Positive Psychology

Positive PsychologyExploring the Best in People

Volume 1

Discovering Human Strengths

Edited by

SHANE J. LOPEZ

Foreword by

SONJA LYUBOMIRSKY

Praeger Perspectives

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Positive psychology : exploring the best in people / edited by Shane J. Lopez ;foreword by Sonja Lyubomirsky.

p. cm.(Praeger perspectives)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-275-99350-4 ((set) : alk. paper) ISBN 978-0-275-99351-1 ((vol. 1) : alk. paper) ISBN 978-0-275-99352-8 ((vol. 2) :

alk. paper) ISBN 978-0-275-99353-5 ((vol. 3) : alk. paper) ISBN

978-0-275-99354-2 ((vol. 4) : alk. paper)

1. Positive psychology. I. Lopez, Shane J.BF204.6.P66 2008

150.19'8dc22 2008010558

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available.

Copyright ' 2008 by Shane J. Lopez

All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be

reproduced, by any process or technique, without theexpress written consent of the publisher.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2008010558

ISBN: 978-0-275-99350-4 (set)978-0-275-99351-1 (vol. 1)

978-0-275-99352-8 (vol. 2)

978-0-275-99353-5 (vol. 3)978-0-275-99354-2 (vol. 4)

First published in 2008

Praeger Publishers, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.

www.praeger.com

Printed in the United States of America

The paper used in this book complies with the

Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National

Information Standards Organization (Z39.481984).

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

To three experts in giving positive psychology awayChip Anderson (19422005)Don Clifton (19242003)C. R. Snyder (19442006)

Contents

Foreword by Sonja Lyubomirsky ix

Preface xiii

Chapter 1 Discovering Your Strengths 1Jeff G. Rettew and Shane J. Lopez

Chapter 2 Making the Most of Human Strengths 23Kelly Bowers

Chapter 3 Human Strengths: Differences That Bring Us Together 37Linda S. Cantwell

Chapter 4 If Bad Is Stronger Than Good, Why Focuson Human Strength? 55Erin A. Sparks and Roy F. Baumeister

Chapter 5 Being Wise at Any Age 81Monika Ardelt

Chapter 6 Can Courage Be Learned? 109Cynthia L. S. Pury

Chapter 7 The Health Benets of Optimism 131Heather N. Rasmussen and Stephanie C. Wallio

Chapter 8 Living Lessons: The Psychological Strengths ofMartin Luther King Jr. 151Suzanne Rice

Chapter 9 An Agentic Perspective on Positive Psychology 167Albert Bandura

Index 197

About the Editor and Contributors 215

Foreword

In 1980, David Burns published the phenomenal best-seller, Feeling Good:The New Mood Therapy, in which he outlined the cognitivebehavioral tech-niques scientifically established to lift depression and anxiety. Feeling Goodbecame the most frequently recommended book for depressed individualsby U.S. mental health professionals, and over four million readers purchasedit. The book gave people suffering from depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem the tools to feel better. Indeed, studies showed that 70% of the booksreaders markedly improved in their symptoms and maintained those improve-ments for a period of 3 yearsessentially moving from a 8 on a generalmood scale to a 0, or a perhaps even to a 2.

Times have changed. The goals of todays psychologists are loftier andmore ambitious. During the last decade or so, researchers in the growingfield of positive psychology have made tremendous advances in knowledgeabout not only how to lift people from feeling dreadful to feeling good,but how to elevate them to feeling greatto living flourishing lives, todeveloping their strengths, gifts, and capacities to the fullest. In a nutshell,positive psychology is the psychology of what makes life worth living. Itrepresents a commitment on the part of research psychologists to focusattention on the sources of psychological wellnessfor example, on posi-tive emotions, positive experiences, and positive environments, on humanstrengths and virtues. The label is rooted in the principle that empoweringindividuals to build a positive state of mindto live the most rewarding,fruitful, and happiest lives they canis just as critical as psychologys con-ventional focus on mending their defects and healing their ailments andpathologies.

Positive psychologys focus on character, flourishing, and fulfilment mayseem like a wise and obvious shift, yet psychology from mid-20th centuryon had been fixated on disease, disorder, and the dark side of life. Fortu-nately, were in a new era, each month bringing us hot-off-the-presses sci-entific articles about how to achieve and sustain happiness, how to make

life more productive and more enjoyable, and how to build character andlearn resilience. These key findings, however, are generally only publishedin technical scholarly journals subscribed by universities and thus they liebeyond the reach of the student or nonexpert. The body of work pro-duced by positive psychology has yet to be brought together and eluci-dated in an accessible, comprehensive and comprehensible volume. Untilnow. This four-volume Praeger Perspectives set has assembled and trans-lated for the first time the discoveries about how to become happier andmore fulfilled, about how to define and develop human strengths, abouthow people rise to the occasion during the worst of times and about muchmore.

Yet I would wager that you have already been offered answers to manyof these questions in self-help books, Dr. So-Sos radio and TV programs,and in countless newspaper articles, magazine pieces, and blogs. Why thenis this four-volume set from Praeger Perspectives needed? Because theanswers, explanations, and prescriptions proposed by self-help gurus, andinterpreted and often misinterpreted by the media, generally have limitedgrounding in scientific theory and even less empirical confirmation. Incontrast to the information you generally find in todays media, everystatement, claim, and recommendation in this set is backed up by cutting-edge scientific research. You will find few conclusions in these chapterspurely based on the authors life experiences or that of their grandmotheror neighbors or depressed clients or random people they have interviewed.Empirical research holds multiple advantages over such anecdotal or clini-cal observations. By using the scientific method, researchers are able tountangle causes from effects and to study a phenomenon systematicallyand without bias. Of course, science is imperfect and has its own set oflimitations, but we can be much more confident in its conclusions thanthose of a single person tendering advice based on his or her assumptions,prejudices, and narrow collection of experiences.

One of my all-time favorite letters to the editor was by this newspaperreader, who wrote on the subject of science:

There are questions of faith, such as Does God exist? There are questionsof opinion, such as Who is the greatest baseball player of all time? Thereare debate questions, such as Should abortion be legal? And then thereare questions that can be answered to a degree of certainty by the applica-tion of the scientific method, which are called empirical questionsin otherwords, those that can be largely settled by the evidence. (Ivins, 2000)

Questions about human strengths, the benefits of positive emotions,growth in the face of stress and trauma, and the pursuit of happiness andflourishing turn out to be just such empirical questions. Scientific advancesin the field of positive psychology are now solid enough to interpret andtranslate into descriptions, explanations, and recommendations for thenonscientist. These four volumes about the best in people promises to bea landmark set, representing the most rigorous research and the currentstate of knowledge about positive psychology. Yet it is written in an

x FOREWORD

accessible and uplifting style, such that you may come away from readingthe chapters with a new perspective on yourself, on human nature, andperhaps even with a clear sense of how to change your life.

Sonja Lyubomirsky

REFERENCE

Ivins, M. (2000, September 22). The manufactured public schools crisis. The FortWorth Star Telegram.

xiFOREWORD

Preface

On my first bus ride to a new school I watched smiling kids hop onand interact with friends. As the new kid, I sat back quietly and watchedpeople play, laugh, and bounce around. The happiest of the lot was a girlnamed Deana; her whole face smiled. Deana fascinated me; she was socomfortable and joyful. I assumed that she was a very popular kid whoknew all the others on the bus; I was so wrong. She was also a new kid.And, unlike me, who had lived in the neighborhood for years but wasswitching to a different school, Deana was new to the town . . . and to thestate. How did Deana learn how to walk into a strange situation with con-fidence, and to beam? That is the kind of psychology that grabbed me.Decades later, that brand of psychology came to be known as positive psy-chology. That is what this set of books is about.

During my 10 years in college, I learned valuable knowledge and skillsneeded to relieve human suffering. I have found great satisfaction in mywork with people who are struggling with psychological disorders. Ilearned little about positive psychology, little about what cultivates thebest in people. I learned little about the Deanas of the world. I wantedyour educational experience to be different, more balanced, focusing onthe suffering and the flourishing of all people. In this four-volume set forPraeger Perspectives, Positive Psychology: Exploring the Best in People, youwill meet many Deanas and you will learn about positive psychology, thebest in people, how they use their strengths and emotions to make goodlives for themselves and those around them.

As editor, I asked some of the worlds best positive psychology schol-ars and practitioners to tell the story of their research and ideas aboutthe best in people. I encouraged each to write a chapter that his or herneighbors would want to read, rather than a chapter that colleaguesdown the hall would consider scholarly. The contributors did anamazing job of condensing their lifes work into accessible descriptionsand explanations of how people are strong, happy, and buoyant in good

times and in bad. As a team, we comment on the major discoveries ofpositive psychology, that strengths are real and potent and positive emo-tions are extremely valuable to human development, and demystify howpeople overcome adversity and become the best people they can be. Weshare the story of positive psychology research and practice in four dis-tinct yet related volumes:

Volume 1: Discovering Human StrengthsVolume 2: Capitalizing on Emotional ExperiencesVolume 3: Growing in the Face of AdversityVolume 4: Pursuing Human Flourishing

The real-world implications of positive psychology are communicated viaanecdotes and case studies. At the end of each chapter, personal mini-experiments encourage you to put positive psychological principles to thetest in daily life.

