POST-COLONIAL REFLECTIONS ON THE ‘INTERNATIONALIZATION’ OF CULTURAL STUDIES

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Cultural StudiesPublication details including instructions for authorsand subscription informationhttpwwwtandfonlinecomloircus20

POST-COLONIALREFLECTIONS ON THElsquoINTERNATIONALIZATIONrsquo OFCULTURAL STUDIESRaka ShomePublished online 10 Nov 2009

To cite this article Raka Shome (2009) POST-COLONIAL REFLECTIONS ON THElsquoINTERNATIONALIZATIONrsquo OF CULTURAL STUDIES Cultural Studies 235-6 694-719 DOI10108009502380903132322

To link to this article httpdxdoiorg10108009502380903132322

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014

Raka Shome

POST-COLONIAL REFLECTIONS ON THE

lsquoINTERNATIONALIZATIONrsquo OF CULTURAL

STUDIES

This essay addresses the difficult politics of lsquointernationalizingrsquo cultural studies Inan effort to participate in ongoing conversations about and aroundlsquointernationalizingrsquo cultural studies this essay invites us to attend to the framesof reference that can sometimes underlie our efforts at lsquointernationalizingrsquo culturalstudies Examining larger issues such as our frequent unexamined points ofdeparture into the lsquointernationalrsquo the geo-politics of knowledge productionacademic protocols and practices the gross unevenness in transnational exchangeand circulation of knowledge the continued hegemony of English as a languagethat secures academic legitimacy this essay probes some of the obstacles that canoften confront attempts at decolonizing cultural studies

Keywords cultural studies international English language translationdecolonization professional networks Asia

This paper constitutes an attempt to contribute to ongoing discussionsregarding the lsquointernationalizing (or globalizing) of cultural studies In recenttimes there has been a number of conversations about lsquointernationalizingrsquocultural studies (although the term lsquointernationalizingrsquo may not always havebeen explicitly used in some of the conversations) In attempting todeconstruct the narrative of (British) lsquooriginsrsquo and move beyond NorthAtlantic centered logics for studying culture various cultural studies scholarshave positioned framed or articulated cultural studies through a logic of thelsquointernationalrsquo that has emphasized the importance of recognizing culturalstudies work in diverse global and especially non-western contexts (Abbas ampErni 2005 Ang 1992 Ang and Stratton 1996a 1996b 1996c Chen 19921996a 1996b 1998 Frow amp Morris 1993 Morris 1992 Shohat amp Stam 2005Turner 1992 Wright 1998 among others) Indeed it would be fair to say thatwhile there may not be a consensus on what the lsquointernationalrsquo in culturalstudies may mean how it should come to function or through what terms andframeworks it should be engaged in (see for example the exchange betweenAng and Stratton and Chen in the 1996 issue of Cultural Studies Morris 2006)

Cultural Studies Vol 23 Nos 56 SeptemberNovember 2009 pp 694719

ISSN 0950-2386 printISSN 1466-4348 online ndash 2009 Taylor amp Francis

httpwwwtandfcoukjournals DOI 10108009502380903132322

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014

the overall recognition amongst various practitioners of cultural studies todayis that it is going through what Kuan-Hsing Chen (1996a) calls lsquoa critical phaseof lsquolsquointernationalizationrsquorsquorsquo (p 39)

This essay constitutes an admittedly modest and incomplete attempt toparticipate in discussions about lsquointernationalizingrsquo cultural studies Primarilythis paper argues that we need to consider the frames of reference through whichwe engage in conversations about lsquointernationalizingrsquo cultural studies andwhere such frames are able to go and not go Additionally this paper suggeststhat in the current lsquoglobalrsquo moment where as Gupta and Ferguson (1997)indicate the rich in Bombay may be closer to their counterparts in Londonthan lsquoin the samersquo city (p 50) there is no necessary correlation between de-westernization (of cultural studies or any knowledge formation) anddecolonization At issue here is the need to rethink the often normalizedequation between the two that informs much of transnational cultural studies

This essay in some ways was prompted by the publication of theanthology Internationalizing Cultural Studies (2005) edited by Akbar Abbas andJohn Erni even though the arguments posed here clearly go much beyond itAlthough conversations (implicit or explicit) about lsquointernationalizingrsquo culturalstudies have gone on for sometime usually in journal articles book chaptersand conference settings the Abbas and Erni collection is the first megaEnglish language collection (one that is clearly positioned for a western andEnglish speaking world) that explicitly takes its title and names its goal aslsquoInternationalizing Cultural Studiesrsquo To that extent the anthology (whetherintended or not) constitutes (or certainly will be seen as constituting) animportant moment especially in and for the Western academy for which itseems to be organized in the development of cultural studies The backcover of the anthology presented by Blackwell frames it precisely through sucha spirit

Internationalizing Cultural Studies is an unprecedented source [ ] Theeditors have designed the readings to challenge practitioners in the Westand beyond to redefine cultural studies as a truly global movement(emphasis added)

The publication of this anthology especially its explicit rhetorical framing andpositioning of itself as lsquoInternationalizing Cultural Studiesrsquo thus offers anuseful point of entry into my arguments about considering the lsquoframes ofreferencersquo that often inform conversations about lsquoInternationalizing CulturalStudiesrsquo and where such frames are able to go or not go

I should mention here that my paper does not in any way wish to claim orsuggest that there is only one framework or model for lsquointernationalizingrsquocultural studies that is or should be in circulation1 Rather as my followingarguments will illustrate the specific aim of this paper is to call attention to

P O S T- C O L O N I A L R E F L E C T I O N S 6 9 5

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014

how in the context of an unequally positioned global traffic of knowledgeconversations about lsquointernationalizingrsquo cultural studies sometimes inadver-tently remain oriented towards a western consciousness framework andethos even as they try to break out of them So in what follows I address thefollowing issues (1) our points of departure into the lsquointernationalrsquo (2)networks of the lsquointernationalrsquo in the professionalization of cultural studies (3)the challenge of translation (4) the geo-politics enabling the lsquointernationaliz-ingrsquo of cultural studies (5) the importance of unsettling the (often normalized)equation between de-westernization and decolonization

Examining our points of departure into the lsquointernationalrsquo

The first issue that needs to be addressed is our points of departure into thelsquointernationalrsquo A question that needs consideration is this From whose vantagepoint and in relation to which epistemic momentformation of cultural studiesare efforts at lsquointernationalizingrsquo often launched For instance when wesometimes talk about lsquointernationalizing cultural studiesrsquo discussions tend tooccur in relation to the epistemic moment of the Birmingham school and theAngloEuro axis of cultural studies In their edited collection Abbas and Erni(2005) write that lsquoA certain parochialism continues to operate in CulturalStudies as a whole whose objects of and languages for analysis have had the effectof closing off real contact with scholarship conducted outside its (western) radarscreenrsquo (p 2) Similarly in their essay lsquoDe-eurocentricizing cultural studiesrsquo inthe same volume Shohat and Stam (2005) write that lsquo[t]oo much cultural studieswork remains insular and ethnocentric showing little participatory (or evenvicarious) knowledge of cultural productions or intellectual critique generatedfrom other sitesrsquo (p 481) While Erni and Abbas and Shohat and Stam are rightabout the parochialism and ethnocentrism of Anglo centric formations of culturalstudies (and that certainly needs to be marked and challenged) the issuehowever is that when they refer to cultural studies the assumed position ofcultural studies in relation to which their lsquointernationalrsquo move is being advancedand advocated is the AngloEuro axis and imaginary of cultural studies In otherwords the action of lsquointernationalizingrsquo cultural studies occurs in relation toand spring boards from the moment of North Atlantic centered cultural studiesWhile the political impulse here is certainly understandable this locks us backonce again into the AngloEuro axis and frames of cultural studies David Birch(2000) notes on a similar point that lsquoto define what is happening in SoutheastAsia or Japan for example as if it is somehow at the margins [of culturalstudies] is to define it as if the centre is in much the same way located inWestern cultural studiesrsquo (p 142)

At issue here is the persistence (clearly unintentional) of an unmar-ked temporal difference or evaluation implicit in such performances of

