Pompey in the Contio - Van Der Blom - ArT

8/10/2019 Pompey in the Contio - Van Der Blom - ArT

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v a n d e r B lo m , H . (2011)Pompey in the contio. C la s si ca l Q u a r te r ly, 61

(2). pp. 5535!3. "##$ 000%&3&&

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2

POMPEY IN THE CONTIO

Huius oratio ut semper gravis et grata in contionibus fuit 9is speec as serious and

pleasin', as it alays is in suc assem*lies ...1 Ciceros praise o/ ompeys elo:uence in

te contio as 'enerally impressive sould *e read as part o/ is 'lori/ication o/ is

most prominent supporter in te attempts to recall Cicero /rom e;ile. ;/ord, 2006). Ciceros comment re/ers to a contio on % or 10 ?uly 5! B.C.

2@or te role o/ te contio in 7oman politics, see, amon' oters @.8.B. Aillar, The Crowd in

Rome in the Late Republic (-nn -r*or, 1%%&) H. Aouritsen,Plebs and Politics in the Late

Roman Republic (Cam*rid'e, 2001) 7. AorsteinAar;,Mass ratory and Political Power

in the Late Roman Republic (Cam*rid'e, 200) =.?. HDlesamp, 9>ratoris ma;ima scaena

7eden vor dem Eol in der politiscen =ultur der 7epu*li3, in A. ?ene (ed.),!emo"ratie

in Rom# !ie Rolle des $ol"es in der Politi" der r%mischen Republi", Historia inFelscri/t %6


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3

(#tutt'art, 1%%5), 11% G =.?. HDlesamp, Senatus Populus&ue Romanus. !ie politische


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ompey s o ratorical sills are only rarely discussed in te ancient sources and modern

scolarsip, partly as a result o/ te mea're and scattered nature o/ te evidence.3

"ndeed, e

ave no secure ver*atim :uotations /rom ompey s speeces.


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" intend to so tat ompey s contional per/ormances ere caracterised *y is sill in sel/

praise, is e;ploitation o/ popular sentiments and is noled'e o/ is dependence on te

peoples /avour in te contio. Len speain', is e;pressions ere o/ten politically va'ue,

/rom coice rater tan lac o/ a*ility, and is ole career illustrates is pre/erence /or and

masterin' o/ a noncommittal tactic. >nly en it as e;pedient, or e as provoed, did e

e;press imsel/ directly sometimes even arsly. ompey advanced is career less trou'

purely oratorical sills, and more trou' is popularity it te people (om e nurtured

in te contio), stemmin' /rom is military acievements, and trou' is sred political

talent /or noin' en to spea and at to say and, in particular, en not to spea and

at not to say.

TESTIMONIA TO POMPEYS ORATORY

8eneral testimonia to ompey s oratory are /e and o/ten intermin'led it descriptions o/

is caracter or comparisons it is collea'ue and rival A. Kicinius Crassus. ese

testimonia sin'le out ompey s am*ition as te drivin' /orce *eind is career, cast is

speeces as particularly elo:uent en depictin' is on military e;ploits and empasise is

reliance on is auctoritas, *ut tey also criticise is resortin' to 'ostritin' and retorical

e;ercises *eyond is early career. Cicero, in is istory o/ te 7oman orators, te rutus

/rom 6 B.C., is te /irst to assess ompey s talents

Aeus autem ae:ualis Cn. ompeius vir ad omnia summa natus maiorem dicendi 'loriam

a*uisset, nisi eum maioris 'loriae cupiditas ad *ellicas laudes a*stra;isset. rat oratione

satis amplus, rem prudenter vide*at actio vero eius a*e*at et in voce ma'num splendorem

et in motu summam di'nitatem.


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9Ay contemporary, 8naeus ompeius, a man destined to e;cellence in all /ields, ould ave

reaced a 'reater reputation /or elo:uence i/ am*ition /or even 'reater 'lory ad not diverted

im toards te priFes o/ a military career. His manner o/ speain' as su//iciently ample

and e ad a 'ood ud'ement in perceivin' te :uestion at and *ut is delivery as mainly

impressive trou' is /ine voice and te 'reat di'nity o/ is *earin'.5

Ciceros evaluation covers te main elements incorporated in most descriptions o/ ompey,

/irstly, ompey s insatia*le am*ition /or poer and 'lory, ic made im pursue a military

career and try to outsine any possi*le rival, and, secondly, te perception tat ompey s

oratory as *uilt mainly on is understandin' o/ te political 'ame and is natural and

toerin' dignitas rater tan on *rilliant oratorical sills. Ciceros description is not overly

positive in terms o/ ompey s spe ain' poers en compared to te description o/ oter

orators in terutus.

Ciceros conclusions are o/ten repeated in te oter ancient sources. -utors suc as Caesar,

#allust, Kucan, #eneca, lutarc and 4io descri*e ompey s am*ition as overpoerin' all

oter considerations,6

and some detail o ompey e;uded a natural auctoritas and dignitas,!

*ut #eneca also e;plains o syness made ompey *lus en speain' in pu*lic.&

is

5

Cic.rut. 23%.

6Caes. . Civ. 1.. #all. Hist. 2.1&, 2.20 it . Ac8usin, Sallust/ the Histories 1

(>;/ord, 1%%2) ad loc. Kuc. 1.1256 #en. Marc. 1.3 0p. %.65 lut. Caes. 2&.1 Pomp.

53.! 4io 36.2.6, 1.5.1.

!#all.Hist. 2.1! Eel. at. 2.2%.2 Eal. Aa;. 6.2. lut.Pomp. 2.1 Crass. !..

en. 0p. 11.. Ac8usin (n. 6), 1%3 maes te comparison *eteen #eneca s

caracterisation o/ ompey and tat o/ #allust (Hist. 2.1!), partly derived /rom Earro and


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timidity, com*ined it ompey s tendency never to relay openly is tou'ts and ises

and not to commit to any particular viepoint,%

may ave detracted /rom is natural dignitas

and 'iven te impression o/ a less accomplised speaer. Ealerius Aa;imus certainly ar'ues

tat ompey s tactic o/ eepin' a strai't /ace in spite o/ te accusations urled at im

alloed im to *ecome an o*ect o/ ridicule, despite is 'reat auctoritas.10

Ealerius presents

tis o*servation as a 'eneral trait o/ ompey s pu*lic appearance, and e;empli/ies it it

ompey s (possi*le) de/ence o/ Aanilius Crispus in 6% or 6& B.C., ere, apparently, te

prosecutor Cn. iso countered ompeys toerin' auctoritas it te accusation tat

ompey intended to start a civil ar.11 Ho /ar e can rely on te datin' o/ te court case or

te precise e;can'es *eteen iso and ompey is uncertain. ;/ord, 1%!6), 1&2%, esp. 1&%%0.

%Cic. *tt. .1.!, .%.1 -am.1.1.3, 1.2.3, 1.5*.2, &.1.3, &.. 2 -r. 2.2.3, 3.6. Eal. Aa;.

6.2. 4io 36.2.5.

10Eal. Aa;. 6.2.. #ee also Eal. Aa;. 1.6.12 it te comment o/ 4. Lardle, $alerius

Ma3imus. Memorable !eeds and Sayings. oo" ) (>;/ord, 1%%&), 20! 9$o uman *ein' is

credited it influence (auctoritas) more tan ompey.

