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Evolutionary Biology Lecture Guide

BIO 200

Jessica Poulin

Department of Biological Sciences

University at Buffalo–SUNY

7th Edition

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Copyright © 2017 by Jessica Poulin

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iii

Dear Students,

Welcome to Bio 200—Introduction to Evolutionary Biology! I’m excited to be beginning

this course with you, as evolutionary biology and its sister fields are the parts o biology I

love most.

Tis lecture guide is designed to help you keep on top o all o the material we’ll be discuss-

ing this semester. Tere’s a lot o it, so the most successul students keep on top o the mate-

rial as we go and are very organized! For each lecture this guide contains an outline, a list o

key terms or concepts, a list o people to know, and a list o organisms to know. Tese itemswill help to make sure that you are taking notes on the correct things and understand all the

parts o lecture I think are most important (i.e., that I will test you on!).

Te key terms and concepts are listed in the approximate order that they appear in class.

Many students use the space afer the terms to take notes during class. Others take notes

in class and then fill in the guide later to cement the concepts we covered. Please use the

system that works best or you.

Te paper guide does not contain copies o the slides I will lecture rom. Tese cannot be

sold due to copyright issues. However, slides will be posted on UBLearns. I SRONGLY

urge you to print the slides beore coming to class to take notes on.

As a companion to this guide, you are receiving access to practice questions or the entire

course. Tese will be posted online (directions or accessing the questions are on UBLearns).

For each lecture you will be able to work through a set o 10–14 practice exam questions.

Tese questions are a very good gauge o the exams I will give in class. I strongly recom-

mend you take your practice test afer going over your notes and that you time yoursel!

Your midterms will be given during class time, so you have 50 minutes to take a 30 question

test. Tat’s 1.6 minutes per question. Efficiency is a major key to exam success! As with

most things academic, practice improves perormance. Tat’s why I provide the practice

questions.

Tere are also two old exams or each section o the course (Evolution, Diversity, and Ecol-

ogy/Final) available. Wait until you have gone to all the lectures rom a given exam, studiedyour notes, taken all the practice tests, AND made your cheat sheet. Ten take the old ex-

ams as i you were taking a real test (with your cheat sheet and under time). Tis is excellent

preparation or what it will be like to be in the real exam!

Good luck—I look orward to working with all o you this term!

Best!

Dr. Poulin

WELCOME

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iv Bio 200 Lecture Guide

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v

Table of Contents

Letter to Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

able o Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

Evolution Section

Lecture 2 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1








Lecture 10 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Reerence Page or Evolution Material (Exams 1 and 3) . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Diversity Section












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vi Bio 200 Lecture Guide




Reerence Page or Diversity (Exams 2 and 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Ecology Section








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1

Outline

ime Scales

1. Te ormation o the Earth

2. What happens next: Four eras

3. A brie tour through the history o time (on Earth)

Origin of Life

1. Extra-terrestrial origins?

2. What is lie?

3. Te Earth beore lie originated

4. Four steps

Key Terms/Concepts

Note: You do not need to know details about the ormation o the Earth itsel, just the basic

terms will be fine here.

1. Protoplanetary disk

2. Formation o our sun

3. Protoplanet

4. Precambrian supereon

5. Paleozoic era

6. Mesozoic era

7. Cenozoic era

Lecture 2

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Lecture 8. Hadean eon (Don’t just tell me it’s the first period o time on Earth; be able to de-

scribe it.)

9. Archean eon

10. Unicellular vs. multicellular

11. Cyanobacterial mats/stromatolites

12. Bacterial ossils

13. Archean ossils

14. Earliest multicellular lie

15. rilobites

16. Archeocyathids

17. 1st land plants

18. 1st land animals

19. Permian extinction

20. Age o reptiles

21. 1st mammals

22. K– extinction event

23. K– boundary

24. Geological clock

25. Continental drif and changing geography

26. What is lie?

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3

27. Four steps to orm lie

28. Miller and Urey’s experiment

29. Building blocks o lie

30. Monomers and polymers

31. Te importance o clay

32. Protobionts

33. Four reasons we think there was originally an RNA world

34. Viroids

People to Know

• Stanley Miller

• Harold Urey

Organisms to Know

• Cyanobacteria

• rilobites

• Archeocyathids

• Dinosaurs

• Morganucodon watsoni

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4

Lecture Student Notes and Questions

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5

Outline

History of the Teory of Evolution and Mr. Darwin

1. Supernatural vs. scientific explanations or creation

2. History o evolutionary thought

3. Introducing Mr. Darwin

4. Darwin’s ollowers

Key Terms/Concepts

1. Features o a divinely inspired creation

2. Common descent

3. ransmutation o species

4. Binomial nomenclature

5. Nested hierarchy o organisms

6. Sedimentation

7. Erosion

8. Gradualism

9. Great Geological Cycle

10. “we find no vestige o a beginning [o time], no prospect o an end”

Lecture 3

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6

Lecture 11. “invisible hand”

12. Competition and sel-interest

13. Lamarckian evolution

14. Acquired traits

15. Populations grow geometrically, while ood supplies only grow linearly

16. Te role o disasters in keeping the ood supply in line with the population

17. Impact o extinction on theories o creation

18. Catastrophism

19. “the present is the key to the past”

20. Uniormitarianism

21. Atolls

22. Darwin’s observations on the voyage o the Beagle and their impact on his theory

23. Te importance o WHERE the organisms came rom on the Galapagos

24. Wallace’s line

25. What’s the big idea?

People to Know

• Anaximander

• Carolus Linnaeus

• James Hutton

• Adam Smith

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• Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

• Tomas Malthus

• Georges Cuvier

• Charles Lyell

• Charles Darwin

• Alred Russel Wallace

• Gregor Mendel

• James Watson

• Francis Crick

Organisms to Know

• Glyptodon

• Mockingbirds

• Galapagos tortoises

• Finches

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9

Outline

Darwin’s Evidence

1. Darwin’s hypothesis o natural selection

2. Evidence or Darwin’s hypothesis rom his lietime

3. Modern evidence

4. Implications o Darwin’s hypothesis

5. Evidence to support the implications

Key Terms/Concepts

1. Tree actors necessary or natural selection

2. Five actors necessary or natural selection

3. Explain evidence that individuals vary

4. Explain evidence that organisms overbreed given available resources

5. Te Grants’ work on the medium ground finch

6. Daphne Major

7. Can you analyze the graphs rom the Grants’ work?

8. El Niño years and La Niña years

9. Can you explain how the Grants’ data shows evidence o adaptation to environmental

conditions (better variations have better survival)?