In Volume 1 (Discovering Human Strengths), we explore how humanstrengths are discovered, developed, and parlayed into successes in alldomains of life. In this volume, educators, psychologists, and philosophersdiscuss how we work to bring out the best in ourselves and in others. InVolume 2 (Capitalizing on Emotional Experiences), contributors tell thestory of some of the major psychology findings of the late 20th century,stemming from the study of positive emotions and how to make the mostof them. While you will recognize many of the concepts presented in thisvolume, such as gratitude and emotional intelligence, these chapters willtake you beyond a basic knowledge of positive emotional experiences andhelp you learn how to capitalize on them. Volume 3 (Growing in the Faceof Adversity) focuses on resilience, which has been attributed to the ordi-nary magic of the human spirit. In this volume you will be struck by aconsistent theme, individual growth during the hard times is a very socialprocess. Finally, in Volume 4 (Pursuing Human Flourishing) school psy-chologists, family experts, college administrators, and business gurusreview new work on how we can become successful and develop well-being at home, work, and school.

Positive psychology, the study of what is right with people, is reshapingthe scholarly and public views of the science and practice of psychologyand is shining a spotlight on the good in us all. I believe that Positive Psy-chology: Exploring the Best in People provides a comprehensive yet briefsummary of this area of scholarship and practice and an abundance ofexercises that we hope will pique your interest in strengths, positive emo-tions, resilience, and flourishing.

The experience of compiling and editing these chapters allowed me todiscover the best in colleagues who contributed to this set. I thank themwholeheartedly, and I am especially grateful to Jeff Rettew (managing edi-tor), Rhea Owens (assistant to the editor), Allison Rose Lopez (specialeditor), Neil Salkind (Studio B), and Elizabeth Potenza (Praeger) whogave life to this project.

xiv PREFACE

VOLUME 1: DISCOVERING HUMAN STRENGTHS

What would happen if we study the best in people? Donald Clifton,psychology professor and former chairperson of Gallup, posed this ques-tion and it has become incorporated into the mission of many positivepsychologists. Scholars responses to this question have led to the develop-ment of two measures of strengths that have been completed by over2 million people and, as a result, strengths development programs arebecoming commonplace in businesses, schools, and places of worship. Nodoubt you will be asked to take a strengths measure as part of a school orwork experience within 5 years of reading this volume.

In this volume we introduce you to the two measures of humanstrengths, the Clifton StrengthsFinder and the Values in Action Inventoryof Strengths, that have stood the test of psychometricians and laypersons.Rettew, Lopez, Bowers, and Cantwell make personal, philosophical, andevidence-based cases for why strengths matter. Sparks and Baumeisterextend their classic work on bad is stronger than good by consideringwhy we should focus on strengths to balance our weaknesses.

Three chapters in this volume explore the many benefits of specificstrengths, wisdom (Ardelt), courage (Pury), and optimism (Rasmussen andWallio). The chapters on wisdom and courage suggest that these strengths,among others, can be learned. The optimism chapter summarizes an exten-sive body of work which indicates that positive expectations for the futureand health go hand in hand.

The strengths of a historical figure, Martin Luther King Jr., are exam-ined via his writings. Rices chapter teaches us how to shine a light on thestrengths of the inspirational figures in our lives.

Finally, one of the most eminent psychologists in the 20th century,Albert Bandura, describes how we can give positive psychology away tothe world.

VOLUME 2: CAPITALIZING ON EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCES

Most people dont know how to respond to positive emotional experien-ces; they just do what feels natural. Until recently, social scientists and men-tal health practitioners knew much about managing negative emotions(e.g., anger, fear) and little about the how to make the most of positiveemotions (e.g., joy, contentment). Now, positive psychologists are begin-ning to demystify how people respond to emotional experiences in produc-tive ways. In this volume, we focus on the intrapersonal and interpersonalprocessing of positive emotions, the positive moral emotion of gratitude,the practice of giving, emotional intelligence, the new science of allophilia,and a new view of masculinity.

In the first chapter, Kok and colleagues explain the Broaden and BuildTheory of Positive Emotions. In short, positive emotions expand our per-sonal views of self and the world, help generate personal resources, andcreate an upward spiral of growth. The findings reviewed in this chapter

xvPREFACE

have enhanced much of our thinking about personal growth and humanflourishing.

Danner and colleagues highlight some of the findings from landmarkresearch known as the Nun Study. To pique your interest, the upshot isthat positive emotions, as reflected in autobiographical essays of youngwomen entering the convent, are related to living longer. Another exampleof a thin slice of personal data about positive emotions is shared by Impettand Gordon, close relationship researchers, who teach us how to capitalizeon positive experiences in the interpersonal context.

Benefits of thanking (Tsang and colleagues; Froh and Bono), giving(Dillard and colleagues), and being emotionally intelligent (David andEbrahimi) are described across four chapters. Little did we know thatthanking others and doing good could be so good for us.

Finally, two groups of researchers cover some brand new ground. Pit-tinsky and Maruskin introduce us to a new word, allophilia, and a newscience of interpersonal relations. Wong and Rochlen discuss the emotionalside of men and how attending to emotional experiences can transformmen and their relationships.

VOLUME 3: GROWING IN THE FACE OF ADVERSITY

Growing up in southern Louisiana you learn to respect the water andthe weather. In 2005, water and the weather joined forces in the form oftwo of the biggest and most destructive hurricanes ever, Katrina and Rita.Now, you have heard of Katrina; it nearly wiped out New Orleans. Youmay not remember Katrinas not so little sister, Rita, which hammered myhomeland, Acadiana. Two days after the storm, I was heading back hometo help my mother, who lost her house in the storm. I wasnt prepared forwhat I would experience, the worst and the best in people. And, I wasntsurprised by how quickly people were bouncing back. Rebuilding ofhomes and lives was happening on every corner. Two observations I madeduring my time down there are supported by the chapters in this volume.First, people can bounce back from just about anything, and they do soby being determined and hopeful. Second, bouncing back is a social phe-nomenon; we rarely, if ever, do it alone.

In this volume, Fazio and colleagues tell compelling stories about theirown growth through loss and adversity. They then provide a framework tohelp us think about how we move forward in our lives after experiencingthe worst of times.

Two chapters (Berman and colleagues; Zacchilli and colleagues) explainhow we deal with things we will all experience: romantic conflict and rela-tionship loss. Most folks will wish they had read the work of these close rela-tionship researchers before they started datingI wish I had. Forgiveness(according to Holter and colleagues), a matter of choice, could be incorpo-rated into attempts to deal with relationship struggles even at young ages.

A series of chapters address specific struggles and means for overcomingthem. Specifically, Wehmeyer and Shogren discuss how students with mildcognitive disabilities become self-determined learners. Aronson and Rogers

xvi PREFACE

describe the repercussions of stereotype threats and how to prevent orovercome them. Then, Ebberwein identifies a set of adaptive skills that willmake workers more flexible across the career span.

The final chapter, by Greenberg, taps into one of the oldest forms ofmaking meaning out of bad timesstorytelling. The robust positive effectsof emotional storytelling are described in compelling detail.

VOLUME 4: PURSUING HUMAN FLOURISHING

Imagine a ladder standing before you. The bottom rung is zero and thetop rung is ten. On which step of the ladder do you stand today? Onwhich step will you stand in 5 years?

Your responses to these questions, which have been used by pollstersand researchers for 50 years, tell us a great deal about your level of hopeand well-being. The mental image conjured up when thinking about yourlife in 5 years probably involves flourishing, or living a good life. Flourish-ing is the focus of this volume.

The first chapter, by Ambler, defines human flourishing as completemental health. In the presence of positive emotions and in the absence ofsymptoms of mental illness and distress, we move toward the top rung ofthe life ladder.

Two of the chapters (Kurtz and Lyubomirsky; Myers) consider the con-tributors to and sustainability of happiness. You may be surprised to learnthat genetics and money are part of the complex story about human hap-piness. Vansteenkiste and colleagues add to the discussion of pathways towell-being by examining the negative role of materialism in achieving thatstate.

Next, three chapters (Gilman and colleagues; Harter; Eagle) describehow exemplars do well (very well) in school and at work and are part offamilies that work, and one chapter (Kerr and Larson) tells the story ofhow smart girls develop into talented, high achieving women.