11@or te :uestion o/ ompeys possi*le de/ence and te identity o/ Cn. iso, see .#. 8ruen,

9ompey and te isones,(Californian Studies in) Classical *nti&uity 1 (1%6&), 155!0, at

16062. #ee also Helvius Aancias attac on ompey in 55 B.C. (Eal. Aa;. 6.2.&) it te

discussion o/ tis incident in C..L. #teel, Cicero4 Rhetoric4 and 0mpire, (>;/ord, 2001),

16!.


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a means to counter, is 'reat auctoritas and tere/ore serves to i'li't te possi*ility tat

ompey s noncommittal tactic could ave ne'ative repercussions.

Eelleius aterculus too pics up on ompey s am*ition. "n is almost pane'yrical

presentation o/ ompey,12

e lists ompey s e;ceptional purity (innocentia) o/ li/e, is

upri'tness o/ caracter (sanctitate praecipuus), is moderate oratorical talent (elo&uentia

medius), is military sills as a 'eneral, is loyalty in /riendsips and is almost /aultless

caracter e;cept is unillin'ness to see any*ody is e:ual in dignitas.13Eelleiusevaluation

o/ ompey s oratorical sills as only moderate stic out as a not very positive /eature in is

oterise e;tremely /latterin' portrait. e source /or Eelleius port rait o/ ompey is

unnon, *ut it as *een su''ested tat te in/ormation derives /rom one or more

pane'yrists or *io'rapers o/ ompey ose ors are no lost. Le no tat various

autors rote praisin' accounts o/ ompey s military acievements, and tey may also ave

included te element o/ oratory, ic Eelleius could ten ave piced up.1

12A. le/ante, $elleius Paterculus/ *d M. $inicium consulem libri duo (Hildeseim, MNric

J $e tacilius itolaus, ompey s teacer o/ retoric, rote a*out ompey in te

#ocial Lar Cic. -lacc. 2& #uet. Rhet. 3 it 7.-. =aster, C. Suetonius Tran&uillus/ !e

,rammaticis et Rhetoribus (>;/ord, 1%%5), comm. ad loc. osidonius rote a*out ompey s

e;ploits #tra*. 11.1.6. eopanes even received 7oman citiFensip, as did is ometon

Aytilene, /rom ompey as a tan you /or is pane'yric o/ ompey Cic. *rch. 2 Eal.

Aa;. &.1.3 Eel. at. 2.1&.1 lut. Pomp. 2 c/. #tra*o 11.5.1, 13.2.3. Kater autors o/ te

imperial a'e o/ten used ompey as a istorical e;ample e ave already seen te evaluation

o/ ompey s am*ition presented *y Kucan, #eneca, lutarc and 4io. Le may detect a si/t


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Contrast acitus posit ive impression o/ ompeys oratorical sills. "n is !ialogus de

oratoribus, te interlocutor Aaternus ar'ues tat in te 7epu*lic elo:uence as considered a

necessity /or success in te popular assem*lies, te senate and in te la courts.15

He

illustrates tis vie it a /e e;amples o/ 7epu*lican orators, includin' ompey. "t is

noteorty o positively Aaternus re'ards ompeys oratory, in contrast it Ciceros and

Eelleiusud'ements

nescio an venerint in manus vestras aec vetera, :uae et in anti:uariorum *i*liotecis aduc

manent et cum ma;ime a Auciano contrauntur, ac iam undecim ut opinor, -ctorum li*ris et

tri*us pistularum composita et edita sunt. e; is intelle'i potest Cn. ompeium et A.

Crassum non viri*us modo et armis, sed in'enio :uo:ue et oratione valuisse Kentulos et

Aetellos et Kucullos et Curiones et ceteram procerum manum multum in is studiis operae

curae:ue posuisse, nec :uem:uam illis tempori*us ma'nam potentiam sine ali:ua elo:uentia

consecutum.

9eraps you ave ad in your ands tose ancient records, ic are still ept in te

li*raries o/ collections and ic are ust no *ein' compiled *y Aucianus and tey ave

already *een arran'ed and edited in eleven volumes, " *elieve, o/ 7ecords and tree volumes

in te presentation o/ ompey *e/ore and a/ter is deat, possi*ly inspired *y Ciceros *rie/

o*ituary note (Cic. *tt. 11.6.5) ic sets up a dicotomy *eteen ompey s destructive

political am*ition and is admira*le personal morality. #ee also 8ri//in (n. &), 1&%%0 on

#eneca s presentation.

15@or discussion o/ acitusvie o/ oratory in tis or, see L. 4omini, 9acitus and

liny on >ratory,in L. 4omini J ?. Hall (edd.),* Companion to Roman Rhetoric

(>;/ord, 200!), 3233&.


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o/ Ketters. @rom tese it can *e understood tat Cn. ompeius and A. Crassus ere poer/ul

not only trou' manly virtues and military means, *ut also trou' teir talented oratory

tat te Kentuli and te Aetelli and te Kuculli and te Curios and te 'reat 'roup o/ all oter

leadin' men devoted e//ort and care to tese studies, and tat in teir day no one acieved

'reat in/luence itout some de'ree o/ elo:uence.16

Here, e see te traditional pairin' o/ ompey and Crassus, ic seems to ave *een a

/eature already in teir on day and later underlined /urter *y lutarc.1!

is passa'e

/ollos immediately upon a passa'e a*out te necessity o/ oratory /or political success in te

repu*lic, and it is particularly curious tat acitus, or, strictly speain', Aaternus, as cosen

ompey and Crassus to e;empli/y tis idea en, /or e;ample, Cicero or Caesar ould ave

*een muc more o*vious coices. 4id acitus simply ant to insert a re/erence to Aucianus

collections o/ ancient records to add credi*ility to is vie pointI1&

4id e indeed /ind

ompey and Crassus te *est e;amples o/ oratorical sill *y contrast to CiceroI >r as it

*ecause ompey and Crassus ere more non /or teir military acievements and

tere/ore, in 0acitusvie, *etter illustrated te notion tat oratorical talent must ave played

a part too in teir political successI e latter possi*ility seems more liely i/ even ompey

and Crassus could *e presented as 'ood orators, ten acitus (o r, strictly, Aaternus)

ar'ument a*out te centrality o/ oratory *ecomes inescapa*le. "/ so, teir prominence ere is

not surprisin', *ut peraps, /or te same reason, 'ives us little indication a*out teir real

levels o/ oratorical sill. -lso lutarc, in is comparison *eteen te to politicians,

16ac.!ial. 3!.23.

1!Cic.-in. 2.5! Tusc. 1.12 lut.Pomp. 22.1, 23.3 Crass. !.3, !..

1&Aucianus imsel/ as a very accomplised orator ac.Hist. 2.5.1, 2.!6& it 7. -s,

Tacitus Histories oo" )) (Cam*rid'e, 200!), 2&3.


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empasises o tey ere considered similarly 'i/ted in terms o/ di'nity, persuasiveness o/

speec and innin' 'race o/ appearance.1%

is su''ests tat ompey and Crassus could

ave *een considered accomplised speaers, at least *y posterity, *ut muc more certainly

tat te lon'term rivals ere endoed it te same level o/ elo:uence, ic a'ain made

tem use/ul e3empla /or acitus in is!ialogus.

Quintilian 'ives us a /urter clue to ompey s elo:uence. "n a capter on te necessity o/

speain' accordin' to te circumstances, e relates tat tere is a ind o/ oratory ic

*ecomes 'reat men only, namely te speec 'iven *y 'enerals in teir our o/ triump.

ompey s e;ample is put /orard as particularly illustrative o/ tis ind o/ oratory *ecause e

as e;traordinarily elo:uent in te description o/ is on e;ploits (abunde disertus rerum

suarum narrator).20

7ater tan praisin' ompey s elo:uence in 'eneral, tis passa'e seems

to su''est tat e as never more articulate tan en praisin' is on victories. "ndeed,

oter sources attest to ompey s *oasts o/ is military acievements as a su*stantial part o/

is pu*lic per/ormances.21

Le sall see e;amples o/ tis in te analysis o/ ompey s

contional per/ormances in te ne;t section.

