlyaccordingtotheadviceoflocalvaccinatorsor

veterinarians;

Monitorthebirdshealthdailybyobservationandwatchingtheirbehavior;

Isolateabirdwhenitbecomesillandcalltheveterinaryassistantorkillthebird;

Reportdiseasetoveterinarianpromptly;

Managetheocksizebymakingsurethatitcorrespondstothefeedand

spaceavailable;Checkthereproductionstatusofeachhenonceamonth,giverightcareto

hensthatarebroodingandkillorsellnon-productivebirds,i.e.cockerelsand

oldhensthathavestoppedlaying;

Providenests,andchecknestsforeggstwotimesaday(layers);

Protectthechicksbyusingadaybasketduringdayandanightbasket

duringnightandseparateyoungchicksfromadultswhentheyarefed;

Make calculations of production costs and income and make sure that

productionisprotable.


30/9928


2.5Howtoimprovemanagement(small-scaleconnedsystems)

2.5.1FlockManagement

Itisimportantthatfarmerssourcetheirdayoldchicksfromcertiedhatcheries.

Contactsbetweenthebroilerchickensandindigenousbirdsincludingducksandturkeys

mustberestrictedasthesespeciesmighttransmitdisease,i.e.Avianinuenza,but

also Pasteurella multocida,SalmonellasppandE. colifor example. It is recommended

tokeepnotmorethan25birds/m2,however,withwarmandhumidsettingslessbirds/

m2(downto10)ishighlyrecommendedtoavoiddeathfromheatstress.

2.5.2Housingandhygiene

Broilerproductionshouldbeanallinalloutoperation.Thispracticediminishesthe

riskofdiseasesandfurthermoreitenablesthefarmertodisinfectandmaintainthe

housingfacilitiesinhygienicconditionbetweenocks.Aperiodof3weeksbetween

ocksisrecommended.Duringthisperiodthehouseshouldbethoroughlycleaned

anddisinfectedwithe.g.limewash.Allequipmentinsidethehouseshouldalsobe

washed and disinfected.

Thereare manydesignsforbroilerhouses.Inthiscontext itshouldbementioned,

thattheconstructionshouldbemadeofmaterialsthatareeasytomaintain,washand

disinfect.Inparticular:

thereshouldbesufcientventilationinthehouse;

theoorshouldbemadeofconcrete;

windowsshouldbecoveredwithchickenwire-nettingwhichdoesnotallowwildbirds

toenterthebroilerhouse;

afootbath(40x40x10cm)withdisinfectantshouldbeplacedoutsidethehouse

attheentranceandvisitorsshouldnotbeallowedentryintothehouse.

2.5.3Feedandwater

Toensureagoodqualitybroilerandanevensizewithintheock,commercialfeeding

isrecommended.Dependingonthecommercialbreed,restrictedfeedingmightbenecessary.Suchdetailsshouldbeenquiredandobtainedfromthehatchery.Clean

watershouldbegivenad libitum. It is important that the feeders and drinkers are kept

clean,sothatinfectionsdonotspreadthroughdirtyfeedandwater.

AccordingtomanyfarmersinEastAfrica,commercialfeedsdonotalwaysmeetthe

nutritionalrequirementsofthebirdsanditmightbepossibletoencounterdeciency

diseases related to lack of vitamins or minerals in the feed. An analysis of the feed

willrevealanysuchproblems.Thesediseasescanbeavoidedbyaddingadditional

vitaminsandminerals.Inaddition,growthratemightbelowbecauseofpoorquality

feeds.Broilersshouldnormallybereadyforsalebeginningfromtheageof35-40daysoldwhentheyoughttoreachaliveweightof1.5to1.8kg.


31/9929


2.5.4Health

The recommendations givenforfree-range poultry applyhere aswell. However, it

should benotedthat commercial breeds grow faster. Especially broilerswhichare

readyforsaleattheageof35-40days.Theshortproductionperiodreducestherisk

ofinfectionwithdiseases,exceptforviraldiseaseswithanepidemicnaturesuchas

NewcastleDiseaseorAvianInuenza.Forsuchdiseases,thesituationmightbetheopposite,asepidemicdiseasesspreadfasterinockswithahighdensity.

2.5.5Behaviour

Unlikefree-rangeocks,a broilerockmaybeof500to50,000birdsandhence

normalbehaviorofthebirdsisnolongerpossibleandhencemanagementofsuch

ocksmusttakethatfactorinaccount.