Finally, the last three chapters show how we can actively seek optimalhuman functioning by becoming leaders (Avolio and Wernsing), cultivat-ing civic engagement (Sherrod and Lauckhardt), and overcoming thedepressive symptoms (Rashid) that may be burdening us.

xviiPREFACE

CHAPTER 1

Discovering Your Strengths

Jeff G. Rettew and Shane J. Lopez

What are your strengths? When asked this question in casual conversa-tion, most people fumble for an answer. Indeed, survey research suggeststhat only about one third of people can readily name their own trait-likestrengths (Hill, 2001). Our hope in putting this chapter together is to pro-vide you, the reader, with the tools to improve those statistics, becausestrengths are good for you. Its true.

When asked about personal strengths at a job interview, most peoplerespond with some sort of forced, vague, and/or canned response that issomewhat awkward and incongruent. Even when folks know the questionis coming, they struggle with an answer. Most people think they knowwhat they are good at. They are usually wrong. More often, people knowwhat they are not good atand even then more people are wrong thanright (Drucker, 1999, p. 164). The awkwardness in responses to thisquestion perhaps can be explained by a cultural reluctance to boast aboutourselves, because many people are raised with modesty as an aspirationalvirtue. Conversely, in todays American culture, it is perfectly acceptable,and often encouraged, to focus on what one does not do well.

It is strange that employers even ask about strengths, as it appears theyhave a tendency to focus on weakness rather than build from strength(Buckingham & Clifton, 2001). This negativity bias (Seligman, 2002) issomewhat understandable when you consider humankinds seemingly hard-wired nature to focus on the negative in life. There are several theories asto why we have a tendency to focus on the negative. One such belief is thatfocusing on weaknesses or problems is an adaptive strategy. Throughoutour history, focusing on our weaknesses or on what goes wrong in situa-tions has promoted survival because what goes wrong has had dire

implications. In todays society, however, what we do not do as well, andthe problems we face on a daily basis have more mundane consequences.For example, if I am horribly incompetent at firing a bow and arrow, Iwould survive just as well as a world-class archer in todays society. In thepast, my poor bowmanship would have been a real barrier to procuringfood.

We get the most out of our lives when we build on our strengths. PeterDrucker, business professor and guru, made the following observation backin 1967, one cannot build on weakness. To achieve results, one has to useall the available strengths. These strengths are the true opportunities(p. 60). Donald Clifton, psychology professor and former chairperson ofGallup, echoed this sentiment, positing that the two most consistentlyprevalent assumptions of human naturethat anyone can learn to be com-petent at almost anything and that a persons areas of greatest potential forgrowth are in their areas of greatest weaknessare flawed (Clifton & Nel-son, 1992; Hodges & Clifton, 2004). When you are deploying your high-est strengths, you are more engaged, more productive, more successful,healthier, and happier; in short, youre at your best.

DEFINING AND MEASURING STRENGTHS

Knowing what a strength is will help you build a vocabulary for describ-ing the positive in people all around you. Discovering your strengths willchange the way you see yourself and interact with the world every day.Here we begin with a brief discussion of the historical definition of psycho-logical strength, follow with several of the most prevalent conceptualiza-tions, and conclude with various methods of discovering your strengths.

A strength is a capacity for feeling, thinking, and behaving in a way thatallows optimal functioning in the pursuit of valued outcomes (Linley &Harrington, 2006). This definition refers to the potentially broad benefitof strengths and yet does not suggest that strengths carry any inherentmoral value. This is arguably a pragmatic definition, capturing the phenom-ena likely of interest in the real world.

History of Strengths

Human strength has been discussed by classic Eastern and Western phi-losophers, but strengths have escaped intense focus from psychologistsuntil fairly recently. Interestingly, the discussion of strengths appeared inthe business literature forty years ago with the work of Drucker (1967) andsubsequently through the work of Gallup (e.g., Buckingham & Clifton,2001; Clifton & Anderson, 2002; Clifton & Nelson, 1992), as we will dis-cuss subsequently in this chapter. Now strengths are being examined andconceptualized as pieces of a larger, holistic understanding of positivehuman functioning rather than as isolated constructs, as they were in classi-cal philosophy. Indeed, we are moving toward a much fuller picture of posi-tive psychological functioning (Linley & Harrington, 2006).

2 DISCOVERING HUMAN STRENGTHS

The last decade has seen a bounty of fruitful work on the assessment ofhuman strengths. Two comprehensive measures of strengths are now avail-able online at minimal to no cost. One measure, the Clifton Strengths-Finder (Asplund, Lopez, Hodges, & Harter, 2007; Buckingham & Clifton,2001; Lopez, Hodges, & Harter, 2005), is based on a platform of 34 tal-ent themes that are prevalent in society and predictive of educational andvocational success. The other, the Values in Action Inventory of Strengths(Peterson & Seligman, 2004), is based on the belief that strengths are thelived manifestations of virtues and are associated with well-being; it meas-ures 24 character strengths.

The Clifton StrengthsFinder

The Clifton StrengthsFinder, one of the primary tools for strength iden-tification, discovery, and development, was designed by Donald Clifton andGallup. The development of the Clifton StrengthsFinder began when Clif-ton, who studied success across a wide variety of business and educationdomains over the span of 50 years (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001; Clifton& Anderson, 2002; Clifton & Nelson, 1992), hypothesized that talentscould be operationalized, studied, and accentuated in work and academicsettings. He viewed strengths as extensions of talent. More precisely, thestrength construct combines talent with associated knowledge, skills, andeffort and is defined as the ability to provide consistent, near-perfect per-formance in a specific task. Clifton identified personal talents using empiri-cally based, semi-structured interviews, which led to the creation of thisstructured measure of talent in the 1990s.

On the basis of earlier interview data, Clifton identified about 400 talentthemes, 34 of which are prevalent in society and generally associated withlife success (see Appendix A). The resulting Clifton StrengthsFinderpresents, in an online format (https://www.strengthsfinder.com), 178 itempairs designed to measure 34 talent themes (Asplund et al., 2007; Bucking-ham & Clifton, 2001; Lopez et al., 2005). It is appropriate for administra-tion with adolescents and adults with reading levels of 10th grade or higherand is available in 20 languages. Although it is used to identify personal tal-ents, the supporting materials are intended to help individuals discoverhow to build on their talents within particular life roles (e.g., Buckingham &Clifton, 2001; Clifton & Anderson, 2002; Clifton & Nelson, 1992).

The Clifton StrengthsFinder provides information on an individualsFive Signature Themes, that is, the five themes on which he or shescored highest. Remaining themes are not rank ordered or shared with theindividual. The Five Signature Themes are provided to foster intraperso-nal development. It should be noted, however, that this instrument is notdesigned or validated for use in employee selection or mental health screen-ing. In addition, the Clifton StrengthsFinder is not sensitive to change overtime. Your personal results may change slightly over time but will primarilyremain stable.

There is also a youth version of the Clifton StrengthsFinder, the CliftonYouth StrengthsExplorer (CYSE). Similar to the StrengthsFinder, the

3DISCOVERING YOUR STRENGTHS

CYSE is an online assessment that identifies areas in which a young per-sons greatest potential for building strengths exist and that provides youthwith the language to talk about their strengths. Gallups success with Inter-net-based assessments in conjunction with 30 years of experience with theYouth Perceiver (a structured interview consisting of 81 open-ended ques-tions) led to the CYSEs development. The new measure and the support-ing educational materials are appropriate for youth ages 1014 years(Lopez, Harter, Juszkiewicz, & Carr, 2006). The CYSE provides informa-tion about the respondents top 3 talent themes out of a set of 10 possiblethemes (see Appendix B). Giving youth positive labels and experiences ofsuccess encourages later successes as well as improved self-esteem and con-fidence. Giving prominence to human strengths by explicitly naming themsuggests to the person and to those in the surrounding environment thatthere is merit in this identified characteristic (Lopez et al., 2006).

Values in Action Inventory of Strengths

The Values in Action (VIA; Peterson & Seligman, 2004) Classificationof Strengths is intended to serve as the antithesis of psychiatrys Diagnosticand Statistical Manual (DSMIVTR; American Psychiatric Association,2000). Peterson and Seligman noted that we currently have a shared lan-guage for speaking about the negative side of psychology, but we have nosuch equivalent terminology for describing human strengths. The VIAClassification of Strengths was intended to provide such a language.