Lecture 4

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10

Lecture 10. I I told you about weather conditions on Daphne Major, could you make predic-

tions about what would happen PHYSICALLY to the finches there?

11. Heritability

12. What does heritability say about natural selection?

13. Other issues that made Darwin’s work hard or people to accept

14. Te age o the earth (how does this support Darwin?)

15. Fossil evidence o adaptation (how does this support Darwin?)

16. Percent o living ossils decreases the older the rock strata (how does this supportDarwin?)

17. Archaeopteryx (how does this support Darwin?)

18. Modern examples o transitional orms (how does this support Darwin?)

19. Te horse lineages

20. Te problem with missing links

21. What did Darwin know about the proo o his hypothesis beore his death?

People to Know

• Peter Grant

• Rosemary Grant

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11

Organisms to Know

• Archaeopteryx

• Ambulocetus natans

• iktaalik

• Te Equidae

• Hyracotherium

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Outline

What Darwin Didn’t Know: Mendel and Basic Genetics

1. Gregor Mendel and the collapse o the blending model

2. Mendel’s basic process

3. Monohybrid crosses

4. Mendel’s five element model and the principle o segregation

5. Punnett squares

6. Dihybrid crosses

7. Principle o independent assortment

Extending Mendel

1. Do peas make it too easy?

2. Gene linkage

3. Polygenic inheritance

4. Epistasis

5. Pleiotropy

6. Incomplete dominance and codominance

7. Environmental effects on gene expression

Key Terms/Concepts

1. Blending inheritance

2. Why work with peas?

3. rue breeding

4. What does it mean to “cross” something?

Lecture 5

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Lecture 5. What is a trait?

6. Hybrids

7. Te importance o quantification o results

8. Monohybrid crosses

9. P generation

10. Cross ertilization

11. F1, F2, etc., generations

12. Sel-crossing

13. Monohybrid ratios

14. Latent traits

15. Te meaning o the five element model—what conclusions does Mendel draw rom

each o his elements?

16. Factors/Genes

17. Allele

18. Homozygote/Homozygous

19. Heterozygote/Heterozygous

20. Dominant

21. Recessive

22. Genotype

23. Phenotype

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24. Mendel’s 1st law/Segregation

25. How do you fill in and analyze a Punnett square?

26. Where are the gametes on a Punnett square?

27. Can you determine the parental genotypes rom a Punnett square?

28. Phenotype vs. genotype ratios

29. Dihybrid crosses

30. Dihybrid ratios

31. Can you find the gametes and parental genotypes rom a dihybrid Punnett square?

32. Mendel’s 2nd law/Independent assortment

33. Gene linkage

34. wo state cases vs. multi-state cases

35. Polygenic inheritance

36. Epistasis

37. How is epistasis different rom polygeneic inheritance?

38. Given a genotype would you know what color a Labrador was?

39. Pleiotropy

40. Why is sickle cell still around?

41. Incomplete dominance

42. Codominance

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Lecture 43. How does incomplete dominance differ rom codominance? Could you tell them

apart?

44. How are blood types determined?

45. Environmental effects on gene expression

People to Know

• Gregor Mendel

Organisms to Know

• Peas

• Labradors

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Student Notes and Questions

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19

Outline

What Mendel Didn’t Know: Chromosomes and Recombination

1. Chromosomes are discovered and come in pairs

2. A brie introduction to mitosis and meiosis

3. Haploidy, diploidy, polyploidy

4. Sex chromosomes: an unusual pair

5. Recombination via crossing over

What Does DNA Do?

1. Understanding how we’ve gone rom actors to DNA

2. Nucleic acids, the double helix, and a quick tour o DNA replication

3. Te central dogma (DNA→ RNA→ aa→ Protein)

4. How central is it?

5. Codons and translation: A universal code

6. Closely related species have similar proteins and DNA

Key Terms/Concepts

1. Chromosomes

2. Te implications o paired chromosomes

3. Human chromosome counts

4. Karyotype

5. Chromatid

6. Sister chromatids

Lecture 6

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Lecture 7. Centromere

8. Homologous pair

9. Basics o mitosis and meiosis

10. Cell outcomes o mitosis and meiosis

11. Basic differences between mitosis and meiosis

12. Ploidy

13. Sex chromosomes

14. Crossing over/Recombination

15. How do chromosomes explain gene linkage?

16. Does recombination eliminate gene linkage?

17. Te basic structure o DNA

18. Nucleotides

19. How does DNA replicate?

20. What is the central dogma o molecular biology?

21. ranscription and translation

22. How are proteins ormed?

23. Given a DNA or RNA transcript, can you “build” a protein?

24. Codons and the amino acid table (do not memorize table)

25. What do comparisons o amino acid sequences (Cytochrome C), gene unctions, or

DNA sequences tell us about organism relatedness?

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21

People to Know

• James Watson

• Francis Crick

Organisms to Know

• No new organisms or lecture 6

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Outline

Microevolution

1. What causes evolution?

2. Allele requencies: A critical measure

3. Gene flow

4. Non-random mating

5. Genetic drif

Mutation in Detail

1. How do codons get read?

2. Incorrect readings: a variety o point mutations

3. Chromosome level mutations

4. Aneuploidy and polyploidy

5. Causes and effects o mutations

Key Terms/Concepts

1. Allele requency

2. Population

3. Can an individual evolve?

4. Microevolution

5. Microevolutionary orces

6. Gene flow

7. Does gene flow increase or decrease genetic variation?

Lecture 7

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Lecture 8. Non-random mating

9. Assortative mating

10. Sel-ertilization

11. Does non-random mating increase or decrease genetic variation?

12. Genetic drif

13. Founder effect

14. Bottleneck effect

15. How are ounder and bottleneck effects different?

16. Does genetic drif increase or decrease genetic variation? Founder effects? Bottle-

neck effects?

