Pollution and Its Part

8/14/2019 Pollution and Its Part

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POLLUTION

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment thatcauses instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the physical systemsor living organisms they are in.[1] Pollution can take the form ofchemical substances, or energy, such as noise, heat, or light energy.

Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances orenergies, or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they areconsidered contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Pollution isoften classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution.

HISTORY

Prehistory

Humankind has had some effect upon the environment since thePaleolithic era during which the ability to generate fire was acquired. In

the Iron Age, the use of tooling led to the practice of metal grinding ona small scale and resulted in minor accumulations of discardedmaterial probably easily dispersed without too much impact. Humanwastes would have polluted rivers or water sources to some degree.However, these effects could be expected predominantly to be dwarfedby the natural world.

Ancient cultures

The first advanced civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, China,Persia, Greece and Rome increased the use of water for their

manufacture of goods, increasingly forged metal and created fires ofwood and peat for more elaborate purposes (for example, bathing,heating). Still, at this time the scale of higher activity did not disruptecosystems or greatly alter air or water quality.

Middle Ages

The European Dark Ages during the early Middle Ages were a greatboon for the environment, in that industrial activity fell, and populationlevels did not grow rapidly. Toward the end of the Middle Agespopulations grew and concentrated more within cities, creating pocketsof readily evident contamination. In certain places air pollution levelswere recognizable as health issues, and water pollution in populationcenters was a serious medium for disease transmission from untreatedhuman waste.

Since travel and widespread information were less common, there didnot exist a more general context than that of local consequences inwhich to consider pollution. Foul air would have been considered a


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nuissance and wood, or eventually, coal burning produced smoke,which in sufficient concentrations could be a health hazard in proximityto living quarters. Septic contamination or poisoning of a clean drinkingwater source was very easily fatal to those who depended on it,especially if such a resource was rare. Superstitions predominated andthe extent of such concerns would probably have been little more than

a sense of moderation and an avoidance of obvious extremes.

Official acknowledgement

But gradually increasing populations and the proliferation of basicindustrial processes saw the emergence of a civilization that began tohave a much greater collective impact on its surroundings. It was to beexpected that the beginnings of environmental awareness would occurin the more developed cultures, particularly in the densest urbancenters. The first medium warranting official policy measures in theemerging western world would be the most basic: the air we breathe.

The earliest known writings concerned with pollution were Arabicmedical treatises written between the 9th and 13th centuries, byphysicians such as al-Kindi (Alkindus), Qusta ibn Luqa (Costa benLuca), Muhammad ibn Zakarya Rzi (Rhazes), Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi,al-Masihi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ali ibn Ridwan, Ibn Jumay, Isaac Israeliben Solomon, Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their workscovered a number of subjects related to pollution such as aircontamination, water contamination, soil contamination, solid wastemishandling, and environmental assessments of certain localities.[2]

King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal byproclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke had become aproblem.[3][4] But the fuel was so common in England that thisearliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted awayfrom some shores by the wheelbarrow. Air pollution would continue tobe a problem there, especially later during the industrial revolution,and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952. Thissame city also recorded one of the earlier extreme cases of waterquality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858, whichled to construction of the London sewerage system soon afterward.

It was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmentalpollution as we know it today. The emergence of great factories andconsumption of immense quantities of coal and other fossil fuels gaverise to unprecedented air pollution and the large volume of industrialchemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated humanwaste. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities toenact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881. Other cities followed aroundthe country until early in the 20th century, when the short lived Office


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of Air Pollution was created under the Department of the Interior.Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angelesand Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, serving as another publicreminder.

POLLUTION POTENTIAL IN THE YAMUNA BASIN

Non Point Sources of Pollution The diffused pollution originates mainly from the catchment areathrough movement of water. Pollutants originated from the topsoillosses include soil organic matter, plant residues, nutrient elements,organic chemicals, toxic elements and bacteria. Soil can retain, modify,decompose or absorb pollutants.The important non point pollution sources contributing to river Yamunaare: Agricultural pollution sources & Pollution due to in stream uses ofwater.