Diseasesspreadatahigherrateinlargeockscomparedtosmallocksof30birds.

Thereforeentryintotheockshouldberestrictedandifpossibledonebythesamepersonneltoavoidoutbreakoffearintheock.Fearintheockcancausemassive

death.

The majority of recommendations for broiler farms also apply for the layer farms.

However,aockdensityofonly5layers/m2isrecommendedindeep-littersystems.

2.6Simplerulesforbettermanagementinsmallscaleconnedsystems

Thefarmermust:

Receivetraininginpoultryrearing;Onaweeklybasis,cleananddisinfectthehouseincludingthenests,all

equipmentandeggtrays.Eggtraysshouldbethewashableplastictypeor

elsemustbeforsingleuseonly.

Makesurewildbirdsorotheranimalscannotenterthehouse;

Should give unlimited access to clean water and make sure that feeding meets

thenutritionalneedsofthebirds;Ifthefeedisacommercialdietaskforaquality

assurancecerticate;

Shouldinspectthebirdshealthdailybyobservationandwatching

theirbehaviour;

Should vaccinate the layers regularly according to the advice of vaccinators or

veterinarians;

Mustisolateabirdwhenitbecomesillandcalltheveterinaryassistantorkill

thebird;Shouldcheckthereproductionstatusofeachhenonceamonth,

andslaughterorsellnon-productivebirds;

Mustrestrictvisitorsaccesstothepoultryhouse(s);

Shouldcalculatethecostsandincometoseeiftheproductionisprotable.

Usetheall-in-all-outconcept.


32/9930


3. Selection and breeds

3.1Whatyouwillndinthischapter

Thetrainerwillbecomefamiliarwithbasicconceptsandmeaningofbreedsandtheir

productioncharacteristicsandhowtoselectbirdsforoptimalproductivity.

3.2 Background information

Infree-rangesystems,indigenouschickensarethemaintypekept.Theindigenousor

localchickensarestrictlyspeakingnotabreed.Insuchsystems,breedingisusually

not controlled.

Local indigenous birds have differentsizes and plumage color, and varied genetic

potential. For example, they can be classied as follows: frizzle feathered, naked

neck,barredfeathered,mauvefeathered,blackfeathered,dwarfsizebirds.Butthere

aremanyothertypes.Thebiodiversityoftheindigenouschickenisimmenseand

there is thus great need for their conservation.

Inthe1960sand1970spurebreedsofexoticchickenswereintroducedinmany

developingcountriesinsmallnumbers.ThesewereRhodeIslandRed,LightSussex,

NewHampshireRed,BlackAustralorpsandwhiteleghorns.LaterthePlymouthRock,

theBarredRockandtheBuffRockwereintroduced.Inthe1970s,hybridlayersand

broilerockshatchedfromimportedeggswereintroducedandlaterfromimported

breedingstocksraisedinthecountry.Thecrossbreedingprogrammeshavetosomeextentinuencedthelocalgeneticpoolinsomevillages.

Farmers keeping indigenous chickens or crosses hatch their own day old chicks from

eggsthathavebeenincubatedbybroodinghens.Theoriginalbreedingstockmay

havebeensourcedfromarelative,neighbororfriendgivenasagiftorthefarmer

might purchase from the local market.

Today,commerciallayerandbroilerfarmersobtaintheirdayoldchicksfromeither

hatcheriesorimportdirectlyfromsourcesabroadthatareapprovedbytheveterinaryauthorities. This is regulated to prevent importation of chicks infected with e.g. Avian

Inuenza.

IntheadventofHPAI,governmentsintheregionhavebannedimportationofany

poultryandpoultryproductsfromcountriesthathavereportedH5N1HPAI.However

eventhelocallyproducedcommercialdayoldchicksareatriskofbeinginfectedwhen

beingtransportedfromthehatcheryinthedirtyvehicleswhichmighthavebeenused

totakeeggs,livebirdsandfeedstothemarket.Furthermore,thelargenumberofbirds

in commercial enterprises is another risk for multiplying diseases and propagation of adiseaseinaockinthesmallscaleconnedpoultryproductionsystem.


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Illustration18:Ahealthychick

3.3. How to improve selection

This chapter addresses the situation in both free-range and small scale conned

systems.Selectionforsmall scaleconned systemsisespecially importantforthe

farmers when they buy their birds from hatcheries. Selection of healthy birds in

thevillages,marketsorhatcheriesisimportanttosecureahealthyockandhigh

productivity.Oneshouldthereforeknowhowtojudgethequalityofbothsexesofdifferenttypesatvariousages,basedprimarilyontheirappearance,size,sound,and

behaviour(Illustration17).