6 9 6 C U LT U R A L S T U D I E S

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014

internationalizing of cultural studies that somehow the lsquofirstrsquo visible orrecognized moment (even as we deconstruct its narrative of lsquooriginsrsquo) was theAngloEuro (UK and US in particular) moment and now we are in thelsquointernationalrsquo moment the lsquoreformistrsquo moment of cultural studies Forinstance Abbas and Erni state in the first section of the book that encapsulatesits lsquoBasic Purposesrsquo that

A merely half century after the politico-intellectual moment of culturalstudies was born out of the specific contour of British society thelsquoBirmingham traditionrsquo informs both the practice and theory ofinternational work that has by now gone far beyond cultural studiesrsquoBritishness Although the dominance of cultural studies as a NorthAtlantic ideal or ideology or education practice is evident that ideal hasbecome a part of international consciousness a lens through which to see thedevelopment of critical cultural studies movements elsewhere in the world as wellas a discourse capable of potent reflexivity and self-challenge

(2005 p xxv emphasis added)

The authors also note a few lines later that

the anthology builds on the premise that a basic course in cultural studiesshould educate students to see the lsquobig international picturersquo Of course itshould enable students to understand the histories doctrines and institutionalstructures of North Atlantic canonical cultural studies But it should alsopersuade students to think critically about the subject as a whole


These two excerpts [positioned as they are in the introductory pages that framethe bookrsquos purpose and agenda (of lsquointernationalizingrsquo cultural studies)]remain in my reading somewhat problematic because even while wanting totake cultural studies lsquoelsewherersquo (p 2) the rhetorical positioning of theanthology (as evidenced in these excerpts) seems unable to break out of theNorth Atlantic consciousness of cultural studies For an anthology that is one ofthe first collection of essays that explicitly attempts to provide an lsquointernationalpicturersquo of cultural studies and that is clearly going to see much use in theWestern academy this remains a problem One cannot help asking whetherthe North Atlantic ideal of cultural studies really has become or doesnecessarily function as a lens through which to lsquoseersquo cultural studiesmovements elsewhere even if that seeing means being reflexive about it (forsuch a framing gives it an universalism that in reality does not exist) AsKuan-Hsing Chen (1992) had similarly asked years back in his response to thelsquoDismantle Fremantlersquo cultural studies conference lsquofrom what location orposition is the energy of dismantling coming Has it [Anglo centric cultural


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014

studies] ever claimed a global universality in terms of theoretical scope andresearch agendarsquo (p 477)

Such framing unwittingly obscures even while the editors certainly refer toit (and are even associated with them) the activities of groups such as the Inter-Asia Cultural Studies collective where for instance the North Atlantic ideal orlsquoconsciousnessrsquo does not matter for the collective is really engaged in forgingcross-border alliances to build (as presented in the collectivesrsquo website) alsquoCritical Inter-Asia subjectivityrsquo2 or in many instances is concerned with thechallenges posed in their own local contexts For example the Centre for theStudy of Culture and Society in Bangalore (India) has been engaged in variouseducational initiatives that are responding to or attempting to understand thechallenges posed by the changing structures of education in contemporarylsquopost-developmentrsquo India including those of vocationalization and the demandsposed by state support and state funding (see for instance httpwwwcccsbanorg)3 An especially interesting initiative formulated in a 2002workshop entitled lsquoArticulating undergraduate spacesrsquo has been to rearticulateand rethink the spaces of undergraduate education in this changing context ofeducation in India This is a context where as the Centrersquos statement about thisworkshop indicates new spaces outside the classroom are emerging inproblematic ways that enables a growing distance between vocationalizationand deliverance of a critical liberal humanities based curriculum The statementexpresses concern that lsquospaces outside the classroom and even the campus are being opened out to extra-curricular activity (such as for exampleprogrammes and events sponsored by corporate organizations)rsquo It goes on tonote how

In the wake of political and economic developments often described aslsquopost-developmentalistrsquo as private players and indeed even institutionsbased outside India and competing for the educational market grow newquestions and new faultlines clearly arise4

The challenge in such an instance is to rethink the very practice and space ofundergraduate education in the context of lsquopost-developmentrsquo India toexplore the lsquofaultlinesrsquo through which the practice and pedagogy of a liberalhumanities curriculum has to be negotiated and rethought Even though I havenever been involved or associated with the Centre I would imagine that in thiscontext the lsquolensrsquo of North Atlantic models of cultural studies would not beparticularly or centrally useful (even if that lsquolensrsquo is reworked) to critically seeor respond to the developments of these challenges [which are simultaneouslylsquointernationalrsquo challenges given that such restructuring of education spaces inIndia is occurring in relation to larger transnational flows of capital (and itscorresponding logics of privatization) that now attempt to find and create all


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014

kinds of markets in India as it emerges as a global power] India today is alsoincreasingly being seen and chased by many big educational institutions in theWest (especially the North Atlantic configuration) as a new educational andresearch lsquomarketrsquo worth investing in and collaborating with Thus as transnational logics of neo-liberalism begin to inform and transform the verystructures and ethos of education in India rearticulating undergraduate spacesand a critical humanities based curriculum become a lsquolocalrsquo challenge thatmarks a particular moment of post-colonial modernity in lsquopost-developmentrsquoIndia and the neo-liberal economic engines that increasingly drive it

A lingering persistence of the North Atlantic consciousness in the Abbasand Erni collectionrsquos framing of the lsquointernationalrsquo is also seen in the secondexcerpt presented earlier For instance one is struck by the phrase lsquoof coursersquoas in lsquoof course it should enable students to understand the histories doctrinesand institutional structures of North Atlantic canonical cultural studiesrsquo Whylsquoof coursersquo That is why is it necessary for students (and which students aremeant here is unclear) to understand the history and canons of North Atlanticcultural studies (even if we are to invite them as the editors suggest to thinkcritically about it) but not others Does not the rhetorical inflection lsquoof coursersquodangerously privilege once again a North Atlantic framework while attemptingto decenter it One might argue that if the students for whom the anthology ispositioned are western students (say US students or British students) it isimportant for them to know that North Atlantic lsquocanonrsquo even as weproblematize it But one could also argue that lsquonot necessarilyrsquo Students in thewestern academy (and here I am thinking of the US or UK primarily) would bewell served if they received a course in cultural studies that is minimally (orbetter not in any way) engaged with canonical works in Western culturalstudies but remained focused on works and practices in other parts of theworld for such a focus would compel them to engage in a process of culturaltranslation that scholars or students in the West are hardly ever asked toengage in (at least in any serious and deep seated way) although the reverse israrely true What I am pointing to thus is a (clearly unintended) tension thatseems to be manifest in Abbas and Ernirsquos discussion of lsquointernationalizingrsquocultural studies where the discussion while attempting to break out of theNorth Atlantic axis unwittingly in its rhetorical framing seems to slip backinto it

One sees this also in Shohat and Stamrsquos essay in the same volume that wasreferred to earlier Again I allude to this essay for it explicitly takes as its titlethe task of lsquoDe-eurocentricizing cultural studiesrsquo While an useful essay theauthors nonetheless end their piece with an argument about the need toreframe the term lsquocultural studiesrsquo as lsquo(multi)cultural studiesrsquo The authorsnote that an important


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014

way of internationalizing cultural studies is to engage in lsquocomparative(multi)cultural studiesrsquo For example multiculturalism clearly alters itsvalence in diverse national contexts

(Shohat amp Stam 2005 p 492)

While the larger point here is politically important and useful the verylanguage (multi)cultural studies however evokes and echoes the vocabularyof lsquomulticulturalismrsquo in which so much of US and British academy (especiallycultural studies work in these contexts) has been invested And yetlsquomulticulturalismrsquo [or just (multi)cultural frameworks] may not be and oftenis not the most important or relevant conceptual category through which tounderstand diverse political challenges in many contexts outside of the NorthAtlantic axis where theorizing lsquomulticulturersquo may not always be the mostpressing political issue (see Shome 2006)