Agricultural PollutionAgricultural pollution is contributed by following major sources: cattle,agricultural residues and Fertilizer & Pesticide use. The pollution loadgenerated through above sources may be contributed to the rivereither as point source or as non point sources. A large portion ofgenerated agricultural pollution is subjected to phototropic food chainand consumed, hence never reaches to the river. Moreover, the cattleoriginated BOD load is mostly utilized by the rural population either asfuel or manure. The agricultural residues generated as waste in therural areas are subjected to saprotrophic food chain and hencedegraded naturally not contributing to the river pollution.

Pollution due to in-stream uses of waterThe main sources of pollution caused by in-stream use of river waterare:Cattle wading, Bathing, Open defecation, Clothes washing.

Cattle wadingBoth side banks of entire stretch of river Yamuna is occupied by therural areas. The main activities in these areas are agricultural andcattle farming. The cattle from local farms frequently visit the river forvarious activities especially for wading in the river water. This activityaffects the water quality through many ways. The faucal matter of thecattle contributed during wading directly increase the BOD andColiforms load of the river water. The cattle wading also contributevarious pathogens in the water, which may cause skin and otherdiseases, not only to the other animals but sometimes also to thehuman beings using river water directly or indirectly. The vigorousmovement and activities of cattle in the river disturbs the riverbed,where organic matter and other pollutants are settled in form of


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sludge. Due to cattle movements, the settled sludge disturbs andagain mixed with the water deteriorating its quality.

BathingIn the entire country river mass bathing is very common phenomenon.In the Yamuna river, mass bathing takes place during some special

festivals and religious days. The mass bathing is very significant aturban centres e.g. Mathura, Vrindavan, Bateshwar, Delhi, Agra etc. Thelarge scale river bathing influence the water quality by increasing thedisease causing pathogens quantity in the river.Open defecationRiver Yamuna basin is heavily populated with rural and urban centreswhere the sanitary facilities are either not existing or not developed.Therefore, a large part of the population uses river catchment for theopen defecation. This activity thus contributes pathogenic and organiccontaminants in the river catchment, which are washed down to riverstream during rains or sudden release of water from the upstream

dams. Dumping of dead animals, human dead bodies in the river alsoaffect the water quality of the river.

Clothes washingClothes washing at the bank of river Yamuna are a common featuresboth in rural and urban centres. This not only causes inorganic, organicand biological contamination but also increase the detergentscontents. Detergents availability in river water generates foam at thesurface due to turbulence particularly at a steep fall down stream todams and other sites. Foaming hamper the oxygen diffusion rate in theriver water affecting the self-purification capacity as well as other

biological activities.

1. WATER POLLUTION

When toxic substances enter lakes,streams, rivers, oceans, and otherwater bodies, they get dissolved orlie suspended in water or getdeposited on the bed. This results inthe pollution of water whereby the

quality of the water deteriorates,affecting aquatic ecosystems.Pollutants can also seep down andaffect the groundwater deposits.

Water pollution has many sources.The most polluting of them are thecity sewage and industrial wastedischarged into the rivers. The facilities to treat waste water are not


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adequate in any city in India. Presently, only about 10% of the wastewater generated is treated; the rest is discharged as it is into our waterbodies. Due to this, pollutants enter groundwater, rivers, and otherwater bodies. Such water, which ultimately ends up in our households,is often highly contaminated and carries disease-causing microbes.Agricultural run-off, or the water from the fields that drains into rivers,

is another major water pollutant as it contains fertilizers andpesticides.

Domestic sewage refers to waste water that is discarded fromhouseholds. Also referred to as sanitary sewage, such water contains awide variety of dissolved and suspended impurities. Biochemicaloxygen demand, or BOD

The amount of organic material that can rot in the sewage is measuredby the biochemical oxygen demand. BOD is the amount of oxygenrequired by micro-organisms to decompose the organic substances in

sewage. Therefore, the more organic material there is in the sewage,the higher the BOD. It is among the most important parameters for thedesign and operation of sewage treatment plants. BOD levels ofindustrial sewage may be many times that of domestic sewage.Dissolved oxygen is an important factor that determines the quality ofwater in lakes and rivers. The higher the concentration of dissolvedoxygen, the better the water quality. When sewage enters a lake orstream, micro-organisms begin to decompose the organic materials.Oxygen is consumed as micro-organisms use it in their metabolism.This can quickly deplete the available oxygen in the water. When thedissolved oxygen levels drop too low, many aquatic species perish. In

fact, if the oxygen level drops to zero, the water will become septic.When organic compounds decompose without oxygen, it gives rise tothe undesirable odours usually associated with septic or putridconditions.