The VIA classification system, originally commissioned by the MayersonFoundation, was generated in response to two basic questions: (a) how canone define the concepts of strengths and highest potential and (b)how can one tell that a positive youth development program has succeededin meeting its goals (Peterson & Seligman, 2004, p. v). After reviewingdozens of inventories of virtues and strengths, Peterson, Seligman, and col-leagues arrived at a list of 24 strengths, organized under six overarching vir-tues (wisdom and knowledge, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, andtranscendence) thought to emerge consensually across cultures andthroughout time (p. 29). The measure of virtues and strengths, the VIAInventory of Strengths (VIA-IS), was designed to describe the individualdifferences of character strengths as continua rather than as distinct catego-ries. The current version of the VIA-IS is available online (http://www.ppc.sas.upenn.edu) and as a paper-and-pencil measure in English andseveral other languages. The 240 items take only about 30 minutes to com-plete. Despite the accumulating validity of the scales, users of these meas-ures are not to treat the results as more real than the traits and habits thatthe scales attempt to measure. Psychology has gone down that road withrespect to IQ scores and intelligence, and we should learn some lessonsfrom that tragic tale. So, if someone scores relatively low on the VIA scaleof kindness yet lives a life of obvious charity and benevolence, life trumpsthe scale. The discrepancy points to the less-than-perfect success of themeasure and not to anything about the individual. Feedback is often pro-vided to individuals about their top VIA strengths (see Appendix C for a


complete list of the 24 strengths), which is a convenient shorthand foridentifying what an individual may do well. However, the comparison is toother measured strengths of the individual and not to the strengths of otherpeople (Peterson, 2006).

There is also a youth version of the VIA-IS, the VIA Inventory ofStrengths for Youth (VIA-Youth), which is intended for use by people ages1017 years (Park & Peterson, 2005). Similar to the VIA-IS, it is a face-valid questionnaire that measures the extent to which respondents endorseitems reflecting each of the 24 VIA strengths.

Another method of utilizing the VIA classification to learn about yourstrengths is through the VIA Structured Interview, which helps individualsidentify signature strengths by talking with someone about situations inwhich these strengths are most likely to be shown (Peterson & Seligman,2004). The interviewer asks respondents how they usually act in a givensetting with regard to a particular character strength. Some strengths aremore specific than others in terms of their applicability across situations. Inthe case of more narrowly focused strengths, such as courage, the settingof the interview question is more detailed. For example, it would be diffi-cult to exhibit courage while driving to school or work. However, drivingto your first day of school or work in a new town where you dont knowanyone, and are not entirely sure of how to get there, takes courage. Forstrengths with a more varied array of deployment possibilities, such as opti-mism, the setting is presented as everyday life. If people describe an inci-dent in which they displayed the strength the majority of the time, they areasked follow-up questions about how they name the strength; if thestrength is really who they are; and whether friends and family wouldagree the strength is really who they are (Peterson, 2003).

Whether classification systems and measures focus on positive or on neg-ative traits and behaviors, their development has been influenced by the val-ues of society and the professionals who address these traits. As cultureschange over time, it is imperative that these tools be revised with regularityto maintain their applicability (Snyder & Lopez, 2007).

DISCOVERING YOUR STRENGTHS

Discovering your strengths is like stumbling across your living room inthe dark and then finally making it to the light switch. You can navigate theroom in the dark because you know where everything is and have walked theroute hundreds of times. However, you can do it much more efficiently withthe lights on to help you avoid any stray toys left on the floor or furnituremoved during vacuuming earlier that day. In the same way, discovering yourstrengths allows you to more efficiently navigate your everyday life. The lightsimply illuminates what you already knew was there, much like discoveringyour strengths sheds light on what you already knew about yourself.

The word discover, when used to describe the process of learning aboutand incorporating ones strengths, is apt terminology because it implies thepre-existence of the strengths, finding something that is already there inyou. The VIA-IS and Clifton StrengthsFinder do not create strengths or


invent these qualities in someone; instead, they reach beneath our aware-ness and give strengths a name. These tools provide the language withwhich to talk about strengths. We, as human beings, have a tremendous af-finity for labels. According to Snyder et al. (2003), labels simplify commu-nication and provide pathways to usefulness and understanding. By labelingsomething, we appear to be gaining an improved understanding of it.

Are you too old to discover your strengths? Are you too young? Even at2 years of age, children may show strengths such as kindness. Consider, forexample, the 15-month-old boy who decided to bring his own teddy bearto a crying friend so that the child might feel comfort (Hoffman, 1975). Infact, consistent individual differences in caring have been observed in veryyoung children. Dunn, Kendrick, and MacNamee (1981) reported that25% of 2- to 4-year-olds frequently comforted a younger sibling, whereas30% did so on occasion; the rest did so rarely. With the development of lan-guage, toddlers begin justifying their actions, and a preoccupation withfairness and justice becomes apparent (Eckerman, Davis, & Didow, 1989,as cited in Park & Peterson, 2006).

Alternative Ways to Discover Your Strengths

If completing an online measure is not your preferred way of learningyour strengths, another way to discover the best in you is through an activ-ity called a positive introduction. The positive introduction involves tellinga story about yourself at your best. The story should be about three hun-dred words and should be an in-depth account of a discrete period of time,including where you were, what you were doing, who you were with, whatsounds you heard, what you smelled, etc. Then, review the story and pickout different strengths that seem to emerge. Once you have done that,write a second story and repeat the process. Look for common strengthsthat show up in both stories. Here is an example of a positive introduction(Peterson, 2006). See if you can pick out some of the VIA characterstrengths exhibited.

November 7, 2004. After eighteen weeks of dogged training, I stand withmy legs quivering like Jell-O, my feet throbbing and bleeding, and my heartabout to beat through my chest, in the valley between the greatest physicaland emotional mountains of my young life.

With a 26.2 mile jog spanning all five boroughs of New York City in myrearview mirror, I focus now on holding back the tsunami of saline swellingup in my eyes and swallowing the gigantic orange lodged in my throat; allthe while rehearsing the lines in my head. A volunteer removes the clip frommy sneaker while another places a medal around my neck. I make my wayover to the baggage truck to collect my personal effects, and then search formy cheering section.

I hear my mom before I see her, her trademark cheer etched into mybrain from all of my soccer and baseball games when I was younger. I hugmy brother, best friend, aunt, and on down the line, thanking them all fortheir support. Then, while giving my dad a great big bear hug, my momslips the hardware to me behind his back. I take a deep breath, turn, and


with the blueberry-colored velveteen box in hand, crash to one knee. Look-ing up at her, I see the roaring river of tears come streaming down bothsides of her face. After several fumbling attempts to remove my promisefrom the box, I slide the ring onto her delicate trembling finger. I couldnthave done this without you, and I never want to have to do anything bymyself ever again. Will you marry me?

The positive introduction does not have to describe a momentousachievement such as running a marathon or proposing marriage. It can beas simple as basking in the warm glow of the fading summer sun, sur-rounded by close friends. Perhaps it is a story about the time you nailedthat group presentation in English class or when you got a role in theschool play.

For those with great patience and a long view on personal development,Drucker (1999) describes the process of feedback analysis for discoveringones strengths. Feedback analysis is a method dating back to German the-ologians in the fourteenth century, then to John Calvin, father of Calvin-ism, and to Ignatius Loyola, the founder of the Jesuit order. Each came bythe process independently and incorporated it into the rules governing eachof their group members (i.e., Calvinist pastors and Jesuit priests). Druckerattributes each groups tremendous and rapid success to a reliance on thefeedback analysis model. Within 30 years of their respective inceptions, Cal-vinism dominated the Protestant northern section of Europe, and the Jes-uit Order prevailed over the Catholic south. The routine feedback fromexpectations to results, reaffirming their commitment and allowing them tofocus on achievement and satisfaction, is the advantage feedback analysisconferred on the Calvinists and Jesuits (Drucker 1999).

To engage in feedback analysis, proceed as follows. Whenever you makea key decision or take an important action, write down what you believethe results of your actions will be. Then, approximately one year later, com-pare the expected versus actual results and reflect on how you (and yourstrengths) influenced meaningful outcomes. When practiced consistentlyover several years, feedback analysis will show you exactly where yourstrengths lie. In addition, it will also highlight what you are doing or arefailing to do that inhibits reaching the full potential of your strengths. Fur-thermore, it will also show you the areas in which you are not competentand should refrain from performing. The main drawback to feedback analy-sis, as may be obvious, is that it takes a considerable period of time, approx-imately 2 to 3 years of consistent adherence to the method to determineyour strengths, according to Drucker (1999).

Another way of discovering and enhancing strengths is the StrengthsStrategies Primer (which can be completed alone or in conjunction with anonline measure) developed by Lopez and Berg (2006). The StrengthsStrategies Primer involves pairing a guided imagery session, focused onusing strengths to achieve a goal, with an interactive dialogue about theguided imagery experience and a skills enhancement piece. The primerbuilds on the goals, pathways, and agency components of hope theory(Snyder, 2002) to identify and cultivate strengths.


WHAT STRENGTHS LOOK LIKE IN REAL LIFE

As positive psychologists, we have committed ourselves to the discoveryand development of the positive in others and, of course, we try to practicewhat we preach. We have identified our strengths through formal andinformal assessment and try to capitalize on our strengths every day. Peopleoften describe their strengths-discovery process as an epiphany or as a sud-den awareness and sense of clarity. Sometimes it is easier to show than totell; such is the intent of this next section. We describe our personal jour-neys of strength discovery. Here is a brief account of how one of us (JGR)discovered his strengths and how he uses them in daily life.