It is not that I do not agree with the political impulses informing movestowards lsquointernationalizingrsquo cultural studies as represented in these earlierworks Clearly there is so much to be cherished in these moves and theirunderlying political efforts need to be supported But still the point is that thevantage point from which the lsquointernationalizingrsquo rupture seems to occur andthe point of departure into the international for the most part continues to bethe West And lsquointernationalizingrsquo of cultural studies consequently becomeframed as a revisionary moment (and for whom) which it is possible to argueimplicitly re-iterates the lsquoothernessrsquo (including a temporal lsquoothernessrsquo) of thelsquointernationalrsquo in relation to the USUK axis of cultural studies

In some ways the argument I offer here is similar to the ones offeredagainst the now fashionable lsquoalternative modernitiesrsquo thesis The lsquoalternativemodernitiesrsquo thesis invited us to address the significance of cultures ofmodernities in non-western time including how they were linked to relationsof western modernities (see for instance the special issue of Public Culture1999 on the topic of lsquoAlternative modernitiesrsquo) Yet the very word choicelsquoalternativersquo as Harry Harootunian (1999 2000) among others has suggestedimplicitly recenters and privileges western modernity Harootunian powerfullycritiques this thesis by emphasizing the lsquomyth of the time lagrsquo inherent in it thatgives temporal primacy to a lsquohegemonic model of modernity whatever thatmight be in order to imagine the possibility of an alternative that will easilyqualify as its otherrsquo (1999 p 141) Instead of the construct of lsquoalternativersquo heproposes the notion of lsquocoevalrsquo modernities that recognizes the simultaneity andcontemporaneity of diverse modernities (Harootunian 2000) In a similar way Ibelieve it may be possible to note the implicit logic of lsquotemporal lagrsquo inherentin such moves toward lsquointernationalizingrsquo cultural studies as evidenced in theframing of the lsquointernationalrsquo (in connection to lsquodecenteringrsquo Birmingham) inthe Abbas and Erni collection


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014

When for instance the editors state that they want to lsquotake cultural studieselsewhere to internationalize the field a little furtherrsquo (Abbas amp Erni 2005 p 2emphasis added) such a statement is implicitly informed by a logic of temporaldifference or lag (to use Harootunianrsquos term) As many have already pointedout (Frow amp Morris 1993 Wright 1998 among others and these authorsnoted earlier would also claim) cultural studies was already elsewhere andother variants of cultural studies even when the term was not used existedoutside of the North Atlantic axis (and not just lsquotodayrsquo) Handel Wright(1998) in an important essay for instance showed that the KamiriithuCommunity Education Project in Kenya in the 1970s represented lsquoan origin ofcultural studies as a community based production-oriented popular educationform of studyrsquo (p 34) in contrast to cultural studiesrsquo presumed lsquooriginrsquo inBirmingham which by contrast lsquorepresented an origin of cultural studies as anamed field of academic study rsquo (p 34)

Yet in the language of lsquointernationalizingrsquo as in the Abbas and Ernicollection we find that the implied moment in relation to which the spatialityof lsquoelsewherersquo or the temporality of lsquotodayrsquo is being claimed is the Anglo-Euromoment the implied audience for which the lsquointernationalizingrsquo of culturalstudies is occurring ends up being for the most part a WesternAngloAmerican audience whose intellectual imperialism had prevented them fromacknowledging the existence of cultural studies oriented work (irrespective ofwhether the label was used or not) in diverse modernities What we needinstead is an imagination of lsquointernationalrsquo cultural studies that recognizes thediverse modalities and temporalities of the lsquointernationalrsquo in the project(s) ofcultural studies It might seem as though I am paying too much attention to theword choices to the language at work but the vocabulary is important as itplays a big role in framing the recognition of the diverse mobilities andcontexts of cultural studies

Further when the editors mark the current phase of internationalization incultural studies as constituting a lsquopostcolonial predicamentrsquo (Abbas amp Erni2005 p 2) of cultural studies it is worthwhile to ask for whom is this momentin cultural studies a lsquopost-colonial predicamentrsquo And for whom is culturalstudies lsquogoing globalrsquo or lsquointernationalrsquo (see also Ang amp Stratton 1996c) Iknow that I do not experience much lsquopost-colonial predicamentrsquo or globaltension in this phase of lsquointernationalizingrsquo of cultural studies that is somehow afirst time lsquopredicamentrsquo For many like me raised in post-colonial contextsour intellectual existence itself has always been a lsquopost-colonial predicamentrsquofrom day one our psyches and imaginations could never escape the violenceand relations of the lsquointernationalrsquo our imaginations have always had to movethrough different routes of the lsquointernationalrsquo in order to make sense of ourselves and subjectivities While indeed each geo-political moment produces itsown kinds of lsquopost-colonial predicamentsrsquo in knowledge formations andperformance the point is that for scholars raised in post-colonial contexts


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014

some form of lsquopost-colonial predicamentrsquo has been the lsquonaturalrsquo conditionunder which they have performed scholarship

For instance I formally came into cultural studies in the US when I wentthere for graduate education from Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) India Duringmy time in Kolkata I had majored in English literature with minor subjects inSociology and Political Science Like many young post-colonial subjects ofpost-independence India in the 1980s I was always already operating withinthe lsquoepistemic violencersquo (Spivak 1988) of a left over British colonial intellectualstructure as the English literature that we studied was high British literatureFor the most part the canons in Sociology and Political Science that we readwere also made up of WesternEuropean political theorists and sociologistsThus the lsquointernationalrsquo (especially an EuropeanBritish oriented interna-tional) was already and violently normative in that particular post-colonialintellectual climate When I came to the US and found myself into CulturalStudies in US graduate classrooms exposed primarily to British and alsoAmerican cultural studies I was negotiating again the lsquointernationalrsquo but nowthrough another post-colonial trajectory the US intellectualsocial spaceWhile British cultural studies was presented as a politically progressiveacademic area (and it certainly was) nonetheless given my own post-colonialhistory as a South Asian Indian subject I was once again re-entering the spaceof British socialacademic context and positioning myself in relation to it nowbut through another imperial context In other words it was still the Britishcontext of theorizing now being engaged in through another relation with thelsquointernationalrsquo and translated through the framework of the US academiccontext and imagination

To put it differently I was translating myself and my positionality throughdifferent relations of the lsquointernationalrsquo (a post-colonial Indian subject positionengaging British cultural studies through the space of an American graduateclassroom) Multiply situated across diverse and colliding relations of thelsquointernationalrsquo my post-colonial subject position was one that never had thelsquoluxuryrsquo or the choice to avoid the lsquointernationalrsquo in my intellectual productionincluding in cultural studies Thus to engage in an lsquointernationalrsquo relation withcultural studies was not necessarily always liberatory for me for I wouldsecretly yearn for works more on my own lsquonationalrsquo context of India alsquonationalrsquo context whose lsquonationalrsquo itself has always been a contested terrainIn those days in the early 1990s in the US fields such as lsquoSouth Asian culturalstudiesrsquo had not really been formed and post-colonial studies as a field was justbeing established (albeit it was dominantly South Asian in its orientation) Andfor those of us Indians in the US who lsquonaturallyrsquo found our intellectual homein post-colonial studies we still engaged with lsquoIndiarsquo and the post-colonialpolitics of lsquoIndiannessrsquo through the social space relations and imagination ofthe US academy and context Indeed there was nothing that was not alreadylsquointernationalrsquo in our relation with cultural studies (in all its variants) or any


Dow

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ctob

er 2

014

other knowledge formation The larger issue or challenge here thus is perhapsless a matter of lsquointernationalizingrsquo cultural studies (or any other knowledgeformation) but more of exploring the conditions of lsquointernationalizingrsquo includingissues of agency that may or may not be available (given onersquos history and geo-political positioning) to certain groups in such moves of lsquointernationalizingrsquoFurther lsquointernationalizingrsquo as a term implicitly assumes a level of agency(for the term connotes an action or possibility of action) but for many of usgiven our own history and our lsquointernationalrsquo relations with cultural studies orother knowledge formations we were rarely lsquointernationalizingrsquo as much asbeing constantly lsquointernationalizedrsquo upon through relations and academicimaginations which were not of our making