17. Mutation

18. Where do new genes come rom?

19. Crick and Brenner’s experiments and their results

20. Degenerate code

21. Reading rame and rameshif

22. Silent, missense, and nonsense mutations

23. Chromosome level mutations

24. Nondisjunction

25. Aneuploidy

26. Monosomy

27. risomy and common trisomys

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28. Polyploidy

29. Causes o mutation (mutagens)

30. Outcomes o mutation

People to Know

• Francis Crick

• Sydney Brenner

Organisms to Know


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27

Outline

Natural Selection

1. Te only adaptive evolutionary orce

2. Stabilizing selection

3. Directional selection

4. Disruptive selection

5. Balancing selection

6. Determining fitness

Sexual Selection

1. Males and emales have different reproductive strategies

2. Females choose…

3. …most o the time (when the exception proves the rule)

4. Males compete

5. Females gain by their choosiness

a. Co-parents

b. erritory

c. When males don’t stick around—theories!

Key Terms/Concepts

1. Natural selection

2. Adaptation

3. Adaptive

4. Selective orces (definition and examples)

5. Fitness

Lecture 8

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Lecture 6. Absolute fitness

7. Relative fitness

8. Stabilizing selection

9. Directional selection

10. Disruptive selection

11. Balancing selection

12. Heterozygote advantage

13. Negative requency dependent selection

14. Reproductive strategy

15. Parental investment

16. What happens when male and emale parental investment is equal or males invest

more?

17. Female choice

18. Male/Male competition

19. Sexual dimorphism

20. Paternal care

21. erritory deense and resource acquisition

22. Good genes hypothesis

23. Handicap principle hypothesis

24. Runaway selection

25. Ghost o selection past

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29

People to Know

• No new people or lecture 8

Organisms to Know

• Fence lizards

• Pocket mice

• Salmon

• Colonial bentgrass, Agrostis tenuis

• Elephant seals

• Australian riflebirds

• Pea owl

• Long-tailed widowbird

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31

Outline

Species Concepts and Reproductive Isolation

1. What is a species?

2. Morphological species concept

3. Biological species concept

4. Prezygotic isolating mechanisms

5. Postzygotic isolating mechanisms

Species Formation

1. How does one species become two?

2. Allopatric speciation

3. How is allopatry achieved?

4. Is sympatric speciation possible?

5. Neat examples o speciation: Adaptive radiation and ring species

Key Terms/Concepts

1. Morphological Species Concept

2. Biological Species Concept

3. Reproductive isolation

4. Prezygotic vs. postzygotic isolating mechanisms

5. Geographic or ecological isolation

6. Allopatric/allopatry

7. Sympatric/sympatry

Lecture 9

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Lecture 8. emporal isolation

9. Behavioral isolation

10. Mechanical isolation

11. Gametic isolation

12. Hybrid inviability

13. Hybrid inertility

14. Hybrid breakdown

15. How does allopatric speciation occur?

16. Ways that allopatric isolation can occur (dispersal, vicariance, “the third one”)

17. How is continental drif related to allopatric speciation and species distributions?

18. How do the different microevolutionary orces affect the chances o speciation?

19. Sympatric speciation

20. Polyploidy

21. How might disruptive selection lead to sympatric speciation?

22. Adaptive radiation

23. Subspecies

24. Ring species

People to Know


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Organisms to Know

• Liger/igon (no, you don’t have to remember which parents lead to which)

• Wild lettuce (Lactuca sp.)

• Blue- and red-ooted boobies

• Abalone

• Donkey, Horse, and Mule

• Cycads

• Anolis lizards

• Cichlid fish

• Pea aphids

• Silverswords and arweed

• Rat snakes

• Salamanders

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Outline

Phylogenetic rees

1. Introducing trees and tree terminology

2. How to make trees rom molecular data

a. Parsimony

3. And i you don’t have molecular data?

a. Homology and homoplasy

4. Putting events on trees

5. Does taxonomy reflect phylogeny?

a. Monophyly and paraphyly

Key Terms/Concepts1. Common descent

2. Common ancestor

3. Phylogeny

4. How is time represented on a phylogeny?

5. Branches

6. Nodes

7. ips

8. Great chain o being

Lecture 10

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36

Lecture 9. Why is a phylogeny different than a “great chain”?

10. Sister taxa

11. Outgroup

12. Nodes twist without affecting evolutionary relatedness

13. Making trees with DNA data

14. Parsimony

15. Do mutations in a single species give more or less inormation or phylogeny build-

ing than mutations in multiple species?

16. Non-DNA traits used or making phylogenies

17. Homoplasious traits/Convergent traits

18. Homologous traits

19. Derived traits vs. ancestral traits

20. Making trees with traits tables

21. Placing event “tick marks” on trees

22. Universal common ancestor

23. Most recent common ancestor

24. Monophyletic

25. Prokaryotes

26. Paraphyletic

27. Why doesn’t taxonomy always reflect phylogeny?

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37

People to Know


Organisms to Know


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Te dates for critical time periods in the Earth’s history:

Precambrian supereon: 4.6 BYA–543 MYA

Paleozoic era: 543 MYA–250 MYA

Mesozoic era: 250 MYA–65 MYA

Cenozoic era: 65 MYA–now

Te Amino Acid Code—Square

Phe

Firstposition

Secondposition Ala = Alanine

Arg = Arginine

Asn = Asparagine

Asp = Aspartate

Cys = Cystine

Gln = Glutamine

Glu = Glutamate

Gly = Glycine

His = Histidine

Ile = Isoleucine

Leu = Leucine

Lys = Lysine

Met = Methionine

Phe = Phenylalanine

Pro = Proline

Ser = Serine

Thr = Threonine

Trp = Tryptophan

Tyr = Tyrosine

Val = Valine

Thirdposition

Leu

UUU

U C A G

U

C

A

G

UUC

UUA

UUG

CUU

CUC

CUA

CUG

AUU

AUC

AUA

AUG

GUU

GUC

GUA

GUG

Leu

Ile

Met/start

Stop Stop

Stop

Val

UCU

UCC

UCA

UCG

CCU

CCC

CCA

CCG

ACU

ACC

ACA

ACG

GCU

GCC

GCA

GCG

Pro

Thr

Ser

Ala

TyrUAU

UAC

UAA

UAG

CAU

CAC

CAA

CAG

AAU

AAC

AAA

AAG

GAU

GAC

GAA

GAG

Cys

Trp

UGU

UGC

UGA

UGG

U

C

A

G

U

C

A

G

U

C

A

G

U

C

A

G

CGU

CGC

CGA

CGG

AGU

AGC

AGA

AGG

GGU

GGC

GGA

GGG

His

Gln

Asn

Lys

Ser

Arg

Asp

Glu

Arg

Gly

©Hayden-McNeil, LLC

Reference Page for EvolutionMaterial (Exams 1 and 3)

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40

Te Amino Acid Code—Circle

5'

3'

3'

3'3'

G

G

GG

G

G

G

G

G

G

GG

G

G

G

G

G

G

G

G

G

U

U

U

U

U

U

U

U

UU

Phe(F)

Leu(L)

Ser (S)

Tyr (Y)

Cys (C)

STOP

STOP

Trp (W)

Leu (L)

Pro (P)

His(H)

Gln(Q)Arg (R)Ile (I)

S t a

r t / M

e t ( M

) Thr (T)

Remember: AUG codes

for methionine and is the

start codon.