The Case of Jeff

I first discovered my VIA signature strengths (hope, optimism andfuture-mindedness; humor and playfulness; honesty, authenticity, and genu-ineness; capacity to love and to be loved; citizenship, teamwork, and loy-alty) when I began a research assistantship on a joint project betweenSwarthmore College and the University of Pennsylvania implementing andevaluating a character education curriculum for ninth graders. A significantportion of the curriculum focused on the discovery and cultivation ofstrengths. Consequently, part of my training as a new research assistant wasto read Martin Seligmans Authentic Happiness and take the VIA-IS online.As I completed the survey, I stared at the computer screen and thought,Thats all well and good, but what do I do now? Discovery is only thefirst step on the strengths journey. I have since seen the amazing benefit ofliving an intentional life, building from strength.

The timing of my signature strength discovery was impeccable. I pro-posed to my wife shortly thereafter (an exercise in capacity to love and beloved; honesty, authenticity, and genuineness; hope, optimism, and future-mindedness) and was then knee deep in wedding planning (she said yes), aprime opportunity to take the rest of my signature strengths for a testdrive. It was a perfect storm of strengths: I was focused on planning anevent for the future, which was designed to celebrate an intense connectionwith someone; the planning process was a team effort; my well-timedhumor and playfulness helped keep the two of us sane when things got toointense; and we were always honest with each other about any decision thatneeded to be made.

Intentionally leaning on my signature strengths made the whole prenup-tial experience quite engaging and exciting. Whenever people asked mehow the wedding planning was going, they were always shocked when Itold them how seamlessly everything was coming together and how muchwe were enjoying it. Now that the wedding is over, I have found otherways to deploy my strengths. To engage both my capacity to love and tobe loved and my hope, optimism, and future-mindedness, I coordinatelarge weekend gatherings of my friends and family who are strewn acrossthe country, so that we can all enjoy one anothers company and reminisce.Humor and playfulness has been especially helpful for me as a teaching


assistant working with college freshman. Working in a joke or an activitykeeps the discussions fresh and the students minds engaged.

My strengths are my fuel. Whenever I feel drained from a long week, Illpurposefully seek out a way to use one of my top strengths. A trustystandby activity is to think about upcoming holidays and start planning aget-together. Ill send out some e-mails and get the ball rolling. After 10 to15 minutes of that, I am ready to dive back in to whatever else needs myattention.

As I have learned what it feels like to use a high strength, I have begunto notice other strengths that are also salient with me, such as awe, wonder,and appreciation of beauty and excellence. There is a certain energy I getfrom a beautiful sunset, a blooming flower, or a walk in the park. I neverthought of this feeling as a strength until I realized that my reaction tothese things was different and powerful. I keep an orchid in my officewhere I see clients because it helps keep me at my best.

The Case of Shane

When I (SJL) received the results of the Clifton StrengthsFinder and theVIA inventory, I reflected on the findings and tried to figure out how Icould put them to immediate use. Then, I realized that I have been usingthese strengths everyday that is why they are my strengths! Nevertheless,I decided that I would be more intentional in my efforts to make mystrengths come alive. That goal of intentionality addressed how I wouldcapitalize on my strengths, but I hadnt addressed the why. It turns out,however, that the why was pretty simpleI wanted to make my goodlife even better. That was the outcome I desired, and I thought that thesenew strengths would provide pathways to that goal.

Admittedly, my initial efforts to intentionally use my strengths every daywere clumsy and not that successful. Although I thought the findings wereaccurate and I was excited to receive the strengths feedback, I was over-whelmed by how to refine my use of five or ten strengths at the same time.For that reason, I decided to capitalize on the strengths that I thoughtwould help me the most in making my life better. I chose the top twothemes (futuristic and maximizer) from the Gallup feedback and the topstrength (gratitude) from the VIA results. Right away, focusing on threestrengths seemed doable.

With those three strengths that matter most (as I began to refer tothem) in hand, I consulted the action items associated with my futuristicand maximizer themes. For futuristic, I settled on one daily activity thatmight spark my tendency to project into the future: Take time to thinkabout the future. Pretty straightforward, but reading this action itemmade me realize that I would go for considerable time without thinkingabout the future and this led to dissatisfaction with how my life was going.Putting this guidance into action has involved taking daily walks dedicatedto thinking about the future. Often these happen in the evening, and I chatwith my wife about the future of our work and of our family. At othertimes, I leave the office around midday and walk through the campus


reflecting on some of my aspirations. These walks have turned into a cher-ished time that yields exciting ideas and considerable satisfaction.

Regarding my maximizer theme, I believe this talent of making goodideas, projects, and relationships better contributes greatly to my success atwork. Through examining my habits at home and work, I realized I wasdoing a fairly good job of systematically using this strength. This left mefeeling unsure about how to proceed in my efforts to capitalize on thisstrength. Then one day I encountered a person who prided herself on play-ing the devils advocate every time an idea was presented during a meet-ing. I thought about the many devils advocates whom I have encounteredover the years, and I concluded that these people were not necessarily pro-viding constructive feedback that made a good idea better. They also werenot offering alternative ideas that would work better. In my opinion, allthey were doing was undercutting my creativity and enthusiasm (or that ofother people). To maximize, I realized that I had to surround myselfwith people who knew how to make good ideas better. That criterion hasbecome a critical one when I select friends, colleagues, and students, and Ibelieve it has boosted my creativity and the quality of my work.

I have used futuristic and maximizing themes both at work and at homeand I think my efforts helped me in both domains. I believe that capitaliz-ing on these strengths have led to more creativity and productivity at workand greater sense of purpose for my family and me. Using gratitude (mythird strength that matters most) with more intentionality has not gen-erated more productivity or greater clarity in my personal mission, but ithas been rewarding in that it brings joy and a sense of closeness to people.To make the most of my gratitude, I decided to spend part of most Fridayafternoons writing thank-you notes (handwritten and mailed the old fash-ioned way) to people who have touched my life that week, and at othertimes I thank people who had done something nice for me that week.Occasionally, I write to a person who had done a good deed for me yearsago (and I had never thanked them or I wanted to thank them again).Finally, I also write to people that have done good works (I may or maynot know them personally) to express my gratitude for their efforts. Thispractice has enriched my emotional life and it has strengthened many of myrelationships.

By focusing on three of my strengths I have been successful at makingan already good life even better. Over time I have become more facile atcapitalizing on other strengths, particularly ideation, hope, and wisdom.Living my strengths has become a way of life for me, and I look forward tofinding out how this will influence the futures of my loved ones and me.

DECIDING WHAT TO DO WITH YOUR STRENGTHS

Wanting the Strengths You Have

Many times people get hung up on not wanting what they have when itcomes to strengths. Again, this goes back to the negativity bias we dis-cussed previously. As human beings we are hard wired to focus on what has


gone wrong, even when we are being presented with what we do best.Someone tells you the stuff you do better than anything else, and you wantto lament the things that did not make the cut. Dont be discouraged ifyou have this experience upon discovering your highest strengths. Rather,consider the real potential of your highest strengths. What would it looklike to really immerse yourself in them, how would it feel to swim in thatpool.

Connecting and Distinguishing Power of Strengths

Discovering your strengths gives you the tools to both distinguish your-self from other people and connect with them. Know that your constella-tion of strengths is different, that not everyone thinks or acts the way youdo, particularly when it comes to what you do best. This kind of unique-ness is different from simply saying youre different and special becausenow you have the proof to back it up. Having the knowledge about yourstrengths, as well as the strengths that people have the potential to possess,allows another level on which to connect with others. Certain strengthshave an affinity for one another and certain combinations seem to comple-ment one another quite nicely. For example, maximizers (see Appendix A)tend to be good managers because they thrive on getting the most frompeople. They are particularly effective when paired with achievers, who areconstantly engaged by being productive.

More on How to Develop Your Strengths

Strengths Mentoring (SM; Lopez, Tree, Bowers, & Burns, 2004, 2006)is a student development strategy designed to capitalize on the commonfactors of change and to boost academic self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977),hope (Snyder, 1994), and personal growth initiative (Robitschek, 1998).SM, a three-session approach, promotes the use of strengths, as measuredby the Clifton StrengthsFinder, in students daily lives. Over the course ofSM, trained mentors and student mentees identify salient academic goalsthat could be attained in a semester. The mentor helps mentees movethrough three stages of strengths development (naming, nurturing, andnavigating). During this first session, the mentor develops academic goals,helps the mentee understand the StrengthsFinder feedback and how itrelates to school-related goals, and helps incorporate the five Strengths-Finder talent themes into personal descriptions. Session 1 ends withStrengths imagery (see Appendix D). For homework, mentees share theirfeedback with people close to them and craft stories about how theirstrengths are used. In the nurturing session, mentees create a catalog ofcritical events that have been, or could be, resolved through use ofstrengths or doing what you do best. Nurturing homework involvescompleting additional storytelling exercises about using strengths to attaingoals. During the last session (navigating), mentees create pathways toresolve academic challenges or overcome real or perceived obstacles to aca-demic success. Finally, the mentor and mentee discuss success experiences


associated with using strengths and concerns about future strengths-devel-opment and academic pursuits.