Indeed as Dipesh Chakrabarty (2000) has brilliantly theorized in relation tothe discipline of History scholars including those who did cultural studies(whether they consciously used the term or not) in the non-west have neverbeen able to afford the lsquoasymmetric ignorancersquo (p 28) that has informedwestern knowledge formations Thus if the lsquointernationalrsquo is a relational term that is lsquointernationalrsquo is always in relation to some nationalgeographicalreferent then the extent to which the specter of Birmingham (and otherAngloEuro axis of cultural studies eg cultural studies in the US) continuesto operate as the point or framework from which we lsquobreak outrsquo as it were intothe lsquointernationalizingrsquo of cultural studies or other knowledge formations andits implications need to be considered

The thing is that peoplescholars have always related to each other(whether recognized or not) and usually unequally across national bordersand boundaries even during times of high imperialism Some had the luxury toignore that relation while others (in post-colonial contexts) did not as much ofpost-colonial theory has now so rightfully pointed out Thus internationalconnections of knowledge and cross-border connections of scholarsscholar-ship is not a new thing What is lsquonewrsquo about many of the efforts atinternationalization that are also going on [for instance the work being done bythe Association of Cultural Studies (ACS) or the Inter-Asia Cultural StudiesCollective] is the equality of imagination recognition and speaking positionsacross borders and boundaries that are now being demanded

Networks of the lsquointernationalrsquo in the professionalization ofcultural studies

This problem of lsquointernationalizingrsquo cultural studies where the specter ofAngloEuro axis often persists like a ghostly presence (lsquothe return of therepressedrsquo) in some of our conversations I think gets further compoundedwhen we also address the networks circuits and trajectories of an unequallypositioned transnational intellectual traffic that sometimes enable both the


Dow

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ctob

er 2

014

framing and naming of the lsquointernationalizationrsquo of cultural studies as forinstance in the Abbas and Erni collection It must be noted that many who areable to launch such lsquointernationalizingrsquo or de-eurocentricizing moves from non-western geographies or through non-western frameworks have often beentrained in the WesternAnglo (and frequently the US) academy have workedthere or have significant connections there including connections to publicationnetworks We often tend to know some of the same people in the Westernacademy run in the same circuits repeat the same vocabularies and networkwith the same people (many who are trained in the West especially theAmerican academy or have significant institutional associations there) Furthermany non-western scholars who received training in western institutions orwestern style institutions tend to be fairly privileged in relation to their lsquohomersquopopulation many do not constitute a typical sample of significantlydisempowered post-colonial populations in their own nations and regionalcontexts (see also Chun amp Samsul 2001) I am not trying to repeat the tiringlsquopolitics of identityrsquo argument where we too often construct an unnecessarybelonging between identity and our politics (which is not the same as saying thattherefore there is no relation) But still there is a matter of history of historicalbelonging of routes and trajectories of connections and disconnections thateven within a same national identity or regional context can be diverse enoughto differentially situate post-colonial people of a nation or region (includingscholars) in very unequal ways in relation to global flows and stasis of cultureand capital Additionally many have access to institutions conferenceorganizers key cultural studies figures editors and publishing houses in theWestern academy even though they may be lsquolocatedrsquo in the non-West [Thewest and non-west are of course not as Naoki Sakai (and some others havetheorized so well) lsquocartographic localit[ies]rsquo (see Sakai 2000 p 791) theyconstitute networks desires and imaginations but the elaboration of this pointis beyond the scope of this paper]

My point is not that this is always a problematic thing clearly given theinequality of knowledge flows the support of well meaning progressivewestern situated or associated colleagues and friends are practically needed tomove cultural studies through different national circuits and trajectories andsuch efforts should be cherished But still who gets left out of such networkswho cannot have access to such networks and how you come into lsquorecognitionrsquoas a cultural studies scholar doing cultural studies work in non-western spacesand geographies whose lsquoknowledgersquo and lsquoscholarshiprsquo simply do not have thatkind of recognition from the AngloAmerican academy are issues that have tobe continually grappled with To offer a small example in the otherwisestimulating lsquoCultural Studies Nowrsquo conference that took place at University ofEast London in 2007 and that clearly positioned itself in its call for papers asan lsquointernationalrsquo conference all the plenarykey note speakers other thanKuan-Hsing Chen and Ien Ang were situated in the Western academy or


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ded

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4 O

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er 2

014

Western geography (and Chen was the only one if I recall correctly who wasfrom a non-dominant English speaking academic context)5 In contrastconferences of the Inter-Asia Cultural Studies group as evidenced from theirvarious conference programs (and one can even think of the recentlyconcluded 20062008 Crossroads conferences) offers a significant counterpoint and contrast to such (often unintended) west-leaning efforts atlsquointernationalizingrsquo conference spaces where one finds a much deeper andsubversive representation of the lsquointernationalrsquo in terms of visibility of scholarsfrom various lsquomarginalrsquo sites and nations outside of the North Atlanticframework and context The larger issue here is that in many lsquointernationalrsquocultural studies forums and the networks that often inform and drive themthe issue of speaking positions and who can and does get to participate (andhow) in these West leaning lsquointernationalrsquo spaces is a matter that needsconstant attention and reflection As Ien Ang and Jon Stratton rightly asked

Who can and does participate in the cultural studies rendez-vous now thatit has gone lsquointernationalrsquo Cultural studies rendez-vous cannot beimagined as an lsquoideal speech situationrsquo in which everyone holds the samepower to speak and be heard

(1996c p 362)

Part of this of course is also the marketing issue that deserves a few commentson its own Given the inequality of capital flows that inform knowledgeproduction mega academic publishing houses (usually English language pressesin the West and more specifically today in the US given their status in tenuredecisions and their much greater promotional and distributional power) tend tobe centrally driven by what will be of interest to the American market will thisbook lsquoworkrsquo in an undergraduate class in an American context is a question(implicit and often explicit) that almost every aspiring and especially first timeauthor has to grapple with today This clearly sets limitations on the extent towhich we can or are able to fully break away from the North Atlantic andespecially the hegemony of the US academy and its networks

For instance Meaghan Morris as far back as 1992 had noted the demandplaced on Australian cultural studies scholarswriters of having to lsquoundertakethat extra laborrsquo (Morris 1992 p 375) when writing about Australian culturalpractices for British or American publications that often practice lsquosubtlecensorship of Australian language which makes it arduous or even impossibleto write serious cultural analysis and so tempting to rest content with theconventions of theoretical commentaryrsquo (p 475) Grossberg too recentlyechoed this continuing dilemma faced by scholars writing outside of the NorthAtlantic axis when he noted (in an interview with Handel Wright) that

If someone like Ghassan Hage or Kuan-Hsing Chen or Keyan Tomaselliwant to write about issues in their own contexts they have three choices


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014

First they can spend the first half of the book giving Americans enoughbackground to understand the work [ ] second they can overcome thesupposed insularity of their example by making their empirical workmore comparative preferably using at least one or more examples thatare likely to be familiar to an American audience Or third they candownplay the specificity of the example by emphasizing the theoreticalargument at the expense of actual analysis

(in Wright 2001 p 157)

The larger issue here is with how economic inequities that inform knowledgeflows (and its US dominance) produce a situation where we are too oftenunable to escape the haunting specter of the lsquoAmericanrsquo audience in thedemands and politics of publishing And this remains one of the mostsignificant structural problems that continue to regulate and constrain aserious lsquointernationalizationrsquo and global diversity in cultural studies

In this respect it should be mentioned again that the emergence ofjournals such as Inter-Asia Cultural Studies offers an important and muchneeded alternative space (even though the larger global imbalances inpublishing persist) for many writing outside of the North Atlantic contextor North Atlantic frameworks where they do not necessarily have toperform what Morris called that lsquoextra laborrsquo of having to make thecultural context of their work accessible and translatable to a readershipthat may not necessarily fully understand it This is because one of thegoals of the Inter-Asia collective as indicated on their website and invarious conference statements is to make visible diverse political andcultural contexts (and their underlying struggles) in Asia so as to build andforge a cross-border network of scholars and intellectuals seriously engagedin trying to understand and confront the challenges that face differentlsquolocalrsquo contexts in Asia As the 2000 Inter-Asia Cultural Studies conferencestatement published in the Inter-Asia Cultural Studies journal put it lsquowe areconvinced that any viable politics in Inter-Asia have to endeavor toconstantly locate and relocate new sites of struggle without such acuityand degree of sensitivity we lose sight of the running energies and forcesthat have emerged in the region [ie Asia]rsquo (2000 p 348) The Inter-AsiaCultural Studies journal offers one forum through which such sites ofstruggles are located and articulated and this is in stark contrast to manywestern academic journals and publishing spaces where injecting too muchpolitics passion alternative frameworks and unknown contexts cansometimes hurt (journals such as Cultural Studies or Public Culture alsoconstitute important exceptions as they have regularly presented andpublished challenging cultural studies work from diverse global contexts andframeworks)