Judgingaday-oldchick,afull-growncock,oralayinghen,naturallydemandsdifferent

skills. The features to look for become even more complicated when dealing with

differentbreedswithdistinctlooks,behaviour,andpurposes,i.e.egglayingormeat

producing. Here are simple guidelines on how to select a healthy animal at different

ages.Criteriaforbreedselectionarealsogiven.Carefulinterpretationmustbemade

whendealingwiththedifferentecotypesoflocalchickensinEastAfrica.

Illustration17:Physiognomyofhealthyandstrongcockandegg-layer

3.3.1 Animal Selection

Itisimportanttolookfordifferentfeaturesinchicks,growers,hens,andcocks.Select

orbuynewanimalsearlyintheday,asstressfromlackofwater,feed,andrest,will

makemostanimalslookrathersickanddrowsy.Stresscausedbylackofwaterand

feedcanalsolowerthebirdsresistancetodiseasesanditmayevendie.


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Note:Asoft bellyanda clean,drynavel are importantfeaturesof ahealthy,newly

hatched chick

Ahealthy,newlyhatchedchickshouldhavethefollowingfeatures:

Welldevelopedbodylengthanddepth;

Shiny,dry,thick,andcoloureddownfeathers;

Softbelly;Clean,drynavel;

Thickshankswithspacedandstraighttoes;

Big,cleareyes;

Livelybehaviour.

Ahealthygoodbroilershouldhavethefollowingfeatures:

Appearhealthyandlively;

Featheringshinyandnormal(maydependonthebreed);

Largesizefortheage;Eyesclearandshiny;

Cleananddrybeakandnostrils;

Cleanfeathersaroundthevent;

Straight legs and toes.

Ahealthyandgoodegg-layershouldhavethefollowingfeatures:

Shouldappearhealthyandlively;

Featheringnormalforthebreed;

Aredcomb(morecoloredwheninlay);Eyesclearandshiny;



Straightlegsandtoes,withnosignsofscalylegs;

Legslesscoloredinlay;

Thebreastboneshouldnotbesharp;

Abigbroadbottom(layingstatuscanbechecked,seeIllustration19).

Illustration19:a)Heninlay;b)henoutsidelay


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Insmallocks,itisrelativelyeasytocheckwhetherthehensarelayingornot.Check

withyourhand.Thedistancebetweenthepubicbones(top)willbeequivalenttotwo

ngers whenthe henisinlay.Onlyonengermaypassbetweenthepubicbones

whenthehenisoutsidelay.Thedistancebetweenthepubicbones(top)andthe

breastbone(bottom)willbeequivalenttothreetofourngerswhenthehenisinlay.

Onlytwongersmaypasswhenthehenisoutsidelay.Thecriteriamustbeinterpreted

carefully when selecting indigenous chickens.

Ahealthyandgoodcockshouldhavethefollowingfeatures:

Alertandprotectivenature;

Shinyandnormalfeatheringforthebreed;

Clearandshinyeyes;



Straightlegsandtoeswithnosignsofscalylegs;

Largesizerelativetothehens.

Itmaybeanadvantagetokeeprecordsonthegrowthandproductivityofeachbird

inordertoselectbirdsaccordingtofeaturessuchaseggproduction,growth(meat

production), and broody behavior. Keeping records may help you select the best

layersorthebestmothertoprotectthechicks.Seechapter7forexamplesonrecord

keeping.

Ifnewbirdsareboughtonthemarketandbroughtbacktothefarm,itisimportantto

isolatetheminseparatehousesorbasketsforthersttwoweeks.Thiswillenablethefarmertondoutaboutpossiblediseasesordisordersinthenewbirds.Iftheyshow

signsofanykindofillness,thebirdsshouldbeslaughtered.Whenabirdisbought

eitheratthemarketoratahatcherythefarmersshouldaskwhethertheyhavebeen

vaccinated,andifso,againstwhichdiseases.Vaccinationascriterionforselectionof

indigenous chickens may not apply.