Asn(N)

Lys (K)

Ser (S)

Arg (R)

Val (V)

Ala (A)

Asp(D)

Glu(E)

Gly (G)

U

U

U

U

U

U

UU

U

U

U

A

A

A

A

A A

A

A

A

A

A

A

AA

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

C

C

C

C

C

C C

C

C

C

C

C

C

CC

C

C

C

C

C

C

© H a y

d e n - M

c N e

i l ,

L L

C

Reerence Page or Evolution Material (Exams 1 and 3)

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41

Outline

Viruses and the Nature of Life

1. Lie or not lie?

2. What are viruses?

3. Virus structure and reproduction

4. Slow viruses???

Te ree of Life

1. Te real tree o lie vs….

2. our view o the tree

a. Our view is biased

3. Te three domain model is a better system

4. Diversity is noted in different ways or different organisms

5. Bacteria and Archaea

6. Te protists are not monophyletic

7. Plants, ungi, and animals are (slightly) more understood

Key Terms/Concepts

1. What is lie?

2. Virus structure

3. Capsid/protein coat

4. Viral hereditary material

5. Virions

6. Helical and Icosahedral shapes

Lecture 11

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Lecture 7. Binal

8. Bacteriophage

9. Te basics o viral replication

10. Why do some scientists argue that viruses are not alive? Why do other scientists

(and your book) disagree?

11. SE and some examples

12. How are prions different than viruses?

13. Why were prions originally called slow viruses?

14. Prion “replication”

15. How is the traditional (5 or 6 kingdom) view o the tree o lie biased?

16. Tree domain model

17. LUCA

18. raits shared by all lie-orms

19. Key traits common to bacteria and archaea

20. Defining traits o eukaryotes

21. How is the new eukaryotic tree different rom older views?

People to Know • No new people or lecture 11

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“Organisms” to Know

• Corona virus

• obacco mosaic virus

• Adenovirus

• Influenza

• Scrapie

• Bovine spongiorm encephalopathy (Mad-Cow Disease)

• Chronic wasting disease

• Creutzeldt-Jakob disease

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Outline

“Prokaryotes”

1. 2/3s o the tree o lie in 1/2 a lecture!

2. Fundamentally different rom eukaryotes

3. Early classification

4. Metabolism

5. Differentiating archaea and bacteria

6. Common bacteria

7. Common archaea

Key Terms/Concepts

1. Why is “prokaryotes” in quotes?

2. Why do we only spend one day on 2/3s o the tree o lie?

3. Differentiate the “prokaryotes” rom the eukaryotes

a. Unicellularity

b. Internal structure

c. Chromosomes

d. Cell division

Lecture 12

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Lecture e. Gene transer

. Cell wall

g. Flagella

h. Size?

4. Colonial or filamentous growth

5. Nucleoid

6. Binary fission

7. Bacterial generation time

8. Lateral gene transer

9. Web o lie vs. tree o lie

10. Peptidoglycan, Pseudomurein

11. Gram + and Gram – bacteria, Archaea?

12. Pre-DNA bacterial classification

a. Shape (bacilli, cocci, spirillum)

b. Metabolism (anaerobes [acultative, obligate, aerotolerant], aerobes, photoau-

totrophs, photoheterotrophs, chemoautotrophs, chemoheterotrophs)

c. Other classification topics

13. Can you make tick marks on a phylogeny?

14. Low-GC Gram +

15. High-GC Gram +

16. Hyperthermic bacteria

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17. Hadobacteria

18. Cyanobacteria

19. Spirochetes

20. Chlamydias

21. Proteobacteria

22. Crenarcheota

23. Extremophiles (Termophilic, Cryophilic, Halophilic, etc.)

24. Euryarcheota

25. Methanogens

People to Know


Organisms to Know

(Some of these are organisms, and some are the diseases caused by the organisms.)

• Termotoga maritima

• Bacillus anthracis

• Botulism

• uberculosis

• Actinomyces

• Deinococcus

• Syphilis

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Lecture • Lyme disease

• Escherichia coli

• Salmonella

• Plague

• Cholera

• Methanopyrus

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Outline

Origin of the Eukaryotes

1. Earliest eukaryotes

2. Eukaryotic traits

3. Origin o organelles

4. Endosymbiosis: mitochondria and chloroplasts

Protists

1. Protists are not monophyletic

2. Protist traits

3. Building the bridge to multicellularity

ypes of Protists1. Alveolates

2. Stramenopiles

3. Rhizarians

4. Excavates

5. Amoebozoans

6. Choanoflagellates

Lecture 13

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Lecture Key Terms/Concepts

1. Eukaryote traits

2. How does compartmentalization lead to internal structure?

3. Why is the loss o the cell wall critical to eukaryotic development?

4. Formation o organelles

5. Endosymbiosis leading to mitochondria and chloroplasts—know figures!

6. How are the protists prooundly paraphyletic?

7. Variation in protist traits

a. Locomotion

b. Cell suraces

c. Nutrition

d. Reproduction

8. Te development o multicellularity

9. Protist groups

a. Alveolates

i. Dinoflagellates

ii. Apicomplexa

iii. Ciliates

b. Stramenopiles

i. Brown algaes

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ii. Diatoms

iii. Oomycetes (water molds and downy mildews)

c. Rhizarians (ex.: Foraminierans)

d. Excavates

i. Diplomonads and Parabasalids

ii. Euglenids

e. Amoebozoans

i. Loboseans

ii. Plasmodial and cellular slime molds

. Choanoflagellates—within Opisthikonts with animals and ungus

10. Origin o chloroplasts (multiple endosymbiotic events)

People to Know


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Lecture Organisms to Know

• Gymnopodium

• Plasmodium falciparum

• Paramecium

• Brown algae (ex.: giant kelp)