1%lut.Pomp. !.1.

20Quint. 11.1.36.

21

lin. 1H !.%% >ros. 6.6. lut. Pomp. 5.1 te speec put in ompey s mout *y 4io

36.256 re/lects tis sel/praise too. C/. Eal. Aa;. &.1.3 on ompeys citiFensip to

eopanes o ad cronicled is military successes. >n te di//iculties inerent in

praisin' onesel/, see 7.=. 8i*son, 9liny and te -rt o/ ("n)o//ensive #el/raise,

*rethusa

36 (2003), 2355, ose conclusion could *e said to /it ompey s case too, even i/ te

conte;t as di//erent 9raise o/ te sel/ is a ey mecanism /or e;ercisin' control in advance


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over te reception o/ your deeds *y society.(25)


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Le no very little o/ ompey s retorical education or trainin', apart /rom te name o/

ompey s teacer in retoric, Aanius >tacilius itolaus.22

Quintilian and #uetonius allo us

'limpses into ompey s attempts to stren'ten is per/ormances trou' te elp o/ 'ost

riters and retorical e;ercises. "n is treatment o/ deli*erative oratory, Quintilian as a

curious note on -mpius Bal*us, om ompey de/ended in 55 B.C. +nder te topic o/

impersonation (prosopopoeia), Quintilian e;plains te di//iculty o/ te tas te speaer as

to *e a*le to on one occasion to impersonate Caesar, ile at oter occasions act as Cicero or

Cato.


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e ritin' o/ speeces /or oters to deliver as common in 8reece, ere suc 'ost

riters or lo'o'rapers o/ten made a livin' /rom tis service. -s /ar as e no, te

penomenon as muc less common in 7ome, *ut #uetonius records tat K. -elius #tilo

rote speeces /or all te nobiles in te %0s B.C., includin' Q. #ervilius Caepio, C. -urelius

Cotta, Q. Caecilius Aetellus, and Q. ompeius 7u/us.2

e /act tat alle'ations o/ deliverin'

a speec ritten *y some*ody else could *e used to criticise an orator, su''ests tat te

7omans looed don upon suc activity.25

"ndeed, -eliuscustomers appear to ave tried to

conceal -elius'ostritin' on teir *eal/.26 =ennedy su''ests tat te 7omans distrusted

suc activity *ecause it as commercial, lacin' in etos or simply *ecause it as 8ree.2!

"n any case, Cicero s speecritin' on *eal/ o/ ompey and -mpius Bal*us as not

uni:ue, as e no o/ oter suc instances.2&

e disonour o/ deliverin' speeces ritten

2#uet. ,ram. 3 it Cic. rut. 16%, 205! providin' te names o/ #tilo s customers. #ee

=aster (n. 1), !5! /or comment on tis passa'e. @or te ole :uestion o/ speecritin'

on *eal/ o/ oters, see 8. =ennedy, 9e 7etoric o/ -dvocacy in 8reece and 7ome,*5P

&% (1%6&), 1%36, at 2!&, n. 12 and, sorter, =ennedy (n. 3), 1213 it n. 1.

25Cic.rut. %%100 #uet.Rhet. 2 G 26 in =aster (n. 1) it commentary at 2%56.

26=aster (n. 1), !56.

2!

=ennedy (n. 2), 2!&, n. 12.2&

Cicero rote a /uneral speec to *e delivered *y te /ater o/ #erranus (Cic. 2 -r. 3.6.5,

$ovem*er 5 B.C.), and one /or Cato s sister orcia to *e delivered *y er son 4omitius or

*y Brutus (Cic. *tt. 13.&.2 13.3!.3, -u'ust 5 B.C.). 4.7. #acleton Bailey, Cicero/

0pistulae ad 2uintum -ratrem et M. rutum (Cam*rid'e, 1%&0) commentary ad loc. ar'ues

tat #erranus, te son o/ K. 4omitius -eno*ar*us, as adopted *y an -tilius #erranus,

pro*a*ly te adoptive /ater o/ #e;. -tilius #erranus 8avianus, te tri*une o/ 5! B.C.


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*y some*ody else and te resultin' attempts to ide suc instances is liely to ave led to te

scarcity o/ evidence.2%Quintilians report is, oever, evidence o/ Cicero actin' as ompey s

and -mpius Bal*usspeecriter. is passa'e does not prove tat Cicero rote a speec

/or -mpius to *e delivered at is trial in 55 B.C., it could ust as ell ave *een /or anoter

occasion. But te lin *eteen ompey and ompey s loyal supporter as to named

recipients o/ Ciceros oratorical elp is noteorty and pro*a*ly not accidental. "t is, in /act,

most liely tat suc acts o/ speecritin' too place durin' te latter al/ o/ te 50s B.C.,

en Cicero ad to su*ordinate imsel/ to ompey s ises. @urtermore, tis passa'e

su''ests tat ompey anted to stren'ten is on oratorical per/ormances it Ciceros

ellnon *rilliance as e peraps less con/ident in is on a*ilities or did e simply

ant to mae is on speeces as poer/ul as possi*leI

-noter clue to ompey s attempts to /orti/y is per/ormances is provided *y #uetonius. He

in/orms us in is or on te 'rammarians and retoricians tat 9certain istorians report

tat ompey, on te very eve o/ civil ar, reneed is a*it o/ declamation practices so as to

#acleton Bailey tins tat te /ater speain' as 4omitius, and not #erranus o may

ave *een dead already. Len -tticus encoura'ed Cicero to compose a speec /or Brutus

sortly a/ter te murder o/ Caesar, Cicero declined on te 'rounds tat Brutus, as most poets

or orators, ould pre/er is on version (Cic. *tt. 1.20.3). -s @. ina olo, Contra *rma

$erbis. !er Redner vor dem $ol" in der sp6ten r%mischen Republi" (#tutt'art, 1%%6), 2!

notes, Ciceros reason /or not ritin' a speec /or Brutus as not etical, ic supports te

impression tat ritin' speeces /or oters as not an uncommon activity.

2%#ee ac.*nn. 13.3 /or an e;ample o/ suc disonour in imperial times $ero deliverin' te

/uneral oration, ritten *y #eneca, over Claudius.


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*etter con/ront te tri*une Curio s elo:uent support o/ Caesar.30 ompey as not te only

active politician to tae up retorical e;ercises Cicero tau't te /uture consuls Hirtius and

ansa a/ter Caesars murder, Aarcus -ntonius received elp it is speeces in te autumn

o/ B.C., and Cicero imsel/ continually ept up is practicin'.31


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ave elped im retain a persona o/ military 'randeur itout contamination /rom mundane

political issues and :uarrels. Len speain', e at times *oosted is per/ormance it

Ciceros 'ostritin' or declamation practices. is su''ests a lac o/ sel/con/idence, i/

not necessarily a lac o/ actual sill, in is oratorical talents.

POMPEYS CONTIONAL PERFORMANCES

e :uestion is eter tese 'eneral statements concur it at e no o/ speci/ic

occasions at ic ompey spoe, especially in te contio. "n tis section, e sall see

e;empli/ied te testimonia re'ardin' ompey s sill in speain' o/ is on accomplisments

and e;ploitation o/ is popularity it te people. His noncommittal strate'y ill also *e

i'li'ted and son to ave *een e;pressed in *ot ords and action.