3.3.2 Breed selection

When the farmer has taken on improving the productivity and survival of local free-rangepoultrythroughimprovedmanagement,housing,feeding,chickprotectionetc.,

she/hemayembarkonbetterselectionandbreedingthebestindigenouschickens

fromher/hisownock.Thesewillbechickenswhichproducealargenumberofeggs,

henshavinggoodmotheringability,havebigbodiesandlargeeggs.Thefarmermay

wish to add other criteria such as plumage etc. The advantage of the indigenous

chickens is that they are well adapted to the local and usually harsh environment.

The farmermay want tofurtherincrease productivity byintroducingbetter breeds.

A breed is a group of poultry with a characteristic body form and feather contours.Chickens belonging to one breed are genetically very closely related. Production

traitsaredeterminedbythebreedtheseuniquecharacteristicsareinheritedfromone

generationtothenext.Alsofeaturessuchasthecomb,colorofearlobes,andshank


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colorsandlengthareusuallydeterminedbybreed.Ineverybreed,differentvarieties

canoccur,usuallydeterminedbyplumagecolor.Thusawhiteandablackhenmayjust

bedifferentvarietiesofthesamebreed.Illustration20showthreedifferentbreeds

commonlyfoundintropicalregions.Strictlyspeakingthesearenotbreeds,butrather

ecotypes,theyhavediversegeneticmakeup,examplesareFrizzledFeathers,Naked-

Neck,andtheDwarf.Naked-Neckgenesarefoundinalmosteveryvillageandare

believedtobeanaturaladaptationtoavoidheatstress.FrizzledFeathersmaylookillatarstglance,butisalsoacommonecotypeinmostvillage-basedsystems.In

some countries, Frizzled Feathers are higher priced in the markets than normally

featheredpoultry.Dwarfpoultryshowstandardcolorsandplumage,buttendtobe2/3

ofthenormalsizeforpoultry,mostlybecauseoftheshortshanks.

Illustration20:Differentecotypes:Frizzledfeathers,nakedneckanddwarf

Insmallscaleconnedsystems,chickenskeptareusuallyhybrids.Chickensofone

type of hybrid are genetically and phenotypically almost identical. Hybrid chickens

are usually kept for two distinct purposes, that is, either egg or meat production.

Highproductivityineithereggormeatproductionisaresultofspecializedbreeding

programmes. The so-called dual-purpose breeds are also results of breedingprogrammes and may produce more eggs as well as more meat than traditional

indigenousbirds.Itisimportanttoselectbirdsthataresuitedforthekindofproduction

thefarmerhasinmind,andthatthebirdsaretfortheconditionsunderwhichthey

arekept,e.g.free-rangeorconnement.Alsocheckoutwhethertheyareableto

adapt to hot climates.

Thefeaturesofbirdsspecializedineggproduction,meatproduction,orboth(dual-

purpose) are shown in Illustration 21. Laying hens are boat-shaped with a long

straightbackandabigbottom.Meatproducers(broilers)arelong-legged,haveamoreuprightpositionandwingsplacedinhighpositiononthebody.Dual-purpose

breedshavebodyformsin-betweenlayersandbroilers.Localbreedsoftenhavethe

formofadual-purposebreed,thoughmuchlessheavyinbodyformandsize.

Illustration21:Classicalshapeofbreedsproducinga)eggs,b)meatandc)both


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Forsmallscaleconnedandalsolargescaleconnedsystems,highlyspecialized

hybridshavebeendeveloped(crossesofseveralbreeds),ofwhichlayerscanproduce

300 eggs per year and broilers can reach 2 kg in 6-7 weeks. To obtain this high

production,thehybridshaveveryspecicrequirementstomanagement,feeding,and

diseasemanagement,andproductioncostsarehigh.Theyarethereforenotnormally

suited for free-range systems but should be kept in conned intensive production

systems.

3.3.3 Cross-breeding

Toincreaseproductionfromlocalchickens,crossbreedingwithestablishedbreedscan

beintroduced.Itis,however,importanttoconsultprofessionalbreedersorbreeding

companies, who may recommend suitable and available breeds to increase egg

production,growth,orboth.Itisimportanttobeawarethattheoffspringwillobtain

differentqualitiesdependingonwhetherthecockorthehenofthenewbreedisused.

Thisisbecausesomequalitiesaresex-linked,andthusitis importanttoconsulta

breeder.

InBangladesh,thefemaleofanEgyptianbreed,Fayoumi,andthemaleofanAmerican

breed,RhodeIslandRed(RIR),werecrossedtoproduceacrossbredlayersuitable

for a semi-scavenging life under village conditions. The result was a laying capacity of

upto160eggs/hen/yearandagrowthrateundersemi-scavengingconditionsof10g/

day.Furthermore,thebrown-goldenfeatherswerehighlypraisedbythefarmers,who

namedthebreedSonali(meaningGoldeninBangla).ThecrossofmaleFayoumi

andthefemaleRIRdidnotgivethesamesatisfactoryresults.