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014

English English everywhere

Part of this publishing dilemma including being able to secure publicationcontracts with presses that would garner institutional recognition is theproblem of language itself the continued hegemony of English The journalTraces is one of the few journals that I know of that publishes in multiplelanguages Given that the ethos and research protocols of western (especiallyUS) institutions are now being transported to through engines of neo-liberalism and imbibed in so many non-western institutions the pressure topublish in English language journals or with English language publishinghouses has never perhaps been greater even if one is not situated in awestern geography if one is to lsquosucceedrsquo as an academic This of course ismerely a symptom or effect of the very changes in structures of educationbeing brought about by the logic of privatization that is spreading like wildfireacross most nations all around the world In an ethos where knowledgebecomes a globally marketable commodity and student bodies (who will buythe books we write) and external research funders become seen as lsquoclientsrsquo(who have to be lsquocultivatedrsquo) English becomes a language in which you haveto able to write or be published in (through lsquotranslationrsquo) even in non-western contexts if your research (and that of your institutionrsquos) is seen ashaving a global presence and visibility At a time when universities in so manyplaces in the world are driven by the logic of lsquoaccountabilityrsquo and wherelsquoexcellencersquo (in reviews etcetera) is determined partly by citational capital(that must draw on lsquoexpertsrsquo who for the most part given the inequities inknowledge flows are still situated in the AngloAmerican academy orlsquotrainedrsquo there) the shadow of Anglo centrism continues to persist revealingyet again the lsquolimitsrsquo of so many lsquointernationalizingrsquo efforts even in non-western contexts and institutions

A big part of this again has to do with that lsquoextra laborrsquo one has toperform in non-western contexts when one is expected to write in English forEnglish language journals for professional survival a labor that may often notbe recognized by or be visible to colleagues in the West or by academicswho are lsquonativersquo speakers of English who may sometimes too easily assumethat one should just be able to lsquowritersquo in English (and in stylistic conventions ofthe Western academic world) Morris (2005) cogently discusses this issuewhen she notes how Chinese academics in Hong Kong are expected to write ininternationally refereed English language journals based in North AmericaBritain or Australia if their jobs are to be secure Inviting us to recognize thearduous labor that such a process involves for speakers and writers whoselsquonativersquo language is not English Morris flips the scenario and asks Americanscholars (who often may not recognize such issues) to imagine what such labormight really entail


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014

I ask American humanists who are not China specialists or of Chinesebackground to imagine passing the rest of their careers not only writing inChinese but ensuring acceptance of their work in a prestige mainlandcontext by spending enough time studying the relevant Chineseauthorities to cite them amply and well while observing the conventionsof political and theoretical correctness accepted in Beijing Then imaginehow to make this work accessible to your English speaking community inthe United States while carrying out your ordinary duties as a facultymember in an American university The effort would first and foremosttake a grievous toll on our time and time is the intimate medium ofuniversity restructuring today

(2005 p 120)

The issue here is that this pressure of having to publish in English is not just alinguistic matter but one that is intimately tied to issues of labor economicsand onersquos livelihood What North Atlantic situated academics or nativewriters and speakers of English sometimes may not fully recognize is thatfacultyscholars who are not lsquonativersquo speakers of English are always forced toperform additional work that they did not sign up for Yet the violence andpersistence of Western colonial histories and structures continues to force thatwork out of them (for which there is no compensation that is reflected in theirsalaries) Additionally given the geo-political and historical inequities thatinform the global landscape and its intellectual traffic a non-native speakerwriter of lsquoEnglishrsquo from a Western geography or structure is indeed positionedfar more differently in such a landscape than someone from an Asiangeography For instance a French intellectual given the lsquohigh culturersquoconnotations of French intellectual thought is far more likely than letrsquos say aBangladeshi intellectual to find a publisher to translate herhis work throughwhich it can enter high brow arenas of western intellectual space [Considerhow (European) Continental Theory has enjoyed wide global circulation fordecades now but one is hard pressed to find an intellectual movement ortheoretical formation from Asia in recent decades acquiring such global value]The larger point I am making here is that even amongst non-native speakerswriters of lsquoEnglishrsquo there is a significant unevenness given differing historiesas to the professional repercussions of not being able to writespeak inlsquoEnglishrsquo

In many ways some of the above applies as well to many of ourinternational conference circuits At conferences we tend to present our workfor the most part in English (for example at various international culturalstudies conferences of the lsquocrossroadsrsquo kinds) The few scholars that cannot willusually have to find a way to have their works translated lsquointorsquo English to ensurecirculation an audience and if one is lucky the attention of some publisherAdditionally a point that often does not get addressed much at least I have not


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014

seen it much in my readings is that the social assumptions and etiquettesunderlying networking styles that big conferences are famous for also tend to bequite Anglo (and increasingly American) in flavor and in their professional ethosAnd then there is also the matter of speaking styles and dialogue formats Thestandard conference format is one where you first speakpresent your work andthen the forum is open for lsquodiscussionrsquo and questions that can lend themselvessometimes to heated debates etcetera While exciting of course this format(that usually rewards verbosity and voice) however assumes a level and ethos ofagency (and individualism) in speaking the acquired comfort level in speakingto an international audience the acquired confidence of being heard (especiallyif you are presenting your work in English and are a lsquonativersquo speaker of English and have the lsquorightrsquo accent) and the felt freedom to vocally and publicly disagreeBut what do you do for parts of the world where populations are just cominginto citizenly belonging and while there may be brilliant minds and scholars insuch populations they may not be as used to a verbal public lsquodialoguersquo formatthat too often tends to be written by western styles of discussion debate andargumentation (and lsquodialoguersquo also assumes the existence however partial ofsocial equality of feeling that you are coming into a forum as global equals when in reality that is never the case) that takes a while to get used to

Additionally many conference formats often also implicitly require anAnglo centric performance of our lsquoprofessionalrsquo selves (necessary so that lsquowersquodo not come across as lsquostrangersquo and lsquoweird speakingrsquo) that can be veryalienating to many from outside of Anglo spaces and histories Language beingso culturally laden itself thus limits and constrains performance and how onewill be lsquoheardrsquo and recognized (or not) Even after 16 years of being in theAmerican academy and now in the British academy I still know that at mostconferences given that I will have to lsquospeakrsquo in English in a required style oflsquoprofessionalismrsquo that tends to be written by Anglo-centric assumptions andetiquettes of speaking (that rarely finds much room for passion and emotions)my lsquofullrsquo self (and its underlying history) will never be present

For instance writing as a Bengali (and Indian) I want to point out that inmy Bengali culture lsquointerruptionrsquo during debatediscussions etcetera is notseen as a bad thing and is often a usual practice Interrupting someone while she is speaking or discussing something passionately only signals your level ofengagement with and often excitement about the topic at hand lsquoAddarsquo thathas been so central to the Bengali culture (and Dipesh Chakrabarty has writtenmuch about lsquoaddarsquo) often constituted passionate and intellectual discussionsand debates that would be full of people interrupting each other as they burstwith intellectual energy I can still remember the days growing up in Kolkata(formerly Calcutta) where during evenings various lsquoaddasrsquo would be in placecharged with intellectual energy and passionate and often confrontationalarguments My own experiences as a post-colonial South Asian woman of colorin the racialized (and often repressive) US academy however have taught me


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014

that the expression of passion and emotions (which always accompanies thesense of colonial injustice that informs a post-colonial subject production) in aprofessional forum is seen as a bad thing you are somehow not beinglsquoprofessionalrsquo At issue then are the unspoken and sanitized norms of(Eurocentric) lsquocivilityrsquo that often guide our conferences and panel discussions(and that too often are geared towards the suppression of emotions and passionor alternative forms of self-presentation that may disrupt the tight norms ofEurcoentric lsquocivilityrsquo required in the performance of the lsquoprofessionalrsquo self inWestern academy)