18/49

declared tat e ould restore te poers o/ te tri*unes. is as 'enerally ell received *y

te people, *ut en e declared tat e ould tacle te pro*lem o/ te corruption o/ te

courts, te people *roe out in souts o/ approval.3

ere is no dou*t tat ompey s /i rst

speec in te popular assem*ly as a 'reat success, and #allust says tat ompey s intention

it tis speec as to in'ratiate imsel/ it te people, so tat e could use it as a political

instrument in te /uture.35

e :uestion is eter tis popularity as due to ompey s

oratorical sills as suc or rater te /act tat e as a success/ul 'eneral promotin' a

popular political vie. ersuasion consists, o/ course, partly in addressin' te concerns o/ te

audience and as /ar as possi*le main' it appear tat one is sympatetic and illin' to elp.

>n te oter and, it as *y no 'enerally reco'nised, also in te senate (c/. Catulusreply

to ompey as reported *y Cicero), tat sometin' ad to *e done re'ardin' te tri*unician

poers and te courts.36

ompey s promise to te people as tere/ore *ot popular and

politically sa/e. "t ould not ave needed a very silled orator to put tis messa'e across in a

success/ul ay, and Cicero does not report anytin' on ompeys per/ormance to su''est

tat it stood out /or its oratorical :ualities.

#imilarly popular as ompey s pu*lic announcement o/ is discar'e o/ militaryimperium

ust *e/ore commencin' is consulsip on te /irst o/ ?anuary !0 B.C. is leads lutarc to

3 Cic. $err. 1.5 #all. Hist. .3%0 it . Ac8usin, Sallust/ the Histories 2 (>;/ord,

1%%) comment ad loc. seudoasconius ad Cic. $err. 1.5 (. #tan'l, Ciceronis orationum

scholiastiae (Hildeseim, 1%6), 220) lut.Pomp. 21. -pp.C 1.121. #ee AorsteinAar;

(n. 2), 121 /or te retorical ar'ument o/ te contio e;pressin' te ill o/ te populus, as

used *y Cicero.

35

#all.Hist. .2 it Ac8usin (n. 3) comment ad loc.36

#ee /urter 8ruen (n. 3), 25&, 35.


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conclude tat ompey s consular collea'ue, Crassus, ad more in/luence in te senate, ile

ompey as te darlin' o/ te people, is popularity reacin' a clima; at is layin' don is

military imperium as a ind o/ spectacle o//ered to te people.3!

ompey certainly ne o

to *an on is /ame, and, as Quintilian remared, ompey as no more elo:uent tan en

*oastin' o/ is on accomplisments.

ompey is liely to ave continued to sin' is on praises at pu*lic assem*lies in te

/olloin' years. His command a'ainst te pirates in 6! B.C. may also ave *een secured

partly trou' an address in te contio and certainly trou' ompey s popularity it te

people. e violent opposition to te *ill in te senate as countered *y Caesar alone,

lutarc tells us, *ecause e anted to *oost is on credentials it te people *y *acin' a

popular cause.3&

#allust and 4io /urtermore in/orm us tat ompey imsel/, 8a*inius and

3!lut. Pomp. 21., 22.3. "t is unclear /rom lutarcs account eter tis announcement

as made at te same time as te promise o/ tri*unician re/orm or in a separate speec. @.

ina olo, Las Contiones Civiles y Militares en Roma (Mara'oFa, 1%&%) does not list

ompey s announcement in is -ppendices, tere*y su''estin' tat it as made to'eter

it te promise o/ tri*unician re/orm.

3&lut.Pomp. 25.3. lutarc may ave transposed Caesars *acin' o/ te Aanilian proposal

te /olloin' year to te 8a*inian proposal 8ruen (n. 3), &0, n. 12 7. #ea'er, Pompey. *

Political iography (>;/ord, 1%!%), 33, n. % >.4. Latins, 9Caesar solusI #enatorial

#upport /or te Le3 ,abinia, Historia 36 (1%&!), 1201. @urtermore, lutarcs

ordin' su''ests tat te opposition to te *ill as only amon' i'ranin' senators,

openin' up te possi*ility tat Caesars support as oined *y oter loranin' senators.

#enators speain' a'ainst ere, amon'st oters, te consul C. Calpurnius iso and te

consular Q. Hortensius Hortalus (lut. Pomp. 25 Cic. Leg. Man. 52) *ut e no notin'


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o/ te content o/ teir


21/49


22/49

ompey /amously mana'ed to su*due te pirates and, a/terards, de/eat Aitridates, and is

remara*le military successes ere praised in literature and oratory.1

"n return /or

immortalisin' is deeds, ompey *estoed te citiFensip on te istorian eopanes and

is ometon o/ Aytilene, and made sure to pu*licise is 'i/t and tere/ore is military

e;ploits in a speec 'iven in a military assem*ly in 62 B.C.2

#peain' o/ is on successes

as, as e no no, one o/ ompey s specialities.

But ompey s elo:uence as to *e tested /or te /irst time at is /irst pu*lic speec upon is

return /rom te ast. Cicero reports /rom te contio in circus @laminius in early 61 B.C.,

'ivin' us /urter indications o/ ompey s evasive tactic

rima contio ompei :ualis /uisset scripsi ad te antea non iucunda miseris, inanis impro*is,

*eatis non 'rata, *onis non 'ravis. ita:ue /ri'e*at. tum isonis consulis impulsu levissimus

tri*unus pl. @u/ius in contionem producit ompeium. res a'e*antur in circo @laminio, et erat

in eo ipso loco illo die nundinarum . :uaesivit e; eo placeretne ei iudices a

praetore le'i, :uo consilio idem praetor uteretur. id autem erat de Clodiana reli'ione a*

senatu constitutum. (2) tum ompeius locutus est senatus:ue

auctoritatem si*i omni*us in re*us ma;imi videri semper:ue visam esse respondit, et id

multis ver*is.

1Cic.-lacc. 2& #uet.Rhet. 3 (Aanius >tacilius itolaus on te #ocial Lar) it =aster s

(n. 1) comm. ad loc. #tra*. 11.1.6 (osidonius).

2Cic.*rch. 2 Eal. Aa;. &.1.3 eopanes Eel. at. 2.1&.1 lut. Pomp. 2 c/. #tra*o

11.5.1, 13.2.3.


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9" ave already 'iven you a description o/ ompeys /irst pu*lic speec o/ no com/ort to te

poor or interest to te rascals on te oter and te ric ere not pleased and te onest men

ere not impressed. #o a /rost. en an irresponsi*le ri*une, @u/ius, e''ed on *y Consul

iso, called ompey out to address te -ssem*ly. is too place in te @laminian Circus, on

maret day ust ere te oliday crods as 'atered. @u/ius ased im eter e tou't

it ri't /or a ury to *e selected *y a raetor to serve under te same raetorspresidency, tat

*ein' te procedure determined *y te #enate in te Clodius sacrile'e case. (2) ompey ten

replied, very muc en bon aristocrate, tat in all matters e eld and ad alays eld te