WIIFMWhats in It for Me?

More good days. More good minutes. More good moments. Discover-ing your strengths is just one small step on the path to increased life satis-faction and subjective well-being. Seligman (2002) talks about deploymentof strengths as an essential component to increasing positive emotion,engagement, and well-being. The more you use your strengths, the morepositive experiences you will have. Seligman also talks about how usingyour strengths in the service of something larger than yourself (school,church, community) leads to an increased sense of meaning, purpose,engagement, and connection.

Discovering your strengths isnt just a means for making you happier.Gallup did some research on employee engagement in the workplace andfound that people who report having the opportunity to do what they dobest every day have a 44% higher probability of success on customerengagement and employee retention, and a 38% higher probability of suc-cess on productivity measures. These differences in probability of successcan amount to millions of dollars to any large organization (Harter &Schmidt, 2002). In addition, studies show that a strengths-based develop-ment intervention increases self-confidence, direction, hope, and altruism(Hodges & Clifton, 2004).

CONCLUSION

Strengths are part of human nature, but only recently have we developedthe tools to discover them, the language to talk about them, and theresearch to explain just how powerful they really are. Discovering yourstrengths is a singular, unique experience, like looking in the mirror andhaving your reflection talk back to you. The next time youre in a job inter-view and someone asks you to tell them about your strengths, youll havethe knowledge and language to tell them exactly what your strengths areand how you use them every day. Moreover, youll actually enjoy going towork because you only accept jobs that would allow you to capitalize onyour strengths. You wont have to live weekend to weekend. Every day is anew canvas on which to paint your strengths. Use bold colors.

PERSONALMINI-EXPERIMENTS

Discovering Your Strengths

Testing the Negativity Bias: Give yourself 60 seconds to write down allthe things you do well in one column, and all the things you do poorly inanother. Which list is longer? Why?

Discovering Your Strengths: In just over 1 hour, you can identify yoursignature strengths by completing the Values in ActionInventory of


Strengths assessment (http://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu) online.This inventory is discussed in the chapter, and it is a wonderful (and scien-tific) tool to learn more about yourself.

Reviewing Your Last Performance Evaluation: Think about the lasttime you got back a test from a teacher or a report from a boss or were eval-uated in any way. If you have access to that feedback, go and get it. Then, goback over it and take notice of what types of feedback you received. Did yourteacher only mark the places where you lost points or made a grammaticalerror? Did your boss praise the things you did well or refer to areas of defi-ciency? More often than not, we are taught to focus on the negative becausethat is the only type of feedback we get on our performance. Think aboutwhat it would be like to focus on what you did well and then expand on thatin future performance. The next time you give someone feedback, stop andthink about focusing on what they did well in addition to pointing out theirshortcomings.

Family Tree of Strengths: Have the rest of your family complete the VIA-IS (or VIA-Youth) or the Clifton StrengthsFinder (or CYSE) and then createa family tree, complete with each family members signature strengths orthemes of highest talent. Look for strengths that you have in common andthat complement one another.

APPENDIX A

The Thirty-Four Clifton StrengthsFinder Themes

Achiever: People strong in the achiever theme have a great deal of stam-ina and work hard. They take great satisfaction from being busy and pro-ductive.

Activator: People strong in the activator theme can make things happenby turning thoughts into action. They are often impatient.

Adaptability: People strong in the adaptability theme prefer to gowith the flow. They tend to be now people who take things as theycome and discover the future one day at a time.

Analytical: People strong in the analytical theme search for reasons andcauses. They have the ability think about all the factors that might affect asituation.

Arranger: People strong in the arranger theme can organize, but they alsohave a flexibility that complements that ability. They like to figure out how allof the pieces and resources can be arranged for maximum productivity.

Belief: People strong in the belief theme have certain core values that areunchanging. Out of those values emerges a defined purpose for their life.

Command: People strong in the command theme have presence. Theycan take control of a situation and make decisions.

Communication: People strong in the communication theme generallyfind it easy to put their thoughts into words. They are good conversational-ists and presenters.

Competition: People strong in the competition theme measure theirprogress against the performance of others. They strive to win first placeand revel in contests.


Connectedness: People strong in connectedness theme have faith inlinks between all things. They believe there are few coincidences and thatalmost every event has a reason.

Consistency: People strong in the consistency theme are keenly awareof the need to treat people the same. They try to treat everyone in theworld with consistency by setting up clear rules and adhering to them.

Context: People strong in the context theme enjoy thinking about thepast. They understand the present by researching its history.

Deliberative: People strong in the deliberative theme are best character-ized by the serious care they take in making decisions or choices. Theyanticipate the obstacles.

Developer: People strong in the developer theme recognize and culti-vate the potential in others. They spot the signs of each small improvementand derive satisfaction from those improvements.

Discipline: People strong in the discipline theme enjoy routine andstructure. Their world is best described by the order they create.

Empathy: People strong in the empathy theme can sense the feelingsof other people by imagining themselves in others lives and in otherssituations.

Focus: People strong in the focus theme can take a direction, followthrough, and make the corrections necessary to stay on track.

Futuristic: People strong in the futuristic theme are inspired by thefuture and what could be. They inspire others with their vision of the future.

Harmony: People strong in the harmony theme look for consensus.They dont enjoy conflict; rather, they seek areas of agreement.

Ideation: People strong in the ideation theme are fascinated by ideas.They are able to find connections between seemingly disparate phenom-ena.

Includer: People strong in the includer theme are accepting of others.They show awareness of those who feel left out and make efforts to includethem.

Individualization: People strong in the individualization theme areintrigued with the unique qualities of each person. They have a gift forfiguring out how people who are different can work together produc-tively.

Intellection: People strong in the intellection theme are characterizedby their intellectual activity. They are introspective and appreciate intellec-tual discussions.

Input: People strong in the input theme have a craving to know more.Often they like to collect and archive all kinds of information.

Learner: People strong in the learner theme have a great desire to learnand want to improve continuously.

Maximizer: People strong in the maximizer theme focus on strengths asa way to stimulate professional and group excellence. They seek to trans-form strong into something superb.

Positivity: People strong in the positivity theme have an enthusiasm thatis contagious. They are upbeat and can get others excited about what theyare going to do.


Relator: People who are strong in the relator theme enjoy close rela-tionships with others. They find deep satisfaction in working hard withfriends to achieve a goal.

Responsibility: People strong in the responsibility theme take psycho-logical ownership of what they say they will do. They are committed to sta-ble values such as honesty and loyalty.

Restorative: People strong in the restorative theme are adept at dealingwith problems. They are good at figuring out what is wrong and resolving it.

Self-assurance: People strong in the self-assurance theme feel confidentin their ability to manage their own lives. They possess an inner compassthat gives them confidence that their decisions are right.

Significance: People strong in the significance theme want to be veryimportant in the eyes of others. They are independent and want to be rec-ognized.

Strategic: People strong in the strategic theme create alternative ways toproceed. Faced with any given scenario, they can quickly spot the relevantpatterns and issues.

Woo: Woo stands for winning others over. People strong in the wootheme love the challenge of meeting new people and winning them over.They derive satisfaction from breaking the ice and making a connectionwith another person.

APPENDIX B

The 10 Talent Themes of the Clifton Youth StrengthsExplorer

Achieving: Youths especially talented in the achieving theme like to ac-complish things and have a great deal of energy.

Caring: Youths especially talented in the caring theme enjoy helpingothers.

Competing: Youths especially talented in the competing theme enjoymeasuring their performance against that of others and have a great desireto win.

Confidence: Youths especially talented in the confidence theme believein themselves and their ability to be successful in their endeavors.

Dependability: Youths especially talented in the dependability themekeep their promises and show a high level of responsibility.

Discoverer: Youths especially talented in the discoverer theme tend tobe very curious and like to ask Why? and How?

Future Thinker: Youths especially talented in the future thinker themetend to think about whats possible beyond the present time, even beyondtheir lifetime.

Organizer: Youths especially talented in the organizer theme are goodat scheduling, planning, and organizing.

Presence: Youths especially talented in the presence theme like to tellstories and be at the center of attention.

Relating: Youths especially talented in the relating theme are good atestablishing meaningful friendships and maintaining them.