At issue is also the ways in which diverse local affects (given the relationshipbetween affect and intellectual voiceproduction) are suppressed regulatedand denied a presence in unequal relations of the lsquointernationalrsquo that inform ourconference structures For instance given my own cultural production as aBengali and yet one who has now lived most of her life in Western geographiesand spaces I often experience what may be called an lsquoaffective regulationrsquo inprofessional spaces in the West Bengalis lsquonaturallyrsquo speak very fast and usuallyas mentioned earlier with a lot of feelings and passion Nobel Laureate AmartyaSen has recently written about the lsquoargumentative Indianrsquo this label perhapsaptly describes the Bengali culture where the speaking style is argumentativepassionate and full of feelings Bengalis love heated intellectual debates andpassionate arguments When (and if) you bring this speaking style into Westernprofessional spaces including the more progressive cultural studies spaces whose protocols today increasingly find a presence even in non-westernacademic spaces you could easily be constructed (and consequently dehistor-icized) as being lsquoadversarialrsquo or lsquoemotionalrsquo constructions whose very normsof judgment function to suppress emotions that threaten or disturb the rigidaffective orders that inform our dominant academic spaces

I know that in saying some of the above I am perhaps opening myself upto the charge of lsquolinguistic essentialismrsquo But there is a difference betweenlinguistic essentialism and history To express a desire to speak in aprofessional context in onersquos lsquonativersquo tongue and style is to recognize theability to bring so much of onersquos history (that cannot always be captured in anlsquoother tonguersquo) into the production and performance of onersquos scholarship AsChicana feminist Gloria Anzaldua (1990) has powerfully stated lsquoEthnicidentity is twin to linguistic identity I am my language [ ] and as long asI have to accommodate the English speakers rather than having themaccommodate me my tongue will be illegitimatersquo (p 207) Ashish Nandy(1998) has described such a challenge of dialogue (and language) as beingcentral to the imagining of what he terms a lsquonew cosmopolitanismrsquo WhileNandyrsquos larger point focuses on the very structures of dialogues through whichwe lsquospeakrsquo to each other his arguments nonetheless are relevant here Nandywrites


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014

The Westrsquos centrality in any cultural dialogue in our times has beenensured by its dominance over the language in which dialogue among thenon-Western cultures takes place Even when we talk to our neighbors itis mediated by Western assumptions and Western frameworks [ ][H]owever apparently open and non-hierarchical the existing officialmode of dialogue its very organization ensures that within its format allother cultures are set up to lose They cannot dare not bring to dialoguetheir entire selves They have to hide parts of themselves not only from others butalso from their own Westernized or modernized selves

(1998 pp 144146 emphasis added)

The larger point here has to do with the ways in which our histories (and the(in)dignities of those histories and the affectivities produced by their relations including feelings of anger cultural humiliation despair and oppression) mayposition us (including non-western scholars) very differently in relation toconference formats of lsquodialoguersquo lsquodiscussionrsquo lsquoparticipationrsquo (and evenlsquonetworkingrsquo) The continued hegemony of the English language andpersistence of Western frameworks of sociality (in lsquoprofessionalrsquo contexts) isa central lsquointimate enemyrsquo (Nandy 1983) that often mediates our relations witheach other in unequal relations of globalization

The dilemma of translation is thus a central challenge in the projectof lsquointernationalizingrsquo cultural studies whatever lsquointernationalizingrsquo culturalstudies may really come to mean But translation as we know is more than just amatter of addressing power differentials in language use issues of style ofperformance of the lsquoprofessionalrsquo self of feelings and passion and there needsto be more work I think on the translation of feelings given that lsquofeelingsrsquo areoften a response to and effect of political contexts within which one functionswhether as an academic or simply a human being are central to theproblematics of translation a problematic that increasingly and inevitably willoccupy a central theoretical space in the project of rethinking cultural studies inlight of globalization of knowledge flows and transnational traffic of anddialogue amongst scholars

Geo-politics and cultural studies the lsquorise of Asiarsquo andcultural studies inof Asia

Another point that must also be addressed is the issue of geo-politics How arevarious lsquoflowsrsquo of cultural studies imbricated in geo-political shifts and globalmovements of capital (that inform such shifts) The challenge before us is tointerrogate where our lsquointernationalizingrsquo impulses are able to go and not goand how that itself is imbricated in geo-politics One significant site or regionin which cultural studies is lsquoflowingrsquo (as it were) and that lsquoflowrsquo is being


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014

internationally recognized is Asia (much more than many other regions exceptLatin America since Latin America has always been of lsquointerestrsquo to the USacademy and is consequently able to lsquoflowrsquo through global publishing circuitsmore easily) Different sites and places in Asia (India Singapore ChinaHongKong Taiwan) are gradually being seen as emerging lsquohotbedsrsquo for (non-eurocentric) cultural studies and gaining legitimacy in international circuits ofknowledge (even though there is a significant unevenness as to where culturalstudies is being recognized as occurring in Asia and where it is not)

The interventions provided by cultural studies in Asia have been extremelyimportant and this work needs to be recognized for its excellence intellectualrigor and the ways in which it has opened up spaces for so many who couldnot find space before But at the same time I think it is also important to markthat the growing visibility and recognition of cultural studies inof Asia ininternational spheres (including the North American academy that continuesto have so much power to confer legitimacy) is occurring at the same time thatthe lsquoWestrsquo is having to confront and recognize what in journalistic parlancethese days is being framed as the lsquorise of Asiarsquo An April 2005 issue of BeijingReview for instance carried a cover page with images of a leading female actressfrom India and China Aishwarya Rai and Zhang Ziyi with the headline copy inbold stating lsquoLooking Goodrsquo followed by a copy text below that notes lsquoChinaand India looking good and writing an unprecedented chapter in WorldHistoryrsquo Similarly in newspapers magazines and global television newsincluding news in America we have been witnessing an unprecedentedattention to nations such as India as well as China An April 10 2005 issue ofThe New York Times for instance noted how India and China lsquoare coming intotheir own at the same moment with the potential for a dynamic shift inworldrsquos politics and economyrsquo (Sengupta amp French 2005) And most recentlywith Indiarsquos bid for a permanent seat on the Security Council and USrsquo backingof that the world is clearly confronting and dealing with the lsquoAsianawakeningrsquo There is a sense today in international spheres that lsquoAsia ishappeningrsquo financial investors will regularly tell you these days that Asianmarkets are where you should invest your money I myself find that suddenlybeing lsquoIndianrsquo is taking on positive connotations and find myself having tostruggle less to explain lsquoIndian-nessrsquo to defend lsquoIndian-nessrsquo or answer sillyquestions such as lsquoHow do you speak English so wellrsquo India is coming lsquoinrsquo onthe map and one of the places press reports tell us that has to be watched forits potential to emerge as a significant global power (economically andpolitically) very shortly And yet just as India is lsquoinrsquo today we are also see agrowing proliferation recognition and even desire for South Asian studies(where the idea of South Asia too often gets reduced only to India) thatsignificantly also influences the lsquoopening uprsquo of institutionalized spaces forcultural studies work in India and the drawing of research funds often from theWest


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014

Thus when we place the growing recognition of cultural studies work inof Asia (whether by publishers or by scholarly circles) in this context we haveto interrogate the ways in which a larger global desire for Asia these days(political and economic) might also be informing a growing desire forscholarshipscholars ofin Asia and that is giving cultural studies in Asia (andonly in certain parts of Asia) much more legitimacy and visibility than someother regions of the world In saying this I do not in any way mean to suggestthat cultural studies inof Asia is somehow complicit in global geo-politics asthat would be a silly claim Clearly the work being done by Asian culturalstudies networks as noted earlier (for instance the important conferences thealternative space provided by the Inter-Asia journal the interventions ineducational practices the building of an Inter-Asia network of scholars and theproliferation of different research centers) has been important in providingimportant frameworks of transnational or transborder intellectual workRather what I am trying to call attention to are the larger systemic issues ofgeo-politics and global capital that inform the lsquoframes of recognitionrsquo throughwhich scholarship in certain areas of the world receive attention in global flowsof knowledge while not others It is so much easier today than it was a fewyears back to secure a publisher in most geo-political contexts for workcoming out on India or dealing with India (the same could be said of someother Asian contexts) Thus at issue here is the recognition not only of thegeo-politics informing and underlying the flow of knowledge but the fact thatas cultural studies gets seen as an lsquointernationalrsquo phenomenon in global circuitsof knowledge there are some sitesregions that end up securing more visibility(for instance in publication networks) while others often fall out of it