#enates autority in te i'est respect at considera*le len'ttoo.3

-/ter 6 years aay /rom te political 'ame at 7ome, ompey may ave *een someat out

o/ touc it te current issues, yet Cicero s ud 'ement is damnin' and su''ests tat

ompey s /irst per/ormance su//ered /rom a lac o/ political aareness and insi't and

peraps also /rom an elo:uence 'one rusty a/ter years aay /rom te political scene. ompey

as still i'ly popular it te people, *ut is /ello senators ere less ready to

acnoled'e is successes and 'rant im inclusion in te in/luential senatorial circles. Len

ased /or an opinion on te tecnicalities o/ te trial a'ainst Clodius, ompey s anser

si'nals a reluctance to spea on a controversial matter in ic e ould only ris alienatin'

potential political allies. Ciceros letter continues it a description o/ a su*se:uent meetin'in te senate, ere ompey is a'ain ased a*out is vies on te Clodius case and a'ain

provides a va'ue anser, ust to *e surpassed *y Crassusarticulate and ellreceived praise

o/ Ciceros consulsip o/ 63 B.C. ompey s per/ormances ere, in Ciceros opinion,

3Cic. *tt. 1.1.12 (13 @e*r. 61 B.C.). ransl. 4.7. #acleton Bailey, Cicero. Letters to

*tticus ;9


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unsuccess/ul in conveyin' a returnin' 'eneral in touc it ur'ent political matters and te

concerns o/ te interested parties. Cicero as, oever, not an o*ective itness.5

His

ne'ative ud'ement is coloured *y is disappointment in ompey s per/ormance e ad

anted ompey to tae a clear stance on te issue o/ Clodiustrial and /urtermore to tae up

te role as conservative senator de/endin' te interests o/ te res publica as ad Cicero in 63

B.C. is disappointment ad deeper roots. Ciceros lon'standin' admiration /or ompey

ad taen a it /rom ompey s la c o/ appreciation o/ Ciceros actions in 63 B.C. in teir

e;can'e o/ letters in 62 B.C. and /rom ompeys political *eaviour since is return /rom

te ast.6 is mi;ture o/ personal unease a*out ompey s stance toards imsel/ and a

more 'eneral an;iety a*out ompey s illin'ness to or it people not considered boni

*y Cicero maes Cicero a dan'erous itness. Hoever, Cicero cannot ave distorted te

picture o/ ompey in is /irst pu*lic per/ormances alto'eter te am*i'uity in ompey s

ansers is in caracter it is tendency to ide is true intentions, and is lac o/

commitment to eiter side o/ te :uestion did notin' to /urter a decision. Cicero may ave

*een alone in tis ud'ement. "ndeed, ompey s tactic o/ avoidin' a /irm stance on te issue

may ave *een te ri't stand to tae in order not to o//end any*ody, e;cept Cicero. at

ompey spoe multis verbis yet still mana'ed not to say muc in /avour o/ eiter side a'ain

5@or a recent discussion o/ te su*ectivity o/ Ciceros letters, see -. Kintott, Cicero as

0vidence. * Historian=s Companion (>;/ord, 200&), &.

6Cic.-am. 5.!. #ee .$. Aitcell, Cicero. The Senior Statesman ($e Haven J Kondon,

1%%1), !! /or discussion and ?. Hall,Politeness and Politics in Cicero=s Letters (>;/ord,

200%), &%, 12& on te style and e;pectations o/ tese letters.


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underlines is sill in dod'in' te controversial issues en e;pedient.!

e :uestion

remains eter tis sill is to *e considered an oratorical or political sill.

"n contrast it ompeys lac o/ commitment re'ardin' current political issues, e as

caracteristically outspoen a*out is e;ploits in te ast. Len e as /inally alloed a

triump /or is astern victories in #eptem*er 61 B.C., it surpassed all previous triumps in

its lavis display o/ spoils and placards advertisin' te e;traordinary num*er o/ peoples and

areas su*dued.&

liny alerts us to te /act tat ompey also spoe at tis occasion, en e

declared in a contio, speain' o/ is acievements, tat e ad /ound -sia te remotest o/ te

provinces *ut made it into a central dominion o/ is country.%

-s alays, ompey spoe

it 'ravity and /luency en descri*in' is on accomplisments. o oter snippets /rom

speeces eld at contiones o/ uncertain dates underlines tis trait /urter. lutarc reports tat

ompey ad told te people, in a contio e must assume, tat e ad received every o//ice

earlier tan e ad e;pected, and laid it don more :uicly tan oters ad e;pected, addin'

tat is dis*andin' o/ te armies as a continuous testimony to te trut o/ is ords.50

"n a

similar vein, >rosius e;plains tat ompeius imsel/ told te contio a*out te ar in te ast

!an (n. 2), 16!, 1&3 and Kintott (n. 5), 155! *ot ar'ue, /rom di//erent an'les, tat

ompey s anser as a si'nal o/ is support o/ te senate and o/ is unillin'ness to 'o

don tepopularis route.

&lin. H1. !.%&%, 33.151, 3!.111 Kivy Per. 103 lut. Pomp. 5 4io 3!.21.23 -pp.

Mith. 1161! #tra*o 12.3.31. @or discussion o/ ompey s to supplicationes o/ 63 BC and

62 BC, see @. HicsonHan, 9ompeys Supplicatio !uplicata - $ovel @orm o/

0(an3s'ivin' , Phoeni3 5 (2000), 25.

%lin.H1 !.%%.

50lut.Pomp. 5.1.


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in ic e ad /ou't a'ainst 22 in's.51

Bot o/ tese /ra'ments could *e ar'ued to stem

/rom te speec eld in connection it is triump, *ut tey could also *elon' to earlier

speeces delivered sortly a/ter ompey s return to 7ome.52 #tron' opposition to ompey

amon' some senatorial :uarters ad created a sense o/ trepidation as to ompey s actions

upon return. specially Crassus and Cato ad someat provocatively arned a'ainst

ompey comin' *ac as a ne #ulla, *ut ompey instead announced te dismissal o/ is

army upon is return to "taly, si'nallin' is illin'ness to step don /rom is i' position

and e;ert is in/luence trou' te traditional cannels.53

ompey s ords as reported in

lutarc could *e ar'ued to stem /rom suc an announcement, and it ould a'ain ave

re:uired some oratorical a*ility to counter te claims o/ Crassus, Cato and teir sympatisers.

e snippets /rom lutarc and >rosius underline, in any case, te trend o/ ompey s

oratorical sill at times o/ sel/a''randisement, *ut also te trend o/ our sources to record

suc catcin' 9sound *ites r ater tan /ull speeces. e triump o/ 61 B.C. as an

important moment in ompey s career as it as is cance to *oost is 'eneral popularity

amon' te people and a moment to /or'et te mundane orries o/ political li/e and, in

particular, is pro*lems o/ 'ettin' a stron' /ootin' itin te political elite. Kie previous

occasions, it as not trou' an oratorical per/ormance in te senate or te courts tat e

*olstered is claim to in/luence and reco'nition, *ut rater in a speec to te adorin' people

in te contio, speain' o/ is main asset o/ military victories.

51>ros. 6.6..

52ina olo (n. 3!), 2%5 no. 2!! taes liny s and >rosiusevidence to stem /rom te same

contio in ?anuary 61 B.C.

53Eel. at. 2.0 lut.Pomp. 3, 6 lut. Cato. 26. 4io 3!.3, 3!.%50. #ee 8ruen

(n. 3), 656, 3%6 /or conte;t.


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@urter possi*le 9sound *ites/rom ompey s mout may ave survived, ic su''ests tat

ompey could spea clearly, even *rus:uely, en e;pedient or necessary. Kater sources

suc as lutarc, -ppian and 4io detail o Caesar as consul in 5% B.C. called upon ompey

and Crassus in a contio to spea in /avour o/ is a'rarian *ill.5

-ppian simply tells us tat

Caesar ased teir opinion and tat ompey and Crassus said tey approved.55

lutarc is

sli'tly more ela*orate, apparently :uotin' ompeys reply to Caesar s :uestion o/ eter

e ould protect te la a'ainst any opposition 9 , ,

,

. (9O


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2%3.