APPENDIX C

VIA Classification of Strengths and Virtues

1. Wisdom and Knowledgecognitive strengths that entail the acquisi-tion and use of knowledge

s Creativity [originality, ingenuity]: Thinking of novel and productiveways to conceptualize and do things; includes artistic achievementbut is not limited to it

s Curiosity [interest, novelty-seeking, openness to experience]: Takingan interest in ongoing experience for its own sake; finding subjectsand topics fascinating; exploring and discovering

s Open-mindedness [judgment, critical thinking]: Thinking thingsthrough and examining them from all sides; not jumping to conclu-sions; being able to change ones mind in light of evidence; weigh-ing all evidence fairly

s Love of learning: Mastering new skills, topics, and bodies of knowl-edge, whether on ones own or formally; obviously related to thestrength of curiosity but goes beyond it to describe the tendency toadd systematically to what one knows

s Perspective [wisdom]: Being able to provide wise counsel to others;having ways of looking at the world that make sense to oneself andto other people

2. Courageemotional strengths that involve the exercise of will to ac-complish goals in the face of opposition, external or internal

s Bravery [valor]: Not shrinking from threat, challenge, difficulty, orpain; speaking up for what is right even if there is opposition; actingon convictions even if unpopular; includes physical bravery but isnot limited to it

s Persistence [perseverance, industriousness]: Finishing what onestarts; persisting in a course of action in spite of obstacles; gettingit out the door; taking pleasure in completing tasks

s Integrity [authenticity, honesty]: Speaking the truth but morebroadly presenting oneself in a genuine way and acting in a sincereway; being without pretense; taking responsibility for ones feelingsand actions

s Vitality [zest, enthusiasm, vigor, energy]: Approaching life withexcitement and energy; not doing things halfway or halfheartedly;living life as an adventure; feeling alive and activated

3. Humanityinterpersonal strengths that involve tending and befriend-ing others

s Love: Valuing close relations with others, in particular those inwhich sharing and caring are reciprocated; being close to people


s Kindness [generosity, nurturance, care, compassion, altruistic love,niceness]: Doing favors and good deeds for others; helping them;taking care of them

s Social intelligence [emotional intelligence, personal intelligence]:Being aware of the motives and feelings of other people and oneself;knowing what to do to fit into different social situations; knowingwhat makes other people tick

4. Justicecivic strengths that underlie healthy community life

s Citizenship [social responsibility, loyalty, teamwork]: Working wellas a member of a group or team; being loyal to the group; doingones share

s Fairness: Treating all people the same according to notions of fair-ness and justice; not letting personal feelings bias decisions aboutothers; giving everyone a fair chance

s Leadership: Encouraging a group of which one is a member to getthings done and at the same time maintain good relations withinthe group; organizing group activities and seeing that they happen

5. Temperancestrengths that protect against excess

s Forgiveness and mercy: Forgiving those who have done wrong;accepting the shortcomings of others; giving people a secondchance; not being vengeful

s Humility/Modesty: Letting ones accomplishments speak for them-selves; not regarding oneself as more special than one is

s Prudence: Being careful about ones choices; not taking undue risks;not saying or doing things that might later be regretted

s Self-regulation [self-control]: Regulating what one feels and does;being disciplined; controlling ones appetites and emotions

6. Transcendencestrengths that forge connections to the larger uni-verse and provide meaning

s Appreciation of beauty and excellence [awe, wonder, elevation]:Noticing and appreciating beauty, excellence, and/or skilled per-formance in various domains of life, from nature to art to mathe-matics to science to everyday experience

s Gratitude: Being aware of and thankful for the good things thathappen; taking time to express thanks

s Hope [optimism, future-mindedness, future orientation]: Expectingthe best in the future and working to achieve it; believing that agood future is something that can be brought about

s Humor [playfulness]: Liking to laugh and tease; bringing smiles toother people; seeing the light side; making (not necessarily telling) jokes

s Spirituality [religiousness, faith, purpose]: Having coherent beliefsabout the higher purpose and meaning of the universe; knowing


where one fits within the larger scheme; having beliefs about themeaning of life that shape conduct and provide comfort

APPENDIX D

A Strengths Strategies Primer (Lopez & Berg, 2006)

Part A: Strengths ImageryId like you to relax in your chair, recline or lean back if you like, and close

your eyes if you want to. First, I ask that you pay attention to the instructionsthat follow. I invite you to think about a time when you wanted to achievesomething important to you a time when you felt really motivated atime when you utilized your strengths for getting to your goal. Sometimespeople find it helpful to close their eyes in order to see the images moreclearly. Have you thought of a time like this? A time when you felt hopefulthat you could achieve something important to you something that moti-vated you something that you had the strengths to achieve. (Long pause.)You might notice how driven you felt how empowered you mightremember times when you wanted to give up but didnt you kept goingbecause of your commitment your desire instead, you might haveworked harder you may have tried a different strength for dealing with thehard times you might have broken your goal down into steps with eachstep you achieved making you feel more energized more empowered more confident you may have noticed how you focused on the goal adjusting the goal based on what was happening so that you knew thatyour goal was challenging difficult but achievable knowing that onceyou achieved your goal you would feel confident motivated proud ofyourself knowing that you have everything that it takes the motivation the ability to utilize multiple strengths the ability to set challenging goals and achieve them everything that it takes to be successful with futuregoals. Take a moment to absorb all of these thoughts and then open youreyes (if eyes are closed). (VERY SLOWAND DELIBERATE.)

Part B: Interactive DialogueWhat situation did you think of?Why was this goal so important to you?How did you maintain your motivation when things got difficult?How did you decide how you were going to utilize your strengths toachieve your goal?How did achieving this goal make you feel?How did these experiences help you to prepare for the future?What did you learn from this experience that will help you on the task?

Part C: Skills EnhancementId like to share with you some things that we have found through

extensive research that enhance ones ability to reach goals. There are threemain components necessary to reach your goals. One is your ability to setgoals. Here are some strategies for setting goals:


. First, set goals that will be difficult but achievable. Be sure to set goalsthat are in line with your expectations, not the expectations of others.

. Second, be specific about your goals; define them objectively.

. And third, take time in setting your goals and allow yourself to adjustyour goals once you have experiences to guide you.

The second component is your ability to utilize multiple strengths asstrategies to reach your goals. Here are some ways to improve this skill:

. First, think about the steps involved in reaching your goal.

. Second, think about the different strengths that you could utilize toreach the goal.

. And third, in your mind, rehearse what you will need to do during thepursuit of your goal to be successful in reaching it. Also, anticipate theproblems you might have in reaching your goal and the personalstrengths you can use to overcome the problems.

The third component is the motivation to reach your goals. Here aresome ways to increase motivation:

. First, think about the process of reaching your goal as a journey. Antici-pating roadblocks that you might face may be helpful in reminding youthat when you start to feel discouraged, it is a signal that you mustincrease your motivation and work harder.

. Second, as you work toward your goal, remind yourself of how far youhave come and think positively about your progress toward the goal.Think about similar challenging situations where you were able to over-come the situation.

. And last, using positive self-talk like I can do it, Keep going, andI am doing really well tends to be helpful.

Which of these do you think you are particularly good at?Which of these do you think you could stand improvement on?Berg, C. (2006). The effectiveness of a hope intervention for coping with

cold pressor pain. Unpublished dissertation, University of Kansas, Law-rence.

Adopted from: Snyder, C. R., Tran, T., Schroeder, L. L., Pulvers, K. M.,Adams, V., & Laub, L. (2000). Teaching the hope recipe: Setting goals,finding pathways to those goals, and getting motivated. Reaching TodaysYouth, 4(4), 4650.

Adopted from: Snyder, C. R. (1994). The psychology of hope: You can getthere from here. New York: Free Press.

REFERENCES

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual ofmental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

Asplund, J., Lopez, S. J., Hodges, T., & Harter, J. (2007, February). The CliftonStrengthsFinder 2.0 technical report: Development and validation. Princeton,NJ: Gallup.


Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.Psychological Review, 84, 191215.

Berg, C. (2006). The effectiveness of a hope intervention for coping with cold pressorpain. Unpublished dissertation, University of Kansas, Lawrence.

Buckingham, M., & Clifton, D. O. (2001). Now, discover your strengths. NewYork: Free Press.

Clifton, D. O., & Anderson, E. (2002). Strengthsquest: Discover and develop yourstrengths in academics, career, on beyond. New York: Gallup Press.

Clifton, D. O., & Nelson, P. (1992). Soar with your strengths. New York: Dela-corte Press.

Drucker, P. F. (1967). The effective executive. New York: HarperCollins.Drucker, P. F. (1999). Management challenges for the 21st century. New York:

HarperCollins.Dunn, J. F., Kendrick, C., & MacNamee, R. (1981). The reaction of children to

the birth of a sibling: Mothers reports. Journal of Child Psychology and Psy-chiatry, 22, 118.

Harter, J., & Schmidt, F. L. (2002). Employee engagement and business-unit per-formance. Psychologist-Manager Journal, 4, 215224.

Hill, J. (2001, April). How well do we know our strengths? Paper presented at theBritish Psychological Society Centenary Conference, Glasgow, Scotland.