• Sea otters

• Diatoms

• White rust

• Giardia intestinalis

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Outline

Origin of Land Plants

1. How do plants evolve?

2. “actics” or land invasion

3. A general plant lie cycle

4. Just what is a plant?

5. Red algae: Te outgroup to the plants

6. Chlorophytes and stoneworts

Non-Seeded Land Plants

1. Moving to land: Embryophytes

2. Nonvascular plants or Bryophytes: Liverworts, mosses, and hornworts

3. Te moss lie cycle

4. Te next big advance: racheid cells

5. Lycophytes and Monilophytes (Horsetails and Ferns)

6. Te ern lie cycle

Key Terms/Concepts

1. Major ways plants differ rom protists

2. Challenges o land living

3. Adaptations to land dwelling

4. Diplontic lie cycle

Lecture 14

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Lecture 5. Haplodiplontic lie cycle

• Sporangia

• Spore mother cells

• Spores

• Archegonium

• Antheridium

• Zygote

• Embryo

6. Sporophyte

7. Gametophyte

8. How do the events o meiosis and syngamy (ertilization) shape the haplodiplontic

lie cycle?

9. Dominant lie stages

10. Describe different ways to define “plants”

11. Rhodophyta (Red algaes)

12. Chloroplast ormation

13. Primary and secondary endosymbiosis

14. Chlorophyll types

15. Chlorophytes

16. Stoneworts

17. Nonvascular plants (Bryophytes)

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18. Seedless vascular plants (racheophytes)

19. What does it mean to be nonvascular?

20. raits o bryophytes

21. Moss lie cycle

22. racheid cells (xylem and phloem)

23. Benefits o tracheids

24. Lycophytes

25. Microphylls and megaphylls

26. Monilophytes

27. Sori

28. Fern lie cycle

People to Know


Organisms to Know

• Giant sequoia, Sequoiadendron giganteum

• Coast redwood, Sequoia sempervirens

• Chlamydomonas

• Volvox

• Red algaes (ex.: the species that makes Nori)

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Lecture • Chara

• Liverworts

• Hornworts

• Mosses

• Club mosses

• Horsetails

• Ferns

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Outline

Seed Plants—Gymnosperms

1. Te seed is an important advancement

2. Gymnosperms have naked seeds

3. Gymnosperm lie cycle

4. Tere are our groups o gymnosperms

Seed Plants—Angiosperms

1. Flowers and ruits

2. Dissecting a flower

3. What is a ruit?

4. Angiosperm lie cycle

5. Why are angiosperms so successul?

Key Terms/Concepts

1. Parts o a seed

a. Megaspore

b. Nucellus

c. Integument

d. Micropyle

2. Tree ways seeds are adaptive

Lecture 15

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Lecture 3. Homospory vs. heterospory

4. Microspore mother cell, microspores, pollen, sperm

5. Ovules, megaspore mother cell, megaspore, emale gametophyte

6. Naked seeds

7. Pollen tube

8. Why aren’t seed plants dependent on water?

9. Cycads

10. Ginkgos

11. Gnetophytes

12. Coniers

13. raits o angiosperms (flowers and ruit)

14. Flower parts (sepals, petals, anthers, filaments, stamens, ovary, ovules, style, stigma,

carpel)

15. ypes o ruits

16. Egg, Synergids, Antipodals, Polar nuclei

17. Pollen tube, ube cell, Generative cell

18. Double ertilization, 2N zygote, 3N endosperm

19. How is the angiosperm lie cycle different than the gymnosperm lie cycle?

20. What do we think makes angiosperms so successul?

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People to Know


Organisms to Know

• Ginkgo biloba

• Welwitschia

• Ephedra (Mormon tea)

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Outline

ouring the Angiosperms

1. A ossil angiosperm: Archaefructus

2. Te most ancestral extant group: Amborella

3. Modern groups

4. Nymphaeales and Austrobaileyales

5. Chloranthaceae and Ceratophyllum

6. Magnoliidae, Eudicots, and Monocots

Coevolution of Plants and Pollinators

1. Pollination versus ertilization

2. Abiotic vs. biotic

3. Abiotic: Water and wind

4. Biotic: Insects (beetles, bees, butterflies, moths)

5. Biotic: Birds and bats

6. Plant goal achievement: rap flowers, a case study

Key Terms/Concepts

1. What is the “abominable mystery”?

2. Te nine clades o angiosperms (ocus on the seven in your book)

a. Archaefructus

b. Amborella

c. Nymphaeales

d. Astrobaileyales

Lecture 16

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Lecture e. Chloranthaceae

. Ceratophyllum

g. Magnoliids

h. Eudicots

i. Monocots

3. Definition o pollination syndrome

4. Pollination vs. ertilization

5. Abiotic vs. biotic (generally and with regard to pollination)

6. Specific pollination syndromes:

a. Water

b. Wind

c. Beetle

d. Short- vs. long-tongued bee

e. Fly

. Butterfly

g. Moth

h. Hummingbird

i. Bat

7. Coevolution

8. Nectar guide

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9. UV spectrum and pollination

10. What do flowers “get” out o these coevolutionary relationships?

11. Te example o Aristolochia (trap flowers)

People to Know


Organisms to Know

• Archefructus

• Amborella trichopoda

• Water lily

• Star anise

• Magnolias

• Nutmeg

• Rose

• Pea

• Daffodil

• Orchid

• rap flowers

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Outline

What’s a Fungus?

1. Te ungus hike (Not really testable, right?)

2. Defining traits o ungi

3. General biology o the ungi

ypes and Ecology

1. Microsporidia

2. Chytridomycetes

3. Zygomycetes

4. Glomeromycetes

5. Ascomycetes

6. Basidiomycetes

7. Fungal ecology: mutualists, saprobes, and parasites

Key Terms/Concepts

1. How do ungi fit onto the eukaryotic tree?

2. “Uniying” ungal traits

3. Cell types

4. Fungal body

a. Hyphae

b. Septa

Lecture 17

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23. Ascomycetes

24. Basidiomycetes

25. Mutualists

26. Saprophytes

27. Parasites

28. Why are ungal diseases hard to treat?


Organisms to Know

(Again, some of these are species and some are diseases caused by fungi.)

• Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis

• Cup ungus

• Yeast

• Penicillin

• ruffles and morels

• Cheese molds

• Chestnut Blight

• Dutch Elm Disease

• Mushrooms

• Athlete’s oot

• Ringworm

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Outline

Animal Diversity

1. raits o all animals

2. Te animal body plan evolves through five key transitions

3. Te new (DNA-based) animal tree

Te Basal Animals

1. Non-symmetric and radially symmetric animals

a. Sponges, Cnidaria (and Ctenophora)

2. Bilaterians

a. Arrow worms

b. Lophotrochozoans: Part 1 (Pretty much, worms)

i. Bryozoans and Entoprocts

ii. Flatworms

iii. Rotiers

iv. Ribbon worms

v. Annelids

Key Terms/Concepts

1. raits that uniy animals

2. Symmetry

a. Radial

b. Bilateral

3. Dorsal, ventral, anterior, posterior

Lecture 18

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Lecture 4. Cephalization

5. Diploblastic development

6. riploblastic development

7. Endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm

8. Benefits o variable tissues

9. Protostome vs. deuterostome

10. Acoelomates, pseudocoelomates, coelomates

11. Segmentation and locomotion

12. How has the DNA-based tree changed rom the old morphological tree?

13. Lophotrochozoans

14. Ecdysozoans

15. Sponges

16. Sponge morphology

a. Choanocytes

b. Water pores

17. Cnidarians

18. Polyps

19. Medusae

20. Cnidarian digestion

21. All you need to know about Ctenophorans and Placozoans is that they are other

phyla o radial, diploblastic animals

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Lecture • Leeches

• Polychaetes (ex.: ube worms)

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Outline

Lophotrochozoans: Part 2 (Mollusks)

1. Mollusks are highly diverse

2. Mollusk body plan

3. Mollusk reproduction

4. Tere are our classes o mollusks

Ecdysozoans

1. What is an ecdysozoan?

a. Nematodes (roundworms) and Horsehair worms

b. Water bears and Onychophorans (velvet worms)

c. Arthropods

Key Terms/Concepts

1. What did the common ancestor to mollusks look like?

2. Parts and various roles o the generalized mollusk body plan

a. Visceral mass

b. Foot

c. Mantle

3. Cephalization in the mollusks

4. Radula

5. Mollusk reproduction

Lecture 19

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Lecture 6. Polyplacophora (Chitons)

7. Gastropods

8. Bivalves

9. Cephalopods

10. What makes an ecdysozoan?

11. Nematodes (Roundworms)

12. Eutely

13. Model organisms

14. Horsehair worms

15. Water bears

16. Onychophorans (Velvet worms)

17. What did the common ancestor o the arthropods probably look like?

18. Species richness (number o species) o arthropods

19. rilobites

20. Jointed appendages and body segments in arthropods (head, thorax, abdomen)

21. Exoskeletons in arthropods

22. Molting in arthropods

23. Limitations placed on organisms with exoskeletons

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24. Differentiations between arthropod groups

a. Arachnids (Chelicerae, eight legs, etc.)

b. Myriapods (Repeating segments, leg pairs, etc.)

c. Crustaceans (wo antennae, three-part bodies, etc.)

d. Insects (Six legs, antennae, three-part bodies, etc.)

People to Know


Organisms to Know

• Slugs

• Snails

• Nudibranchs

• Clams

• Mussels

• Oysters

• Scallops

• Octopus

• Squid

• Nautilus

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Lecture • Horseshoe crab

• Hookworms

• Pinworms

• Caenorhabditis elegans or C. elegans

• Grasshopper

• icks

• Spiders

• Scorpions

• Centipedes

• Millipedes

• Shrimp

• Lobster

• Crab

• Pill bug

• Fly

• Dragonfly

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Outline

Echinoderms and Hemichordates

1. Echinoderms are the first deuterostome

2. Pentaradial symmetry and endoskeleton

3. Te water vascular system and tube eet

4. Echinoderm regeneration and reproduction

5. Tere are three groups o Echinoderms

6. Tere’s just not a ton to say about hemichordates: Acorn worms

Chordates raits and Non-Vertebral Chordates

1. What makes a chordate?

2. Lancelets

3. unicates

Key Terms/Concepts

1. What makes a deuterostome?

2. Ancestral deuterostomes: homalozoans

3. Echinoderms

4. Pentaradial symmetry

5. Echinoderm larvae

6. Echinoderm skeletons

7. Water vasculature system

Lecture 20

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Lecture 8. Madreporite and tube eet

9. Oral surace

10. Aboral surace

11. Asexual and sexual reproduction in echinoderms

12. Extinct echinoderms

13. Te three groups o echinoderms: Crinoids, Echinozoans, and Asterozoans

14. Can you name and describe defining organisms in each group?

15. Hemichordates

16. Chordate traits

a. Dorsal hollow nerve cord

b. Notochord

c. Pharyngeal gill slits

d. Post-anal tail

17. Chordate segmentation

18. Non-vertebral chordate groups (Lancelets and unicates)

19. Non-vertebral chordate larvae and chordate traits

People to Know


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Organisms to Know

• Sea stars

• Brittle stars

• Sea urchins

• Sand dollars

• Sea lilies

• Feather stars

• Sea cucumbers

• Acorn worms

• unicates (Sea squirts)

• Lancelets

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Outline

What Makes a Vertebrate?

1. Vertebrate traits

2. Hagfish: Sister taxa or the first vertebrates?

3. Lampreys

Fish

1. Fish traits and classes

2. Te evolution o jaws

3. eeth and the sharks

4. Bony fish dominate the fish world

Te Invasion of Land 1. Lobed fish led the invasion o land

2. Amphibian traits

3. errestrials challenges led to species like Ichthyostega

4. Tree classes o amphibians

Key Terms/Concepts

1. Vertebrate traits

a. Head

b. Endoskeleton supported by vertebrae

c. Internal organs

d. Circulatory system

Lecture 21

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Lecture 2. Where to put the hagfish?