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details o/ tese accounts is uncertain, as *ot lutarc and 4io could ave made up ompey s

ords. cto*er 51 BC). ransl. 4.7. #acleton Bailey, Cicero. Letters to

-riends 13 (Cam*rid'e (Aass.), 2001). Kintott (n. 5), 26%!0 discusses ompey s remar


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in its political conte;t.


31/49

could ave spoen in a similarly /orce/ul ay in te contio on Caesar s a'rarian *ill. Len it

as e;pedient, ompey could spea in a direct and unam*i'uous ay.

ompey s *elli'erent statements sould peraps *e seen a'ainst te people s ne'ative attitude

to ompey, tat is, i/ e are to trust Cicero. Cicero reports o ompey s contional and

oratorical autority as dealt a *lo in 5% B.C. en is coalition it Caesar and Crassus

ad *ecome unpopular

"ta:ue ille noster amicus, insolens in/amiae, semper in laude versatus, circum/luens 'loria,

de/ormatus corpore, /ractus animo :uo se con/erat nescit. pro'ressum praecipitem,

inconstantem reditum videt. *onos inimicos a*et, impro*os ipsos non amicos. ac vide

mollitiem animi non tenui lacrimas cum illum a.d. E""" =al. #e;t. vidi de edictis Bi*uli

contionantem. :ui antea solitus esset iactare se ma'ni/icentissime illo in loco summo cum

amore populi, cunctis /aventi*us, ut ille tum umilis, ut demissus erat, ut ipse etiam si*i, non

iis solum :ui aderant, displice*at o spectaculum uni Crasso iucundum, ceteris non item

9#o tere is our poor /riend RompeyS, unused to disrepute, is ole career dis/i'ured in a

*laFe o/ admiration and 'lory, no pysically dis/i'ured and *roen in spirit, at is .it s end

/or at to do. He sees te precipice i/ e 'oes on and te sti'ma o/ a turncoat i/ e turns

*ac. e onest men are is enemies, te rascals temselves are not is /riends. #ee o

so/tearted " am. " could not eep *ac my tears en " sa im addressin' a pu*lic

meetin' on 25 ?uly a*out Bi*ulus edicts. Ho ma'ni/icently e used to posture on tat

plat/orm in oter days, surrounded *y an adorin' people, every man isin' im ell Ho


32/49

um*le and a*ect e as ten, at a sorry /i'ure e cut in is on eyes, to say notin' o/

is audience Lat a si't >nly Crassus could enoy it, not so oters.60

8one ere ompeys natural dignitas and gravitas en speain', i/ e are to *elieve

Cicero, and e may not ave *een very innin' or persuasive in is addresses. e coalition

*eteen imsel/, Caesar and Crassus ad not elped increase is popularity, as it as seen to

*e a'ainst tradition and /air play. e /act tat Caesar no too most le'islative *ills directly

to te contio itout prior senatorial consultation as seen *y Cicero as an a//ront to te

senates autority. Le must tere/ore tae Cicero s ud'ement o/ te overall unpopularity o/

te coalition, and ompeys unpopularity in particular, it a 'rain o/ salt. $everteless,

ompey s pro*lems o/ penetratin' te senatorial elite a/ter is return /rom te ast ere a

lo point in is career, and Cicero may *e ri't in is vie tat ompey as not used to

unpopularity and as less e//ective in is oratorical addresses en speain' in adverse

situations. "t ad certainly *een easier to capture an adorin' audience it tales o/ is on

successes. His *rus:ue e;pressions in support o/ Caesars a'rarian *ill may *e read as tose

o/ a politician /rustrated it te delay in securin' is veterans teir promised land, it te

unpopularity o/ is coalition it Caesar and Crassus, it teir opposition, and, in

particular, it is on unpopularity.

Ciceros ne'ative description o/ ompey in te contio in 5% B.C. is contrasted it a more

positive evaluation o/ ompey s speec in a contio in te summer o/ 5! B.C. Huius oratiout

60Cic. *tt. 2.21.3 (7ome, a/ter 25 ?uly 5% B.C.). ransl. #acleton Bailey (n. 3). @or te

unpopularity, in Ciceros mind, o/ te coalition o/ ompey, Caesar and Crassus, see also Cic.

*tt. 2.1&.1, 2.1%.23, 2.20.3 it AorsteinAar; (n. 2), 1!, n. 1! and Kintott (n. 5), 1!0

1.


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semper gravis et grata in contionibus fuit 9is speec as serious and pleasin', as it alays

is in suc assem*lies ...61 e can'e in Ciceros ud'ement o/ ompey s contional

speain' poers is related to te can'e in ompeys political stance and, especially, is

support o/ Ciceros recall /rom e;ile.


34/49

AorsteinAar; (n. 2), 122, 13, and an (n. 2), 16!& /or /urter discussion and conte;t.


35/49

even ac:uired silence at times oin' to is auctoritas.6

ompey as, in oter ords, capa*le

o/ speain' to a ostile audience intent on :uellin' im, and tat at a time en e orried

a*out te people *ein' alienated, as e sa a*ove. He could peraps ave /ound stren't in

te vie tat Clodius'an's did not represent te realpopulus or else e as simply made o/

tou'er material tan at is su''ested *y Cicero s ud'ements o/ a /aintearted ompey in

/ront o/ an anta'onistic audience.

@urter insi'ts into ompey s a*ility in e;ploitin' va'ue e;pressions as a tactical move may

*e /ound in Ciceros paraprase o/ ompey s speec in te senate on te /irst o/ ?anuary5!

B.C. ere Cicero s e;ile as, a'ain, de*ated. Cicero relates

Hunc nemo erat :uin verissime sentire diceret. #ed post eum ro'atus Cn. ompeius,

adpro*ata laudata:ue Cottae sententia, di;it sese oti mei causa, ut omni populari concitatione

de/un'erer, censere ut ad senatus auctoritatem populi :uo:ue 7omani *ene/icium er'a me

adiun'eretur. Cum omnes certatim alius:ue alio 'ravius at:ue ornatius de mea salute di;isset

/ieret:ue sine ulla varietate discessio, ...

9veryone tou't tat tis as te plainest trut *ut en 8naeus ompeius as called

upon /or is opinion a/ter Cotta, e said tat tou' e could approve and praise Cotta s

vie, e imsel/ ud'ed tat /or te sae o/ my tran:uillity, to *e certain tat " ould *e rid

o/ arassment /rom 9popular:uarters, te 7oman peoples *ene/icence toard me ou't to

*e oined to te senate s autority. Len all ad spoen /or my restoration, it eac speaer

6Cic. 2 -r. 2.3.2. AorsteinAar; (n. 2), 16% n. 0 ar'ues tat te 9settin' as eiter one o/

te tree re:uired contiones (an&uisitiones) *e/ore te vote in a trial *e/ore te eople

(iudicium populi) or a pu*lic meetin' precedin' a trial in te &uaestio de vi ...


36/49


37/49

2%

66=aster (n. 1) comm. ad Cic. Sest. !.


38/49

38

unless ompey as personally present.6!


39/49

could 'ive a strai't/orard anser i/ use/ul, and tat e ne o to e;ploit opportunities

to address te people.