Hodges, T. D., & Clifton, D. O. (2004). Strengths-based development in practice.In A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology in practice(pp. 256268). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Hoffman, M. L. (1975). Developmental synthesis of affect and cognition and itsimplications for altruistic motivation. Developmental Psychology, 11, 607622.

Linley, P. A., & Harrington, S. (2006). Strengths coaching: A potential-guidedapproach to coaching psychology. International Coaching Psychology Review,1(1), 3746.

Lopez, S. J., & Berg, C. (2006). Strengths Strategies Primer. Lawrence: Universityof Kansas.

Lopez, S. J., Harter, J., Juszkiewicz, P., & Carr, J. (2006, October). Clifton YouthStrengthsExplorer technical report: Development and initial validation.Princeton, NJ: The Gallup Organization.

Lopez, S. J., Hodges, T., & Harter, J. (2005). Technical report: Development andvalidation of the Clifton StrengthsFinder. Princeton, NJ: The Gallup Organi-zation.

Lopez, S. J., Tree, H., Bowers, K., & Burns, M. E. (2004). KU Strengths Mentor-ing Protocol. Unpublished mentoring protocol, University of Kansas, Law-rence.

Lopez, S. J., Tree, H., Bowers, K., & Burns, M. E. (2006, October). Positive psy-chology on campus: Discovering students strengths. In S. J. Lopez (Chair),Positive psychology on campus. Symposium presented at the 5th Gallup Inter-national Positive Psychology Summit, Washington, DC.

Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). The Values in Action Inventory of CharacterStrengths for Youth. In K. A. Moore and L. H. Lippman (Eds.), What dochildren need to flourish: Conceptualizing and measuring indicators of posi-tive development. The Search Institute series on developmentally attentive com-munity and society (pp. 1323). New York: Springer Science.

Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2006). Character strengths and happiness among chil-dren: Content analysis of parental descriptions. Journal of Happiness Studies,7, 323341.


Peterson, C. (2003). Values in Action Structured Interview of Strengths (VIA-SI).Cincinnati, OH: Values in Action Institute.

Peterson, C. (2006). A primer in positive psychology. New York: Oxford UniversityPress.

Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: Ahandbook and classification. New York: Oxford University Press.

Robitschek, C. (1998). Personal growth initiative: The construct and its measure.Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 30, 183198.

Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology torealize your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York: Free Press.

Snyder, C. R. (1994). The psychology of hope: You can get there from here. New York:Free Press.

Snyder, C. R. (2002). Hope theory: Rainbows of the mind. Psychological Inquiry,13, 249275.

Snyder, C. R., Lopez, S. J., Edwards, L. M., Pedrotti, J. T., Prosser, E. C., LarueWalton, S., et al. (2003). Measuring and labeling the positive and the nega-tive. Positive psychological assessment: A handbook of models and measures (pp.2140). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Snyder, C. R., & Lopez, S. J. (Eds.). 2007. Positive psychology: The scientific andpractical explorations of human strengths. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publica-tions.


CHAPTER 2

Making the Most of HumanStrengths

Kelly Bowers

Take a moment and answer these questions: What are your strengths?What are your weaknesses? If you were to sit down and create a list ofboth, which list would be easier for you to do? Which list would be longer,the list of your strengths or the list of your weaknesses? It seems to me thatas a society, we focus almost exclusively on weaknesses and deficits. Withinmy field of psychology, in particular, our theories historically have beenrooted in weakness, with a preoccupation with repairing the worst things inlife (Seligman, 2002). The literature is inundated with language associatedwith weakness. We say someone is depressed or anxious or worse, psy-chotic. We talk about how someone lacks social support or has poor socialskills or loose boundaries. We are for all practical purposes a science andpractice focused on weakness. Many psychologists, me included, argue thatby only focusing on weaknesses, psychologists have perpetuated a helpingprocess that is out of balance (Lopez & Snyder, 2003). The positive psy-chology initiative, which began a few years ago, serves as a shift within psy-chology from a sole focus on weaknesses to a more comprehensiveperspective, including positive characteristics of individuals and environ-ments (e.g., home, school, companies). Simply stated, positive psychologyseeks to help the whole person, examining and promoting strengths andmanaging deficits, maintaining that human strengths are as real as humanweaknesses.

Think back to when you were very young and things didnt seem as seri-ous or overwhelming. Didnt you gravitate toward things you were goodat? For some, it was athletics or being competitive and working on a team;for others, it was art or seeing things abstractly and finding beauty inthings. What were you good at, what did you enjoy doing? Growing up, I

found that my parents encouraged me to participate in activities in which Iexcelled: being empathic, meeting new people, organizing others, and mak-ing lists. Although I was certainly aware that I had areas of weakness, theseweaknesses were not emphasized to the degree that my strengths were. Asan adult, I have often reflected on these experiences. I have wondered howpeople learn what they are good at and what they do with that information.In my profession, I have witnessed many instances in which an individualsunderstanding of what he or she is good at has created positive change inthat individuals life. It is not surprising, then, that the idea of individualstrengths and their application has become my lifes passion. Fortunately,the study of individual strengths is now a growing interest area within thefield of positive psychology as well as within business and leadership devel-opment. This chapter focuses on the definition of a strength, the benefitsof using strengths, and some ways in which individuals might capitalize ontheir personal strengths.

STRENGTHS: WHAT THEY ARE AND HOW TO FIND THEM

When determining the definition of strengths, Donald Clifton, one ofthe foremost scholars in this area, conducted research based on one simplequestion: What would happen if we studied what is right with people?(Lopez, Hodges, & Harter, 2005). Clifton believed that talents could beoperationalized or defined and investigated. In an attempt to better under-stand this concept, Gallup conducted a systematic study, interviewing overtwo million people in a variety of professions about their strengths. Theseindividuals were the best of the best in their respective lines of work.The goal of these semistructured interviews was to gain information fromexcellent performers regarding what they were doing (Buckingham & Clif-ton, 2001). It was through these interviews that the anatomy of a strengthbecame evident.

According to Tom Rath (2007), Cliftons grandson, a strength is con-sistent and near-perfect performance on an activity. This definition is com-prised of three factors: talents or naturally recurring patterns of thought,feeling, or behavior; knowledge, which consists of facts and lessons learned;and skills, or the steps of an activity. These combine to create yourstrengths. Additionally, two principles are embedded in this definition ofstrengths. First, for a cluster of activities to be labeled as a strength, theymust be performed consistently; that is, the strength is a predictable part ofan individuals performance. Second, the strength does not need to bepresent in all aspects of an individuals life in order for the individual toexcel. Embedded in this definition is the assumption that by maximizingon strengths, an individual will excel. In StrengthsFinder 2.0, Rath (2007)provided an equation for strengths: namely, talent (the natural way ofthinking, feeling or behaving) multiplied by investment (or the time spentdeveloping skills) equals strength (see Figure 2.1).

According to Rath, focusing solely on weaknesses is not as effective assharpening strengths. So, a question you might ask yourself is this: Whenyou get your report card, which grades are you (or your friends/family)


likely to focus on, those that are considered below average and that mayillustrate your weaknesses, or those that are above average and may illus-trate your strengths? Often our society focuses on weaknesses to the exclu-sion of strengths. According to strength research, examining or sharpeningour strengths may be more beneficial.

A common language is needed to describe talents; there is already a richand varied language for human weakness. Terms such as psychosis, depres-sion, and schizophrenia hold meaningful differences among both professio-nals and nonexperts. Language of human strength, however, is sparse.Instead of specific and meaningful terms, generalizations that fail to conveyuniversal significance are utilized. For example, people skills may meandifferent things to different people and hold varying connotations depend-ing on the person possessing that strength. The development of a commonlanguage would aide in the understanding of strengths.

With the understanding of strengths comes a set of personal benefits.These benefits may take a variety of forms but typically are linked to well-being. For example, research indicates that high levels of hope (a universalstrength) are related to better performances in academics and athletics aswell as to superior therapy and physical health outcomes. Additionally, theuniversal strength of social connectedness has been linked to lower mortal-ity rates, increased resistance to communicable diseases, and faster recoveryfrom surgery (Snyder & Lopez, 2002).

IDENTIFICATION OF STRENGTHS

With the knowledge that strengths are a part of understanding the bestin people, psychologists have begun attempts at generating systems to iden-tify strengths. One such identification system, the Clifton StrengthsFinder(Clifton, Anderson, & Schreiner, 2004; Rath, 2007), was developed byGallup. The purpose of the Internet-based Clifton StrengthsFinder is toassist individuals in identifying their personal talents as a means to increasepersonal and career successes through utilization of strengths. The Clifton

Figure 2.1. The Strengths Formula

25MAKING THE MOST OF HUMAN STRENGTHS

StrengthsFinder attempts to simulate real-world, spontaneous reactions tosituations by providing the respondent with pairs of statements that theymust respond to by choosing one statement over the other within a 20-secondtime limit (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001). The Clifton StrengthsFinder thensorts the statements and reflects the most dominant patterns of behaviors o

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