3. Hagfish and lampreys: Cyclostomes

4. Vertebrate groups

5. Fish diversity (only ully aquatic group)

6. Five traits o all fish

a. Jaws

b. Paired appendages

c. Internal gills

d. Single loop blood circulation

e. Amino acid deficiencies

7. Sharks and rays

8. Te importance o teeth

9. Cartilage vs. bone

10. Swim bladders

11. Ray-finned fish vs. Lobe-finned fish (esp. locomotion)

12. Challenges o land invasion

13. Amphibians

14. raits shared by modern amphibians

a. Legs

b. Lungs

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c. Cutaneous respiration

d. Pulmonary veins

e. Partially divided hearts

15. Major amphibian groups

16. Age o amphibians

People to Know


Organisms to Know

• Sea horses/Leay sea dragons

• unas

• Eels

• Manta rays (rays in general)

• Coelacanths

• Lungfish

• Ichthyostega

• Frogs and toads

• Salamanders

• Mud puppies

• Caecilians

• Eryops megacephalus

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Outline

Reptiles

1. Mastering the art o living on land

2. raits o modern reptiles

3. Synapsids and diapsids

4. Archosaurs and dinosaurs

5. Modern reptiles

a. uataras

b. Lizards and snakes (squamates)

c. urtles and tortoises

d. Crocodilians

Birds1. Where did birds come rom?

2. Birds share our key traits

3. Beak and oot morphology determine ecology

4. Bird evolution

Key Terms/Concepts

1. Reptile perect transition to terrestrial lie

2. Defining traits o reptiles

3. Who are the amniotes?

4. Benefits o the amniotic egg

5. Internal ertilization

Lecture 22

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26. Bird skeletons

27. Bird lungs

28. Endothermy in birds

29. Beak and oot morphology

30. General order o bird evolution

31. Passeriormes (song birds)


Organisms to Know

• Pelycosaurs

• Crocodiles

• Alligators

• Caimans

• Gavials

• Velociraptors

• Ostriches

• Ducks and Geese

• Owls

• Parrots

• Woodpeckers

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Outline

Movie: A Winning Design

Mammals

1. Te age o mammals

2. Mammals share five traits

3. Certain mammals have some pretty cool derived traits

4. Tere are two groups o mammals

Key Terms/Concepts

1. Why do mammals have a winning design?

2. How do animals in very cold climates stay warm (two reasons)?

3. Mammals live in highly variable habitats

4. Mammals gain nutrients rom many different sources

5. Details about monotreme biology—how are they different rom other mammals?

6. Size variation among mammals

7. Mammalian ancestors

8. Some mammals are extinct

Lecture 23

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Lecture 9. Five mammalian traits:

a. Hair (including various roles o hair)

b. Mammary glands

c. Endothermy

d. Sweat glands

e. Placentas

10. Mammalian teeth

11. Herbivores’ gut symbionts

12. Hooves and horns

13. Prototherians (monotremes) vs. therians

14. Marsupials

15. Eutherians

16. Common ancestor to the eutherians

17. Rapid radiation o eutherians afer dinosaurs go extinct

18. Eutherian diversity mirrors the break up o the continents

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People to Know

• David Attenborough

Organisms to Know

• Echidna

• Platypus

• Whales and Dolphins

• Porcupines

• Hedgehogs

• Bats

• Koalas

• Yapok

• Wallaby

• Wombat

• Virginia opossum

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Lecture 4. Platyrrhini (New World Monkeys)

5. Catarrhini

6. Old World Monkeys

7. Hominoids (Gibbons, Great Apes, Humans)

8. Hominins

9. Differentiating humans and apes

10. Bipedalism

11. Ardipithecus

12. Australopithicines ( Australopithecus and Paranthropus sp.)

13. Homo species

14. Assimilation hypothesis

15. “Out o Arica” hypothesis

People to Know

• “Lucy” and “Ardi”

Organisms to Know

• Carpolestes simpsoni

• Lemurs

• Lorises

• Pottos

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• arsiers

• amarins

• Marmosets

• Squirrel monkeys

• Howler monkeys

• Capuchin monkeys

• Mandrill

• Baboons

• Rhesus monkeys

• Gibbons

• Orangutans

• Gorillas

• Chimpanzees

• Ardipithecus ramidus

• Australopithicus sp. (afarensis)

• Paranthropus sp.

• Homo habilis

• Homo erectus

• Homo neanderthalensis

• Homo sapiens

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Important transitions among the three domains:

F D L

D

F A B E

Amino acid that initiatesprotein synthesis

Methionine Formyl-methionine Methionine

IntronsPresent in some

genesAbsent Present

Membrane-bounded

organellesAbsent Absent Present

Membrane lipid

structureBranched Unbranched Unbranched

Nuclear envelope Absent Absent Present

Number o different

RNA polymerasesSeveral One Several

Peptidoglycan in cell

wallAbsent Present Absent

Response to the

antibiotics streptomycin

and chloramphenicol

Growth not

inhibitedGrowth inhibited

Growth not

inhibited


Reference Page for DiversityMaterial (Exams 2 and 3)

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Reerence Page or Diversity (Exams 2 and 3)

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Outline

Ecology: Evolution in the Present Moment

1. What is ecology?

2. Why talk about ecology in an evolution course?

3. Adaptations are affected by the biotic and abiotic environment

Large Scale Climate Patterns

1. Global patterns in temperature and precipitation

2. Seasons

Variation in Climate Patterns

1. Local variation in climate

2. Global variation in climate3. Stochasticity

Key Terms/Concepts

1. Define ecology

2. How is ecology related to evolution?

3. Abiotic

4. Biotic

5. Tree actors influence climate

6. Intensity o sunlight on Earth varies

7. Effect o light intensity on temperature

Lecture 25

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Lecture 8. Effect o light intensity on rain

9. Hadley circulation

10. Hadley cells

11. Main effects o rising and sinking air streams

12. Distribution o rain orests

13. Distribution o deserts

14. Distribution o temperate orests

15. Polar deserts

16. What causes the seasons?

17. opography or terrain

a. Slope

b. Orientation to other eatures

c. Elevation

18. Factors that lead to local variation in climate

a. Rain in the southern hemisphere

b. Rain shadows

c. Slope and local drought

d. North- vs. south-acing slopes

e. Elevation and temperature

. Lake effect snow

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19. Adiabatic cooling

20. Less predictable global effects on climate

a. El Niño

b. La Niña

c. Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO)

21. Stochasticity


Organisms to Know


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Lecture 8. Boreal orest

9. emperate deciduous orest

10. emperate grassland

11. Hot desert

12. Cold desert

13. ropical evergreen orest

14. Why don’t biome boundaries exactly match species range boundaries?

15. Niche

16. Factors that might be important to a niche

17. Niche partitioning

18. Niche packing

19. Factors affecting density o niche packing

20. Fundamental niche vs. realized niche

21. MacArthur’s warblers

People to Know

• Robert Whittaker

• Joseph Connell

• Robert MacArthur

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Organisms to Know

• Cactus

• Euphorbia (member o the Poinsettia amily)