Itisalsoimportanttostressthatifacross-breedisintroducedatvillagelevel,itis

crucialthatmanagement,feeding,andhealthprotectionschemesareimprovedand

secured at all times.

3.3.4 Challenges of cockerel exchange programs

Inmanycountries,acommonattempttoincreaseproductionfromlocalchickenshas

beentoestablishso-calledcockerelexchangeschemes.Theideawastoimprovethe

productivityoflocalbirdsbymatingthemwithimprovedcocks.Forseveralreasons,theseschemesusuallyfailedtowork.Firstofalltheintroducedbreedsthatcouldnot

adapttothehotclimate,lowfeeding,andextensivemanagement,andthusmany

ofthemdied.Furthermore,theimprovedcockswerenotaslivelyandactiveunder

village conditions as the local cocks and therefore lost in the mating competition for

thehens.Whenreproductionsucceeded,therstgenerationofthesecocksoften

showed a slight increase in production, but as no strict breeding schemes were

maintained,theeffectwasgoneafterafewgenerations.Otherimportantpotential

disadvantageswerelossofbroodiness,reducedscavengingcapability,andreduced

survival.DiseasessuchasNewcastleDiseaseandLeucosiswereintroducedtonew

areas,andtheresultwashighmortalityamonglocalbirds.Forallthesereasons,itis

veryimportantthatselectionofbreedingbirdstakeplaceintheexistingenvironment.

Simple cockerel exchange programs as such are not recommended.


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3.4. Simple rules to choose the right breed and improve selection

Practicejudgingtheexternalfeaturesofcocks,hens,growers,andchicks,

to know which features indicate a good healthy and productive animal.

Alwayschoosebirdswithalivelybehavior.

Always check whether the hens are in lay.

Apotentiallygoodlayerhasalongstraightbackandabroadbottom.Alwayscheckthebellyandnavelspotofnewlyhatchedchicks.

Keepnewbirdsisolatedfor2weeksbeforeintroducingthemintotheock.

Makesurethatnewbirdsarevaccinatedagainstimportantdiseasesinanarea

andarefreeofparasitesbeforebeingintroducedintotheock.

Theresultsofcrossbreedingshouldalwaysbemonitoredcarefully.

Uncontrolleduseofexoticcocksinfree-rangevillageproductionshould

beavoided.

Ifthefarmerusescrossbredorexoticbreeds,she/hemustmakesurethat

housing,feeding,andhealthmanagementareimprovedandavailableat

all times.

3.5.RecommendationsforimprovementofbiosecurityBreedingstockand

their products

Forcommercialocksinsmallscaleconnedsystems,itisrecommendedthatthe

protocols and procedures in the hatcheries are monitored regularly to ensure that

healthy day-old chicks are supplied.

Asaminimumadescribedbiosecurityplanshouldbeinplaceforhatcheriesandall

personnelshouldbetrainedaccordingly.Furthermore,useofappropriatedisinfectants

inthe hatcheryand inthe brooding houseismandatory. Day-oldchicks should be

carried and transported from the hatchery to the farm in clean chick containers and

vehicles.

Fortheindigenouschickensandtheircrossesinfree-rangesystems,thefarmermust

providecleanbeddingsforthebroodinghenandprovidecleanseparateareaaway

fromtheotherbirdswhereitcanbroodthechicksforatleastthersttwoweeks.Further separation of the chicks for another 4-6 weeks is recommended.

Theselectionofbreedsappropriatefortherespectiveproductionsystemsisimportant

ashybridchickensrarelycanmanageinascavengingproductionsystem.Inadequate

feed and feeding may lower the immunity of chickens, and the chickens become

susceptibletodiseases.

Whenintroducingnewanimalsintoafree-rangeock,theanimalsshouldalwaysbe

keptinquarantineforminimum2weeks.

In all systems, the keeping of only one poultry species at the farm is strongly

recommended.


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4. Housing

4.1.Whatyouwillndinthischapter

The chapter includes a detailed description of different types of shelters, mainly

for free-range systems. The purpose and the requirements of proper housing are

described.Emphasisisonhousingandbiosecurity.Useoflocallyavailablehousing

materialsisencouraged.Oneofthemostimportantcriteriaofagoodshelteristhat

it should facilitate easy cleaning and application of hygienic measures. This chapter

should equip the trainer with adequate knowledge to advise the farmer on proper

housing for chickens.