In the context of cultural studies work inof Asia for instance some sitesare clearly garnering much more international recognition as being culturalstudies lsquositesrsquo Consider for instance the fact that as I noted earlier whilethere is today a growing desire for South Asia (and South Asian culturalstudies) in intellectual circles that desire however for the most part remainslimited to India One merely has to browse through some post-colonialanthologies on South Asia published by major publishing houses in the West tosee this to be the case Nations such as Nepal Bangladesh or Afghanistan oftenbecome invisible and insignificant We rarely find much scholarship from suchcontexts although there are scholars such as Firdous Azim (situated inBangladesh) who remain visible in the Inter-Asia collective One of thechallenges of lsquointernationalizingrsquo cultural studies where there can be a serioustransnational connection of scholars across diverse regions (not just within aregion) is the challenge of having to deal with this issue how do we accesssitescontextsspaces that are so regulated by geo-political barriers that wecannot even go there or worse we may not even know they exist BruceRobbins for instance once noted of this challenge of accessibility that


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A writer and intellectual who moves into the village of peasants in theFrench Alps must worry about his relationship to the people ofthe village But shouldnrsquot he also worry about his relationship to thepeople who live in different mountains so far away that the question of therelationship need never come up

(2003 p 302 emphasis added)

De-eurocentrism is not always equal to decolonization

It is because of this that I want to suggest that lsquode-eurocentrismrsquo or lsquode-westernizationrsquo (of cultural studies or any other knowledge formation) termscurrently in significant circulation) does not especially in the current momentof neo-liberal globalization always translate into decolonization (of knowledgepolitics and imaginations) I say this because often the decolonization of culturalstudies (or any other Western knowledge formation) is framed simply as amatter of de-eurocentrism as though de-eurocentrism necessarily guarantees aserious democratization of knowledge and the ability to access real disempo-werment If the issue of decolonization is to be understood not just in relation toWestern power structures but also in relation to inequalities within a nationregion then merely performing non-eurocentric moves in cultural studies whileperhaps important in some ways nonetheless may not always get us too far inthe current moment in terms of serious decolonization

This is especially the case when there are nations for instance in Asia thatare significantly allied with and receive the backing of western powerstructures and whose emerging modernities are centrally the product of neo-liberalism that produces all kinds of neo-colonial inequities within the region(and again I think back to my own lsquohomersquo context in India) One thinks here ofIndiarsquos position in relation to a nation such as Bangladesh (a Muslim majoritynation as opposed to Indiarsquos shameful Hindu dominance ever growing andits shameful history of continued religious violence in relation to Muslims) oreven Sri Lanka and Nepal lsquoweakrsquo neighbors completely overpowered by thetight relations between India and China and rarely having any lsquovoicersquo in thatregion on the global stage In other words in the current global situation andespecially with the many post-colonial reversals that are occurring where someparts of Asia are emerging as powerhouses the question of lsquodecolonizationrsquo ifjust limited to de-eurocentrism can be in danger of losing its radical potentialAs recent post-colonial theory has begun pointing out the whole issue oflsquocolonialismrsquo needs to be now complicated new colonial relations areemerging outside of western geographies in non-western regions GayatriSpivak in an interview (see Hegde amp Shome 2002) once made a commentabout post-colonial scholarship that I find relevant here When asked about herviews on post-coloniality she rightfully noted that


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I myself find that it is not necessary to see anything innately critical orradical to remain postcolonial it [post-colonial theory] should bedone with complete academic responsibility There is no foregoneconclusion It is not necessary to always insist on this colonizercolonizedmodel and so on it is not necessary to find proof of this in interminabledocuments retrieved from the other side of the earth correspondinginstitutions related to other countries and so on

(in Hegde amp Shome 2002 p 275)

At issue here is the need to rethink lsquodecolonizationrsquo Where do we want ourdecolonizing impulses to really go Studying or focusing on metropolitancosmopolitan phenomena such as media techno cultures popular cultureetcetera in non-western contexts might be important at one level as theycertainly do help us understand formations of emerging non-westernmodernities at another level however these metropolitan formations arealso urban formations in which the seriously disempowered populations rarelyhave much access For instance while on the one hand there is now a growingfocus on media practices of consumption urban imaginaries cityscapes inIndia on the other hand so much of India is still in rurality still in povertyand so much of the population still does not have access to television mediaand lsquomodernrsquo consumption relations It matters little to them whether theirnation is coming into lsquomodernityrsquo or not whether their nation is beingrecognized on the global stage or not That is where serious disempowermentlies that is where populations who truly fall outside of the purview of theglobal reside that is where the lsquomodernizingrsquo impulses of emerging Asianmodernities often cannot (or care not to) reach How do we revisit and accessthis realm of subalternity (and can we) How do we lsquoaccessrsquo the 11-year-oldchild bride in some forsaken village in India that is so outside of the map thatyou may not even know it exists married to a 60 year old man and she doesnot even lsquoknowrsquo that she is lsquomarriedrsquo despite the circulation of all kinds oflsquomodernizingrsquo laws that prohibit child marriage and the ever proliferation ofnon-governmental organizations seemingly monitoring gender violence thatderive their funding from global capital As the (Indian) nation repositionsitself on the global stage as a lsquomodernrsquo and lsquofreersquo national body (and receivesinternational recognition for that) this young childrsquos body continues tofunction as a site of rape sexual violence and erasure upon which thelsquomodernrsquo and lsquoglobalrsquo India is being built up today How do we access suchbodies and spaces This is where the real issue of lsquodecolonizationrsquo of ourresearch imaginations lies It is not enough just to connect to non-westernmodernitiescontexts and claim a decolonizing move it is not enough just tocross borders laterally The important issue is this how do we cross bordersand barriers in a downward movement even within the same nationregion


Dow

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014

It is here that I find Gayatri Spivakrsquos recent works on subalternity andrurality helpful as a framework for rethinking decolonization in globaliza-tion Noting for instance how post-coloniality today is being articulated asa metropolitan phenomenon (Spivak in Shome amp Hegde 2002) Spivak invarious places has emphasized the importance of engaging with rurality andof learning to lsquolearn from belowrsquo Her continuing grassroots level workwith disempowered children of the rural poor in the global south thelsquolargest sector of future electoratersquo (Spivak 2004 p 526) for instanceworking to educate them through alternative literacy practices (that shelabels as lsquothe pedagogy of the subalternrsquo) (2004 p 531) offers an importantinstance of a serious effort of lsquodecolonizationrsquo that crosses borders in adownward movement and that tries to intervene lsquofrom belowrsquo Spivakrecognizes (see for instance 2004) that the urban mindset and landscapes ofthe Global South often remain out of touch with this bottom level of ruralpoor

Thus while a focus on urban practices (whether of media technologyconsumption etcetera) in non-western modernities are important at one levelgiven the gross inequities within many nations in the global south finding waysto access and connect bottom levels of society and the layers of subalternity thatexist behind lsquothe restricted permeability of global culturersquo (Spivak 2003 p 16)should also constitute an important challenge for cultural studies work engagedin various lsquodecolonizationrsquo efforts This is simultaneously the challenge ofimagining spaces and places so outside of the nation and the global that weperhaps never truly go there or can go there only with much difficulty orthrough the forging of very different (and perhaps even unthought) imagina-tions But that should not stop us from trying to imagine the possibility of suchspaces for it is in imagining such possibilities that we can continue to hold ontoa decolonizing move and impulse that does not just lapse into studies ofmetropolitan and urban practices (even while it de-eurocentricizes culturalstudies) in lsquootherrsquo modernities