It amounts to a very small fractionof the sewage by weight. But it islarge by volume and containsimpurities such as organic materialsand plant nutrients that tend to rot.The main organic materials are foodand vegetable waste, plant nutrientcome from chemical soaps, washingpowders, etc. Domestic sewage isalso very likely to contain disease-causing microbes. Thus, disposal ofdomestic waste water is asignificant technical problem.


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Sewage generated from the urban areas in India has multipliedmanifold since 1947.

Today, many people dump their garbage into streams, lakes, rivers,and seas, thus making water bodies the final resting place of cans,bottles, plastics, and other household products. The various substances

that we use for keeping our houses clean add to water pollution asthey contain harmful chemicals. In the past, people mostly used soapsmade from animal and vegetable fat for all types of washing. But mostof todays cleaning products are synthetic detergents and come fromthe petrochemical industry. Most detergents and washing powderscontain phosphates, which are used to soften the water among otherthings. These and other chemicals contained in washing powders affectthe health of all forms of life in the water.

Agricultural Run offEutrophication

When fresh water is artificially supplemented with nutrients, it resultsin an abnormal increase in the growth of water plants. This is known aseutrophication. The discharge of waste from industries, agriculture, andurban communities into water bodies generally stretches the biologicalcapacities of aquatic systems. Chemical run-off from fields also addsnutrients to water. Excess nutrients cause the water body to becomechoked with organic substances and organisms. When organic matterexceeds the capacity of the micro-organisms in water that break downand recycle the organic matter, it encourages rapid growth, or blooms,of algae. When they die, the remains of the algae add to the organic

wastes already in the water; eventually, the water becomes deficient inoxygen. Anaerobic organisms (those that do not require oxygen to live)then attack the organic wastes, releasing gases such as methane andhydrogen sulphide, which are harmful to the oxygen-requiring (aerobic)forms of life. The result is a foul-smelling, waste-filled body of water.This has already occurred in such places as Lake Erie and the BalticSea, and is a growing problem in freshwater lakes all over India.Eutrophication can produce problems such as bad tastes and odours aswell as green scum algae. Also the growth of rooted plants increases,which decreases the amount of oxygen in the deepest waters of thelake. It also leads to the death of all forms of life in the water bodies.

The use of land for agriculture and the practices followed in cultivationgreatly affect the quality of groundwater. Intensive cultivation of cropscauses chemicals from fertilizers (e.g. nitrate) and pesticides to seepinto the groundwater, a process commonly known as leaching. Routineapplications of fertilizers and pesticides for agriculture and


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indiscriminate disposal of industrial and domestic wastes areincreasingly being recognized as significant sources of water pollution.

The high nitrate content in groundwater is mainly from irrigation run-off from agricultural fields where chemical fertilizers have been usedindiscriminately.

Industrial effluents

Waste water from manufacturing or chemical processes in industriescontributes to water pollution. Industrial waste water usually containsspecific and readily identifiable chemical compounds. During the lastfifty years, the number of industries in India has grown rapidly. Butwater pollution is concentrated within a few subsectors, mainly in theform of toxic wastes and organic pollutants. Out of this a large portioncan be traced to the processing of industrial chemicals and to the food

products industry. In fact, a number of large- and medium-sizedindustries in the region covered by the Ganga Action Plan do not haveadequate effluent treatment facilities. Most of these defaultingindustries are sugar mills, distilleries, leather processing industries,and thermal power stations. Most major industries have treatmentfacilities for industrial effluents. But this is not the case with small-scale industries, which cannot afford enormous investments inpollution control equipment as their profit margin is very slender.

Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants

Most water pollutants are eventually carried by the rivers into theoceans. In some areas of the world the influence can be tracedhundred miles from the mouth by studies using hydrology transportmodels. Advanced computer models such as SWMM or the DSSAMModel have been used in many locations worldwide to examine thefate of pollutants in aquatic systems. Indicator filter feeding speciessuch as copepods have also been used to study pollutant fates in theNew York Bight, for example. The highest toxin loads are not directly atthe mouth of the Hudson River, but 100 kilometers south, since severaldays are required for incorporation into planktonic tissue. The Hudsondischarge flows south along the coast due to coriolis force. Furthersouth then are areas of oxygen depletion, caused by chemicals usingup oxygen and by algae blooms, caused by excess nutrients from algalcell death and decomposition. Fish and shellfish kills have beenreported, because toxins climb the foodchain after small fish consumecopepods, then large fish eat smaller fish, etc. Each successive step upthe food chain causes a stepwise concentration of pollutants such asheavy metals (e.g. mercury) and persistent organic pollutants such as


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DDT. This is known as biomagnification which is occasionally usedinterchangeably with bioaccumulation.

The big gyres in the oceans trap floating plastic debris. The NorthPacific Gyre for example has collected the so-called "Great PacificGarbage Patch" that is now estimated at 100 times the size of Texas.

Many of these long-lasting pieces wind up in the stomachs of marinebirds and animals. This results in obstruction of digestive pathwayswhich leads to reduced appetite or even starvation.

Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemically changeespecially over long periods of time in groundwater reservoirs. Anoteworthy class of such chemicals are the chlorinated hydrocarbonssuch as trichloroethylene (used in industrial metal degreasing andelectronics manufacturing) and tetrachloroethylene used in the drycleaning industry (note latest advances in liquid carbon dioxide in drycleaning that avoids all use of chemicals). Both of these chemicals,

which are carcinogens themselves, undergo partial decompositionreactions, leading to new hazardous chemicals (includingdichloroethylene and vinyl chloride).

Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surfacepollution because groundwater can move great distances throughunseen aquifers. Non-porous aquifers such as clays partially purifywater of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption),dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity:however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soilcontaminants. Groundwater that moves through cracks and caverns is

not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact,this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use naturalsinkholes as dumps in areas of Karst topography.

There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the originalpollutant, but a derivative condition. Some of these secondary impactsare:Silt bearing surface runoff from can inhibit the penetration of sunlightthrough the water column, hampering photosynthesis in aquaticplants. Thermal pollution can induce fish kills and invasion by newthermophilic species. This can cause further problems to existingwildlife.

Effects of water pollution

The effects of water pollution are not only devastating to people butalso to animals, fish, and birds. Polluted water is unsuitable fordrinking, recreation, agriculture, and industry. It diminishes the


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aesthetic quality of lakes and rivers. More seriously, contaminatedwater destroys aquatic life and reduces its reproductive ability.Eventually, it is a hazard to human health. Nobody can escape theeffects of water pollution.

The individual and the community can help minimize water pollution.

By simple housekeeping and management practices the amount ofwaste generated can be minimized.

2. AIR POLLUTION?

Air is the ocean we breathe. Airsupplies us with oxygen which isessential for our bodies to live. Air is99.9% nitrogen, oxygen, water vaporand inert gases. Human activities canrelease substances into the air, someof which can cause problems forhumans, plants, and animals.

There are several main types ofpollution and well-known effects ofpollution which are commonly discussed. These include smog, acidrain, the greenhouse effect, and "holes" in the ozone layer. Each ofthese problems has serious implications for our health and well-beingas well as for the whole environment.

One type of air pollution is the release of particles into the air fromburning fuel for energy. Diesel smoke is a good example of thisparticulate matter . The particles are very small pieces of mattermeasuring about 2.5 microns or about .0001 inches. This type ofpollution is sometimes referred to as "black carbon" pollution. Theexhaust from burning fuels in automobiles, homes, and industries is amajor source of pollution in the air. Some authorities believe that eventhe burning of wood and charcoal in fireplaces and barbeques canrelease significant quanitites of soot into the air.

Another type of pollution is the release of noxious gases, such as sulfurdioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and chemical vapors. Thesecan take part in further chemical reactions once they are in theatmosphere, forming smog and acid rain.

Pollution also needs to be considered inside our homes, offices, andschools. Some of these pollutants can be created by indoor activitiessuch as smoking and cooking. In the United States, we spend about 80-90% of our time inside buildings, and so our exposure to harmful


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indoor pollutants can be serious. It is therefore important to considerboth indoor and outdoor air pollution.