4.2. Common practices in free-range systems

Commonly indigenous chickens are kept in a separate shelter which is located very

near the main house for security purposes. Sometimes the chickens are kept in thefamilyhouse.Inbothcases,chickensarehousedduringthenightonly.

Wherehousingisprovided,theoorandwallsaremadeofwoodplanksandroofs

are grass thatched. Some more advanced ones may have iron sheets for the roofs.

Inotherplacesthehousesareeitherelevatedonemeteraboveground.Someofthe

elevatedhousesaremadeofintertwinedthinsticksfortheooringandwalls.Other

chicken houses are made by simply surrounding the lower part of a granary with

chickenwire-mesh,leavingadoorforthechickentoenter.Mostofthechickenhouses

havesmalldoorsandattimesonlyyoungchildrenmaybeabletoenterthroughthedoors.Itwillbedifcultforadultstocleantheshelterinside.

4.2.1 Biosecurity issues related to housing in free-range systems

Indigenous chickens often scavenge for their feed. During this activity they might move

up to 2 km a day. The scavenging activity increases the risk of spread of diseases.

Alsotheconstructionofmosthousesinthissectormakesthemdifculttocleanand

disinfect.Movementbetweenfarmsisnotrestrictedandneighborsusuallyvisitone

anotherevenduringdiseaseoutbreaks.Therearenofootbathsfordisinfectants.Thepoultry manure and slaughter waste are disposed within the farm area.

4.3. How to improve sheltering in free-range systems

Housingisessentialtoprotectthebirdagainstincrementalweather(rain,sun,verycold

winds,droppingnighttemperatures),predators,andtheft,andalsotoprovideshelter

forhenslayingeggsandbroodyhens.Andmostimportant:housingisnecessaryin

ordertomaintain ahighlevelof biosecurityintheock.Furthermore,a suitableor

comfortablepoultryhouseisextremelyimportanttomaintainanefcientproductionandfortheconvenienceofthepoultryfarmer.Inthefollowingsection,guidelinesfor

typeandsizeofchickenhouse,siteselection,choiceofbuildingmaterialandlastly

theequipmentneededforraisingthepoultryarediscussed.


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Illustration22:Housingshouldrstofallprotectagainstpredators

andbadweatheratnight

The decision to build a chicken house should build upon a rationale involving an

estimate of the costs, the durability, and immediate gain of using a house for thepoultry.

The simplest and often most cost-effective housing system for free-range poultry is

thebasketsystem(Illustration15).Suchnightbasketsmaybeplacedinaquietand

dryplaceinsideabuildingonthefarmduringnight,eitherontheoororhangingfrom

theroof(toavoidsnakes).Anightbasketmayhold5-10chickensdependingonthe

size.

Whenamoreelaboratestructureisenvisaged,itisimportanttobuildachickenhouse

ofappropriatesize(accordingtotheocksize).Onemustconsidercarefullythesite,

thematerials,andnotleastthecostsinvolved.

Whenchoosingtherightsite,youshouldtakethefollowingpointsintoaccount:

A shady and dry place on at but raised ground is preferable to keep the oor dry

duringtherainyseason.Itmaybenecessarytodigadrainaroundthehouseorto

raisethegroundrst.Alternatively,thehousecanbeelevatedfromthegroundasin

Illustration 3.

A well-drained soil is desired. The area must not get ooded during heavy rains

because the chickens can drown. Furthermore, it is very detrimental to have wet

oorsinachickenhouse;itmayleadtodiseases.Aslopinghillsideprovidesgood

drainage and affords some protection also.

For security reasons it is also important to have the chicken house near the living

housesothatthefarmerisabletohearifchickensaredisturbedbypredatorsatnight,orbyathief.However,thechickenhouseshouldnotbelocatedveryclosetotheliving

quartersbecauseitwillcreateunsanitaryconditions.Henceitshouldbelocatednot

lessthan15metresawayfromthedwellinghouses.