• Honeyeater

• Hummingbird

• Chthamalus barnacles

• Semibalanus barnacles

• Warblers

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Lecture 2. Symbiont

3. Why is competition hard to “see”?

4. Te Ghost o Competition Past

5. How do you study competition?

a. Experiments

b. Comparisons o sympatric and allopatric populations

6. Exploitation competition

7. Intererence competition

8. Interspecific vs. intraspecific

9. Resources

10. Resource partitioning

11. emporal partitioning

12. Character displacement

13. Intraspecific competition can lead to less interspecific competition

14. Predation can limit competition

15. Disturbance can limit competition

16. Intermediate disturbance

17. Competitive exclusion

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People to Know

• Arthur ansley

• G.A. Gause

Organisms to Know

• Galium saxatile

• Galium pumilum

• Stickleback

• Bufo woodhousii

• Hyla crucifer

• Hydrobia sp. (mud snails)

• Paramecium caudatum

• P. aurelia

• P. bursari

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Outline

Consumer/Resource Interactions

1. Predation is universal

2. Tere are many types o predation/consumption

3. Consumer species have major effects on prey species

4. Many predator/prey populations cycle

5. Coexistence between predators and prey

Coevolution among Predators and Prey

1. Prey evolve to avoid predators

2. What i you’re sessile?

3. Predators evolve more efficient ways to hunt prey

Key Terms/Concepts

1. Consumer/resource relations

a. rue predators

b. Parasitism

c. Herbivores

i. Predatory herbivores

ii. Parasitic herbivores (grazers, browsers)

d. Detritivores

2. Extinction via predation

Lecture 28

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Lecture 3. Predators lower prey abundance

4. Predators can restrict prey distribution

5. Predator/prey cycling

6. Methods o predator and prey coexistence

a. Reuges

b. Cycling

c. Predators at low abundance

d. Generalist predators

7. Prey evolve deenses

a. Crypsis

b. Chemical deense

c. oxicity

d. Armor

e. Behavioral deense (alarm calling, distraction displays, fleeing, herds)

. Predator satiation

8. Cryptic coloration

9. Object mimicry

10. Aposematic coloration

11. Batesian mimicry

12. Müllerian mimicry

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13. How do sessile organisms avoid predation?

14. How do predators respond to prey deenses?

a. Search images

b. Avoid/use toxins

c. Get past armor

15. ypes o hunting

a. Ambush

b. Stalking

c. Pursuit

16. Who would you expect to hunt in each way?

People to Know


Organisms to Know

• Paramecium

• Didinium

• Klamath weed

• Chrysolina beetle

• Megapode

• Lynx

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Lecture • Snowshoe hare

• Bombardier beetle

• Nudibranch

• Skunk

• Bee

• Monarch butterflies

• Viceroy butterflies

• Armadillos

• Clams

• Porcupines

• Anemones

• Cactus

• Sea urchins

• Vine snake

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Outline

Symbioses

1. Parasitism

a. Ectoparasites vs. endoparasites

b. Multiple hosts

2. Mutualism

a. ypes o mutualism

b. Te importance o stress

3. Commensalism and ammensalism

4. Species interactions may change over time or be hard to name

5. Communities are interactions o species interactions

6. Keystone species

Key Terms/Concepts

1. Coevolution

2. Symbiosis

3. ypes o symbiosis

a. Parasitism

b. Mutualism

c. Commensalism

d. Ammensalism

Lecture 29

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Lecture 4. Examples o ectoparasites

5. Examples o endoparasites

6. Parasites can have complex lie cycles

7. Why does parasite spread ofen decline?

8. Examples o mutualisms

9. Human mutualisms

10. ypes o mutualisms

a. rophic

b. Deensive

c. Dispersive

11. Examples o commensalisms and ammensalisms

12. Nurse plants

13. Species relationships can change over time

14. Species relationships may be unclear

15. Communities are ormed rom groups o species interactions

16. Keystones species

People to Know


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Organisms to Know

• Lichen

• Mistletoe

• Indian Pipe

• Nematodes

• Plasmodium

• Dicrocoelium dendriticum, ants, and deer

• Cleaner fish and customer fish

• Honeyguides and honey badgers

• Acacia and Pseudomyrmex ferruginea ants

• ube worms

• Saguaro and paloverde

• Oxpecker birds

• Pisaster (starfish)

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Outline

Te Latitudinal Gradient in Species Diversity

1. A bit on species richness

2. What is the latitudinal gradient?

3. Hypotheses or the cause o the gradient

So, Which Is It?

1. Energy explains some o the pattern

2. Problems with energy as a hypothesis

3. Evolutionary time and niche conservatism: An experiment

4. Is there ever a simple answer?

Key Terms/Concepts1. Diversity

2. Species richness

3. Evenness

4. Species richness and area

5. Species richness and habitat number (environmental heterogeneity)

6. Latitudinal gradient in species diversity

Lecture 30

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People to Know

• Bradord Hawkins

Organisms to Know

• Spruces

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Outline

Te Teory of Island Biogeography

1. Te lesson o Krakatau

2. Island biogeography explains species distributions in new environments

3. Immigration and extinction

4. Reaching equilibrium

5. Size and isolation

Why Do We Care?

1. errestrial islands: reversing the island model

2. Real lie data

3. Protecting the equilibrium

4. Reserve design

5. Charismatic megaauna

Key Terms/Concepts

1. What is Krakatau an example o?

2. Basic outlines o the history o Krakatau

3. Rationales or the new inhabitants o Krakatau (ex.: why are there a lot o birds?)

4. Te Teory o Island Biogeography

5. Immigration decreases over time

6. Extinction increases over time

7. Equilibrium species number

Lecture 31

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Lecture 8. ime to equilibrium varies by species group

9. Island size

10. Island isolation

11. errestrial islands

12. How are terrestrial islands different than oceanic ones?

13. Relaxation

14. Immigration must be possible to prevent extinction

15. Reserve design

16. Corridors

17. Charismatic megaauna

18. Specialists

People to Know

• Robert MacArthur

• E.O. Wilson

Organisms to know

• Coconuts

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