CONCLUSION

is e;amination o/ instances o/ ompey s oratorical per/ormances in te contio leaves an

impression o/ a man o *uilt is career on is military successes and made sure to remind

is audience o/ tem, especially in is early political career. He cannot ave *een itout

talent, *ecause e spoe at many occasions in te senate, at contiones and in te courts (see

-ppendi; /or details). @or political purposes, e seems to ave pre/erred a nonoratorical

route, i/ possi*le, *y avin' oter people spea on is *eal/ as, /or e;ample, did Cicero,

Caesar and many unior ma'istrates. >*viously, e could not address a 7oman audience

en aay on commands or oter pu*lic service a*road. "ndeed, te syness reported *y

#eneca may ave played a part too. is, in com*ination it is tactic o/ sieldin' is

personal opinion /rom te pu*lic eye en politically e;pedient, may ave *een aimed at

protectin' is reputation as a success/ul 'eneral untainted *y tedious political :uarrels and

direct con/rontations. But it also ena*led im to test te aters itout risin' any later

conse:uences, and it ensured ma;imum attention en e actually spoe. is may e;plain

te stron' e//ect is more open and *elli'erent e;pressions ad on is immediate audience

and su*se:uent tradition, and ence teir transmission in our sources.

ompey s conscious attention to sel/presentation opens up te ider :uestion o/ o /ar te

ima'e e 'et o/ ompey is one dictated *y te sources or one dictated *y imsel/. "n te end,

e cannot no /or certain, *ut it seems liely tat e imsel/ did at e could to display a

persona ic e deemed e//ective /or acievin' is political aims and securin' is lon'

term reputation. His promotion o/ an ima'e o/ imsel/ as a victorious 'eneral loved *y te


40/49

people as prominent in is early political career especially. He played on is 'eneral

popularity it te people in addressin' tem relatively o/ten o/ is non pu*lic oratorical

per/ormances appro;imately al/ are in te contiones.!0

His tactic o/ not soin' is cards

could *e understood to aim at preservin' tis particular ima'e. Le may also consider te

possi*ility tat ompey nurtured te ima'e o/ a victorious 'eneral instead o/ an accomplised

speaer in an attempt to /it into te traditional 7oman ideolo'y o/ military virtus as te most

proper route to 'lory and opposed to a more recent em*race o/ 8ree appreciation o/

elo:uence as a 'lorious activity, e;empli/ied and promoted *y Cicero amon' oters.!1

>n top

o/ ompeian sel//asionin', te sources added teir retorical em*ellisment. e study o/

Bell underlines o /ar te sources can di//er, and /or at reasons, en it comes to te

sort *ut momentous event o/ ompeys deat in 'ypt.!2

Cicero imsel/ tried to in/luence

te /uture interpretation o/ nely deceased /i'ures suc as Catiline, Cato Ainor, Crassus,

ompey and Caesar *y evaluatin' teir actions and le'acy sortly a/ter teir deats and

tere/ore peraps *e/ore any*ody else put teir interpretation in ritin'.!3Ciceros success in

!0#ee te -ppendi; /or a list o/ ompey s pu*lic speeces. ans (n. 2) study con/irms te

'eneral impression tat contiones more o/ten tan not ere used to advocate vies and

pro/ile individuals popular it te people.

!1Cicerospromotion o/ 'lory o*tained trou' civil actions suc as oratory Cic.*rch. 21

ff. 1.!, 1.!!&. (Cicero could also ar'ue te opposite en e;pedient Cic. Mur. 1%22.)

Ciceros criticism o/ 'enerals pursuin' 'lory /or teir on sae and a'ainst te interests o/

te state Cic. Tusc. 1.&%%0, 3.3, 5.%50-in. 5.6% ff. 1.26, 2.3, 3.36, 3.&3.

!2-.-. Bell, 9@act and ;emplum in -ccounts o/ te 4eats o/ ompey and Caesar,

Latomus 53 (1%%), &236.

!3Catiline Cic. -lac. 102 Har. resp. 1& Pis. %5 Phil. 2.1, 3.1&, .15, &.15, 13.22, 1.1.

Cato Ainor Cic. ff. 1.112. Crassus Cic.-in. 2.5!, 3.!5 Tusc. 1.12, 5.116 ff. 1.25, 1.10%,


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in/luencin' te tradition o/ Cato in particular su''ests tat e also coloured te later

reception o/ ompey.!

ac o/ te later riters ad is on purpose /or depictin' ompey in

3.!3. ompey Cic. -in. 2.5! Tusc. 1.12, 1.&6!iv. 1.2 ff. 1.!6, 2.20, 2.60Phil. 5.3.

Caesar Cic.!iv. 1.11%, 2.23, 2.52, 2.%% ff. 1.26, 1.3, 2.23&, 3.&35.

!e contemporary discussion o/ Cato, a/ter is suicide at +tica in 6 B.C., in te ors o/

Cicero, Brutus and @a*ius 8allus (eac rote a Cato) and Caesar and Hirtius (eac rote an

*nti9Cato) Cic.*tt. 12..2, 12.5.2, 12.0.1, 13.2!.1, 13.6.2 Top. % rat. 35. Brutusand

@a*ius 8allus ors called Cato Cic. *tt. 13.6.2, -am. !.2.2. Caesar and Hirtius

ors*nti9Cato Cic. *tt. 12.0.1, 12.1., 12..1, 12.5.2. #ee 7.?. 8oar, The Legend

of Cato ?ticensis from the -irst Century .C. to the -ifth Century *.!. (Bru;elles, 1%&!),

15, 25,

101, and 7. #tem, 9e @irst lo:uent #toic Cicero on Cato te


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(ed.),rill=s Companion to Cicero. ratory and Rhetoric (Keiden, 2002), 15%%6, at 16!.


43/49

a speci/ic manner. eir various a'endas determined teir selection o/ evidence and te

presentation tereo/, ic, in turn, in/luenced te overall picture o/ ompey /ormed *y

modern scolars. #ome aspects sine trou' more clearly tan oters ompey s oratorical

a*ility en praisin' is on military victories, is reluctance to spea at pu*lic occasions

en avoida*le and va'ueness o/ e;pression en a speec as unavoida*le, is illin'ness

to spea /orce/ully and strai't/orardly en e;pedient (or en /rustrated), and is

attempts to *olster is oratory trou' declamation e;ercises and, peraps, 'ostritin'.

ompey pro*a*ly avoided advertisin' te last aspect, *ut certainly *uilt is political persona

on te to /irst aspects. "n terms o/ oratory, only te /irst aspect o/ sel/praise and te tird

aspect o/ strai't/orard e;pressions could *e said to cast li't on ompey s oratorical

:ualities.

ompey does not /it te *ill o/ Ciceros bonus orator o masters and displays all styles and

tecni:ues /or te *ene/it o/ te res publica. His tactic o/ avoidin' pu*lic per/ormances,

eter out o/ timidity, conscious deli*eration or, peraps more liely, *ot, provided im

it /eer occasions /or pu*lic display o/ oratorical talent and sill. His coice o/ a*sence

does not automatically mean tat e as not an accomplised speaer, *ut is lac o/

senatorial e;perience *e/ore is consulsip meant tat e ad a lot o/ catcin' up to do, also

on te oratorical side, en enterin' te senate in !0 B.C. @urtermore, Ciceros services in

/orm o/ speeces delivered and ritten on is *eal/, as ell as ompey s decision to tae up

declamation e;ercises ust *e/ore te civil ar, su''ests tat e anted to one is sills and

mae te *est possi*le address en called upon. Eelleius ud 'ement o/ ompey as

elo&uentia medius seems not entirely un/ounded.