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The orientation of a chicken house has to take into consideration the movement of

thesunandthedominatingwinds,makingthehousenaturallyshadedandventilated

atcertaintimesoftheday.Inmostlocalitiesitisbesttoselectasiteinwhichthe

poultryhousefacesSouthorEast.Windowsplacedonthesouthsideofthehouse

willbeagoodsourceoflightandwarmthduringthecoldweatherandagoodsource

ofventilationinhotweather.InarectangularhousetheendwallsmustfaceEastand

West. This will ensure that only the end walls face the hot morning sun or the evenhotter sun during the afternoon.

Buildingthehouse

Alwaysusethecheapestmaterialslikebamboo,wood,reeds,thatchgrass,or

claybrickscombinedwithcement.

Removethebarkfromthewoodyouuse,asparasitesoftenhidebehind

thebark.

Clay houses should have windows with chicken wire mesh. A vent at the top of

thehousewillensuregoodventilation.Thesemeasureswillalsogivelight,makingiteasiertoworkinthehouse.However,makesurewindswillventilate

the house without making chickens or hens cold.

Theoorshouldideallybemadeofconcrete,butclaymayalsobeused.

Itshouldberememberedthatduringtherainyseason,rainandwindmaycause

severe chilling and hence farmer must protect chickens against that.

Heat,humidity,andharmfulgassesmaybeconsiderablyreducedthroughgood

ventilation of the house or shelter. High temperatures can cause deaths or drop

ineggproduction,lowshellquality,andreducedweightgain.Acombinationof

high temperatures and high humidity can kill young chicks.Placingperchesandnestsinsidethehousewillsafeguardagainstmost

predators. It will also help to keep the legs of the chickens and the eggs clean.

Thenestsmustbeplacedinaquietplaceinthehouse,tomakethehensfeel

comfortableandatease.

Thebestprotectionagainstdiseasesandparasitesisgoodhygiene.

Itisthereforeimportantthatitiseasytocleanthehouse/shelter.Itshouldbe

tallenoughforagrown-uppersontoworkinthere.Inhousesraisedabove

theground,cleaningwillbeeasieriftheoorismadeofslats.

Must make the nests and perches easy to remove when cleaning.Houses/sheltersmaybesprayedorlimewashedaftercleaningtodisinfect

andreducethequantityofparasiteeggsfromthewallsandcracks.Onemay

putsomeashesordrylimeontheoorandintheneststokeepoffparasites.

Grass,bushesandtreesmustbeclearedforadistanceofabout3metersor

moreonallsidesofthehousetokeepvermin(snakesandrats)awayfromthe

chickens.Treesarebenecialinthescavengingareaandserveasawindbreak

duringthecoldseasonandasshadeduringthehotweather,andprotectfrom

yingpredators.

Inwoodenhouses,farmershoulduseslatted,raisedoorstoremovedroppingsand avoid predators.

Inclayhouses,mustusewire-meshedwindowstoavoidpredators.


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Housesmaybebuiltonpoles,wellabovethegroundtoprotectthechickens

frompredatorslikedogs,rats,andsnakes.

Mustbuildpoultryhousetopreventpossibleinjurytothebirds.Removeany

sharp-edgedobjectsfromthehouse.

Thehousehastobelargeenoughsothatthereissufcientroomforthebirds,andso

thattheairinsidedoesnotbecometooheavywithhumidityandgasses.Aroundor

squarehouseof1.5-2.0mwillhold10-12adultbirds.

Illustration23:Abadlyconstructedchickenhouse

Thehouseisplacedinthesunwithalowatroofandnowindows,makingitvery

hotandbadlyventilated.Ithasasmalldoor,whichmakesitdifculttogetinsideand

clean it.

Illustration24:Awellconstructedchickenhouse


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This well constructed chicken house is placed in the shade, has a high roof, and

windows with wire mesh, providing good ventilation. The door is facing north to

avoiddirectsun.Thedoorisbigenoughforapersontoenterandcleanthehouse

frequently.

Access

Oftentheentrancetothechickenhouseisverysmallanditisnoteasytoenterthe

house.Itisimportantthattheopeningtothechickenhouseismadebigenoughsuch

thatanadultpersoncaneasilyenterandworkinthehouse.Consequently,other

precautionsagainsttheftshouldbetaken.Inordertoguardagainsttheftalockmay

bettedonthedoor.

Theshelter/houseshouldbepartitionedtoprovideforbroodinghens.