Acknowledgements

The author thanks Meaghan Morris for her generous reading of this paper andfor many helpful recommendations and Handel Wright for his editorialguidance and for including the paper on the panel where a version waspresented Any limitations in the essay are of course mine Sections of thispaper were presented at the 2005 conference of National CommunicationAssociation the 2006 Crossroads in Cultural Studies conference and theSchool of Oriental and African Studies University of London


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014

Notes

1 For instance the work of Inter-Asia Cultural Studies as I note in severalparts of this paper remains focused on building a regional Inter-Asiasubjectivity and collective that tries to understand political challenges andcontexts in different parts of Asia

2 For instance the lsquoFeminisms in Asiarsquo workshop in Bangalore 2001 broughttogether feminists from different Asian countries who explored the kinds ofstruggles posed by and in their specific contexts For a discussion of this seeNiranjana and John (2002)

3 I thank Meaghan Morris for directing me to this point4 See httpwwwcscsbanorg (the workshop on lsquoarticulating undergraduate

spacesrsquo)5 I am well aware here that since the lsquoWestrsquo is not just a geographical entity

but as much a cultural imagination and context Australia given that it is stilla Anglo dominant nation is lsquowesternrsquo to that extent However for thepurpose of this particular point where in relation to the intellectualdominance of US and UK academic contexts Australian academic workremains far more marginal in global intellectual traffic flows I am retaining adistinction between lsquowestern academic contextrsquo and the Australian context

References

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Ang I (1992) lsquoDismantling Cultural Studiesrsquo Cultural Studies vol 6 no 3 pp307511

Ang I amp Stratton J (1996a) lsquoAsianing Australia notes toward a criticaltransnationalism in cultural studiesrsquo Cultural Studies vol 19 no 1 pp1636

Ang I amp Stratton J (1996b) lsquoA cultural studies without guarantees response toKuan-Hsing Chenrsquo Cultural Studies vol 10 no 1 pp 7177

Ang I amp Stratton J (1996c) lsquoOn the impossibility of a global cultural studiesrsquo inStuart Hall Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies eds K Chen amp D MorleyNew York Routledge pp 361391

Anzaldua G (1990) lsquoHow to tame a wild tonguersquo in Out There Marginalizationand Contemporary Culture eds R Ferguson et al Cambridge MA MITPress pp 203212

Birch D (2000) Transnational Cultural Studies what price globalization SocialSemiotics vol 10 no 2 pp 141156

Chakrabarty D (2000) Provincializing Europe Princeton NJ Princeton UniversityPress


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Chen K (1996a) lsquoNot yet the postcolonial era the (super) nation-state and thetransnationalism of cultural studies response to Ang and Strattonrsquo CulturalStudies vol 10 pp 3770

Chen K (1996b) lsquoCultural Studies and the politics of internationalization Aninterview with Stuart Hall by Kuan-Hsing Chenrsquo in Stuart Hall CriticalDialogues in Cultural Studies eds D Morley amp K Chen New YorkRoutledge pp 392408

Chen K (ed) (1998) Trajectories Inter-Asia Cultural Studies New YorkRoutledge

Chun A amp Samsul A B (2001) lsquoOther routes the critical challenge for Asianacademiarsquo Inter-Asia Cultural Studies vol 2 no 2 pp 167176

Frow J amp Morris M (eds) (1993) Introduction in Australian Cultural Studies AReader Urbana IL University of Illinois Press pp viixxxii

Gupta A amp Ferguson J (1997) lsquoBeyond culture space identity and the politicsof differencersquo in Culture Power Place eds A Gupta amp J FergusonDurham NC Duke University Press pp 3350

Harootunian H (1999) lsquoGhostly comparisons Andersonrsquos telescopersquo Diacriticsvol 29 no 4 pp 135149

Hartootunian H (2000) Overcome by Modernity Princeton NJ PrincetonUniversity Press

Hegde R amp Shome R (2002) lsquoPostcolonial scholarship of productions anddirections Interview with Gayatri Spivakrsquo Communication Theory vol 12no 3 pp 271286

Morris M (1992) lsquoAfterthoughts on lsquolsquoAustralianismrsquorsquorsquo Cultural Studies vol 6 no3 pp 468475

Morris M (2005) lsquoHumanities for taxpayers some problemsrsquo New LiteraryHistory vol 36 pp 111129

Morris M (2006) lsquoChairrsquos letterrsquo Newsletter of the Association of Cultural Studiesvol 3

Nandy A (1983) The Intimate Enemy Delhi Oxford University PressNandy A (1998) lsquoA new cosmopolitanismrsquo in Trajectories Inter-Asia Cultural

Studies ed K Chen New York Routledge pp 142152Niranjana T amp John M (2002) lsquoIntroductionrsquo Inter-Asia Cultural Studies vol 3

no 3 pp 335336Robbins B (2003) lsquoAfterwordrsquo in World Bank Literature ed A Kumar

University of Minneapolis MN Minnesota Press pp 297304Sakai N (2000) lsquolsquolsquoYou Asiansrsquorsquo on the historical role of the West and the Asia

binaryrsquo South Atlantic Quarterly vol 99 no 4 pp 789817Sengupta S amp French H (2005) lsquoIndia and China are poised to share defining

momentrsquo The New York Times 10 April [online] Available at httpwwwnytimescom20050410internationalasia10asiahtml


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nloa

ded

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orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Shohat E amp Stam R (2005) lsquoDe-eurocentricizing cultural studies someproposalsrsquo in Internationalizing Cultural Studies eds A Abbas amp J ErniMalden MA Blackwell Publishing pp 481498

Shome R (2006) lsquoInterdisciplinary research and globalizationrsquo CommunicationReview vol 9 pp 136

Spivak G (1988) lsquoCan the subaltern speakrsquo in Marxism and the Interpretation ofCulture eds C Nelson amp L Grossberg Urbana University of Illinois Presspp 271313

Spivak G (2003) Death of a Discipline New York Columbia University PressSpivak G (2004) lsquoRighting wrongsrsquo South Atlantic Quarterly vol 103 no 23

pp 523581Turner G (1992) lsquoOf rocks and hard places the colonized the national and

Australian cultural studiesrsquo Cultural Studies vol 6 no 3 pp 424432Wright H (1998) lsquoDare we de-centre Birmingham Troubling the lsquolsquooriginsrsquorsquo and

trajectories of cultural studiesrsquo European Journal of Cultural Studies vol 1no 1 pp 3356

Wright H (2001) lsquoWhatrsquos going on Larry Grossberg on the status quo ofcultural studies an interviewrsquo Cultural Values vol 5 no 2 pp 133162


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

forbidden Terms amp Conditions of access and use can be found at httpwwwtandfonlinecompageterms-and-conditions

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Raka Shome



STUDIES







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nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014









Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



(1996c p 362)





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


(2005 p 120)




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Raka Shome



STUDIES







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014









Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



(1996c p 362)





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


(2005 p 120)




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014









Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



(1996c p 362)





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


(2005 p 120)




Dow

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by [

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vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

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ded

by [

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vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

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ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



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by [

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vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

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ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014









Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



(1996c p 362)





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


(2005 p 120)




Dow

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by [

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vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

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by [

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vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

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ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

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by [

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f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014









Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



(1996c p 362)





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


(2005 p 120)




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



(1996c p 362)





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


(2005 p 120)




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



(1996c p 362)





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


(2005 p 120)




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



(1996c p 362)





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


(2005 p 120)




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



(1996c p 362)





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


(2005 p 120)




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



(1996c p 362)





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


(2005 p 120)




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



(1996c p 362)





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


(2005 p 120)




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



(1996c p 362)





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


(2005 p 120)




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



(1996c p 362)





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


(2005 p 120)




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


(2005 p 120)




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


(2005 p 120)




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


(2005 p 120)




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014



Acknowledgements



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Notes






References










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Fl

orid

a] a

t 23

13 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

POST-COLONIAL REFLECTIONS ON THE ‘INTERNATIONALIZATION’ OF CULTURAL STUDIES

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Transcript of POST-COLONIAL REFLECTIONS ON THE ‘INTERNATIONALIZATION’ OF CULTURAL STUDIES