44/49

>/ course, oratorical per/ormance as not te only ay to move te political a'enda in 7ome

or /orard a political career. "ndeed, descent /rom /amous 'enerals or senators provided a

poer/ul claim to political in/luence. But ompeys descent /rom a victorious, yet ated,

'eneral, ompeius #tra*o, made any re/erences to ancestry a deadend, and ompey isely

decided not to adopt is /ater s co'nomen, *ut instead aited /or is on e;ploits to *e

croned *y te nameMagnus.!5

atrona'e /rom a politically dominant /i'ure or /amily could

also elp pave te ay, and in is early career ompey certainly e;ploited is connections to

#ulla and, trou' marria'es to -emilia and Aucia, te Aetelli. His divorce /rom Aucia

upon te return /rom te ast and is unsuccess/ul marria'e proposal to Cato s niece so

tat e erroneously tou't tat e as no te one to *esto patrona'e rater tan

*ene/ittin' /rom it. His need /or political connections as only met en a politically savvy

Caesar approaced ompey and Crassus separately to /orm an alliance. Here, ompey s

popularity it te people, reempasised at is triump in 61 B.C. and *ased entirely on is

military victories, must ave made te crucial di//erence to Caesar s decision to tae ompey

on *oard. Lealt as anoter /actor and is ineritance o/ lar'e areas o/ land in icenum

must ave *olstered is personal /ortune considera*ly. "n/luence in te local tons in

icenum mattered too, as tey could soon vote and ould /orm te poer*ase o/ is later

military commands.!6

ompey s political sredness must *e taen into consideration too. He o/ten mana'ed to

netor it te ri't people at te ri't time, altou' is toerin' status as a returnin'

!5#ee A. 8elFer, 9Cn. ompeius #tra*o und der -u/stie' seines #ones Aa'nus ,

*bhandlungen der PreuBischen *"ademie der +issenschaften 1 (Berlin, 1%1) /or

ompey s /amily *ac'round and is /at(er s in/luence on is early career.

!6 #ee 8elFer (n. !5), 151!, 223.


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'eneral made im less attractive to te conservative and arro'ant nobiles amon' om e

most ised to *e accepted.


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APPENDIX: POMPEYS PUBLIC SPEECHES

Kist o/ speci/ic occasions ere ompey spoe in pu*lic

4ate lace opic discussed #ource

!1 B.C., 4ec. contio ompey promises to return tri*unician

poers and tacle te corruption o/ te

courts

Cic. $err. 1.5

!1 B.C., 4ec. contio ompey solicits is discar'e /rom

military service, almost as a spectacle

lut.Pomp. 22.3

!0 B.C. end pu*lic

meetin' in

te @orum

(peraps

tecnically

a contio)

ompey and Crassus are pu*licly

reconciled

-pp.C 1.121 lut.

Pomp. 23.12

I6%6& B.C. court ompey de/ends a Aanilius Crispus Eal. Aa;. 6.2.

6! B.C. contio 4io reports a speec o/ ompey in te

contio ere e appears reluctant to

tae te 8a*inian command a'ainst te

pirates. ossi*ly a literary invention

4io 36.2536a lut.

Pomp. 25.5!

62 B.C. military

contio

ompey con/ers 7oman citiFensip to

eopanes o/ Aytilene

Cic.*rch. 2 Eal.

Aa;. &.1.3

61 B.C., @e*. contio and

senate

ompey s /irst pu*lic speeces a/ter

return /rom te ast

Cic.*tt. 1.1.1


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61 B.C., 2&

#ept.

contio ompey presents is acievements in

connection it is triump

lin.H1 !.%%

60 B.C.,

various dates

senate ompey praises Ciceros consulsip in

several speeces

Cic.*tt. 1.1%.!

(Aarc 60 B.C.),

1.20.2 (Aay 60

B.C.), 2.1.6 (?une 60

B.C.)

5% B.C. contio ompey (and Crassus) supports

Caesars a'rarian *ill. Quotations o/

speec possi*ly literary inventions

-pp.C 2.10 lut.

Pomp. !.5 4io

3&.5

5% B.C.,

summer

contio ompey discusses consul Bi*ulus

edicts

Cic.*tt. 2.21.3

5& B.C., 1

?une

senate #enate meetin' on te return o/ Cicero

/rom e;ile. ompey in /avour *ut

resolution vetoed

Cic. Sest. 6!

5& B.C.,

-u'>ct.!&

colony o/

Capua

ompey pu*licly attacs Clodiusla

on Ciceros e;ile

Cic.Red. sen. 2%

Pis. 25Mil. 3%

5! B.C., 1

?anuary

senate #enate meetin' on te return o/ Cicero.

ompey speas in /avour

Cic.Red. sen. 5

!om. 6% Sest. !

Pis. 3

!&@or datin', see =aster (n. 1) 3%& it n. 1&. 7.8.A. $is*et,M. Tvlli Ciceronis in

Calpvrnium Pisonem oratio (>;/ord, 1%61) ;iii places tis event in sprin' 5! B.C. itout

e;plicit ar'uments /or tis datin'.


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5! B.C., ca.

% or 10 ?uly

contio Contio /olloin' senate meetin'

decreein' te return o/ Cicero /rom

e;ile. ompey speas in /avour

Cic.Red. pop. 16

Sest. 10!Pis. &0

56 B.C.,

@e*r.

Court (in

contiones)

and senate

Court speeces (in contiones) and

/olloin' discussion in senate on te

car'es de vi a'ainst Ailo. ompey

de/ends Ailo

Cic. 2 -r. 2.3.23

-am. 1.5*.1Mil. 0

-sc.Mil. &C

56 B.C. contio ompey called to spea at contio*y

consul Cn. Kentulus Aarcellinus on te

:uestion o/ is possi*le candidacy /or

te consulsip o/ 55 B.C.

Eal. Aa;. 6.2.6 lut.

Pomp. 51.56). (4io

3%.30.12 places tis

discussion in te

senate)

56 B.C.,

autumn

court ompey speas in de/ence o/ K.

Cornelius Bal*us

Cic.alb. 23, 1!,

1%, 5%

55 B.C., >ct. court ompey speas in de/ence o/ K.

#cri*onius Ki*o

Eal. Aa;. 6.2.&

55 B.C. court ompey speas in de/ence o/ . -mpius

Bal*us

Cic.Leg. 2.6

5 B.C.,

summer

court ompey 'ives testimony on *eal/ o/ A.

-emilius #caurus prosecuted de

repetundis

-sc. Scaur. 2&C


49/49

5 B.C.,

autumn!%

assem*ly

or letter

ompey eiter speas at an in/ormal

assem*ly o/ te populace outside te

pomerium or rites a letter in de/ence o/

-. 8a*inius in connection it te

latter s trial de repetundis&0

Cic.Rab. post. 3

4io 3%.63.5

52 B.C., ?an. contio ompey speas o/ planned plot o/ Ailo

to murder ompey

Cic.Mil. 656 -sc.

Mil. 51C

51 B.C.,

various dates

senate senate meetin's on Caesars 8allic

command ompey speas va'uely at

/irst, ten more /orce/ully

Cic.-am. &..,

&.%.5, &.&.% lut.

Pomp. 5!.5

% B.C., @e*. "talian

tons

ompey s speeces in "talian tons to

'ain support /or is side a'ainst Caesar

in te civil ar

Cic.*tt. !.21.1

& B.C., 2&

#ept.

not

delivered

ompey ad prepared a speec in 8ree

to deliver to tolemy, ic e reread

in te *oat 'oin' to -le;andria,

moments *e/ore e as murdered

lut.Pomp. !%.2

!%@or datin', see C. =lodt, Cicero=s Rede Pro Rabirio Postumo (#tutt'art, 1%%2), 36.

&0

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