Perches

Perchesareimportantforchickenstorestonduringnight.Parasitesmayinfectpoultry

restingontheoor,andperchesoftenreducetheriskofexternalparasitescrawling

ontothechickensatnight.Itisalsonaturalbehaviorofchickenstosleepabovethe

groundintrees.Eachone-meterperchmayroostveadultbirds.Perchesarebest

madeofbambooorroundstickstoaccommodateforthesizeandstructureofthe

birdsfeet.Ifthesticksaretoobigortoosmall,thebirdsmayfall.Perchescanalsobe

squareandat:5-10cmbroad.Topreventattackofexternalparasites,theperches

maybetreatedwithwasteoilorkerosene,wheretheymeetthewall.

Illustration25:Perchesshouldhaveanappropriatediameter

Illustration26:Sticksshouldmatchthesizeofthebirdsfeet


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Nests

Often,nestsarenotprovidedforthehens,andeventuallythehenswilllaytheireggs

on the ground, in high grass or in natural shelters, where they may be difcult to

nd.Somepoultryfarmersbuildnestsonthegroundoutsidethechickenhouse.This

shouldbeavoided,aseggsoutsidehousesareexposedtopredatorsandtheft.Nests

should be placed inside the chicken house and preferably above the ground. Forlayingonemayhaveabatteryofnestswheremorehenscanlayatatime(Illustration

27).Theremustbe1nestforevery5hens.Thenestsmaybemadeoflocalmaterials

or,forsmallscaleconnedsystems,therearecommerciallyavailablenestsmadeof

woodandrubberoor.Thesecommerciallyavailablenestsarepreferredduetothe

easiness of cleaning.

Illustration27:Batteryofnestsforlayinghens

Thenestsforbrooding,ontheotherhand,mustbeindividual,placedinaquietand

darkplace,andtheymustbeeasytomove(Illustration27).Oncethehenisbroody,

itmaybenecessarytomovehertoadifferentplace,preferablyaquietplace,e.g.a

storagehouse,topreventpeopleandotherhensfromdisturbingher.Otherhenscan

gobroodyaswell,iftheyareclosetoabroodyhen.Ifbroodinessisnotwanted,the

henshouldberemovedfromthenestandplacedinacoolandlightedenvironment.

Illustration28:Nestsforbroodyhensshouldbeplacedinaquietplace


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Simplenestsmaybeclaypots,calabashes,orbasketsmadeoflocalbers,cardboard,

orwoodenboxes(Illustration28).Nestsshouldbeoftherightsizeforthehentofeel

comfortable.Anestboxwilltypicallymeasure30x30x30cm.Donotmakethemtoo

big,asthehenwillnotfeelcomfortable.Acalabashornestbasketmaymeasure40x

20x25cm(upperdiameterxheightxlowerdiameter).Aclaypotshouldbeofmore

orlessthesamesize.

Ahealthyandattractivenestforthebroodyhenmaybepreparedbyfollowingthese

threesteps:Takeacleanpotorbasketandllsandmixedwithashesupto1/3ofthedepth;

Putclean,softnestingmaterial(hayorstraw)ontopupto2/3ofthedepth;

Then place the eggs in the nest.

Illustration30:Preparinganestinthreesteps

Nesting material should be changed at least once a week except when a hen is

broodingonhereggs.Thefarmershouldmakesurethattherimis1/3ofthedepth

tomakethehenfeelsecure,andifnecessaryputdummyeggs(e.g.boiledorstone

eggs)inthenesttoattractahen.Mixingashes,tobaccoleaves,drylime,orotheranti-

parasiticsubstanceswiththenestingmaterialwillkeepoutmostexternalparasites.

Externalparasitesinnestsmayreducethehatchabilityofeggs,asthehenwilluse

toomuchtimeandenergyleavingthenest,cleaningandscratchingherbody,thus

leaving the eggs cold.

Providingnestsalsomakesiteasiertocollecteggs.Thefarmerwillavoiddirtyand

crackedeggs,iftheeggsarecollectedtwiceaday.CollectEggsmustbecollectedatthesametimeeveryday,inthemorningandtheevening.Removingeggscontinuously

isimportantifonewantstoavoidthatthehensbecomingbroodyandgetmoreeggs,

asbroodyhensstoplayingeggs.

Illustration 29: Simple nests for broody hens are easily made and can easily be

moved


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Shelters for the mother hen and chicks

After hatching, it is important to keep the hen and the chicks close together in a

separatecage:thebasket(seealsoChapterone,Managementofsmallchickens

basketsystem).Suchasheltershouldprimarilyprotectagainstadultpoultrycompeting

forfeedandagainstpredators;anditshouldprovideastableenvironment,shelt

Poultry Manual for Trainers and Producers

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