Causes of Air Pollution:

Carbon dioxide is one the main pollutants that causes air pollution.This is because, although living beings do exhale carbon dioxide, thisgas is harmful when emitted from other sources, which are caused dueto human activity. An additional release of carbon dioxide happens dueto various such activities. Carbon dioxide gas is used in variousindustries such as the oil industry and the chemical industry. Themanufacturing process of most products would require the use of thisgas. There are various human activities that add to the increasedproportions of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The combustion offossil fuels and the harmful effects of deforestation have all contributedtowards the same. show that amongst the various gasses emitted

during a volcanic eruption, carbon dioxide remains to be at least 40%of the emission. Scientists have now therefore identified carbon dioxideas one of those elements that have contributed to global warming.

Causes of air pollution are not limited to this. The combustion of fuelsin automobiles, jet planes etc all cause the release of several primarypollutants into the air. The burning of fossil fuels in big cities which isseen at most factories, offices and even a large number of homes, it isno wonder that air pollution is increasing at an alarming rate. Therelease of other harmful gases all adds to the state that we see today.Although carbon dioxide plays an important role in various other

processes like photosynthesis, breathing an excess of the same alsocauses harmful effects towards ones health.

The various causes of air pollution that releases harmful gases into theatmosphere are caused due to the increasing number of power plantsand manufacturing units or industries that mostly have activitiesrelated to the burning of fuels. Besides, as mentioned earlier, mostautomobiles, marine vessels, activities that involve the burning ofwood, fumes that are released from aerosol sprays, military activitiesthat involve the use of nuclear weapons, all are the numerous causesof air pollution.

Carbon monoxide is another such gas which, although was present inthe atmosphere earlier, is now considered to be a major pollutant. Anexcess of the same has a harmful effect on our system. There aremany reasons why carbon monoxide can be released into theatmosphere as a result of human activities. This is also produced dueto any fuel burning appliance and appliances such as gas waterheaters, fireplaces, woodstoves, gas stoves, gas dryers, yard


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equipments as well as automobiles, which add to the increasedproportion of this gas into the atmosphere.

Sulfur dioxide is yet another harmful pollutant that causes air pollution.Sulfur dioxide is emitted largely to the excessive burning of fossil fuels,petroleum refineries, chemical and coal burning power plants etc.

Nitrogen dioxide when combined with sulfur dioxide can even cause aharmful reaction in the atmosphere that can cause acid rain.

Nitrogen dioxide is one more gas that is emitted into the atmosphereas a result of various human activities. An excess of nitrogen dioxidemainly happens due to most power plants seen in major cities, theburning of fuels due to various motor vehicles and other such sources,whether industrial or commercial that cause the increase in the levelsof nitrogen dioxide.

These and a number of other hazardous air pollutants are emitted with

the various numbers of activities that we carry out during the daywhich are the main causes of air pollution.

How you can help to prevent Air Pollution:

Carpool- This will help to reduce the number of vehicles on thealready congested roads.

Always keep your car tuned properly so that it remains in a goodcondition.

Save energy- Try to use minimum amounts of natural gas and even

electricity. Whenever possible, avoid the use of air conditioner anduse a fan instead.

Always buy recycled products.

Reuse things such as paper and plastic bags, paper etc. This willcontribute a lot towards reducing the effects of air pollution andglobal warming.

Avoid the use of firecrackers. You dont really need it to express yourfeeling of happiness.

Go in for water-based paints instead of varnishes. If you really cannot avoid using your car, plan your work

systematically to reduce air pollution.

The causes of air pollution can be many to name if one reallyscrutinizes this subject closely. With a little effort from our side, we canhelp to reduce the harmful effects of air pollution so that we canbreathe in a clean and healthy environment.

How can air pollution hurt my health?


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Air pollution can affect our health in many ways with both short-termand long-term effects. Different groups of individuals are affected byair pollution in different ways. Some individuals are much moresensitive to pollutants than are others. Young children and elderlypeople often suffer more from the effects of air pollution. People with

health problems such as asthma, heart and lung disease may alsosuffer more when the air is polluted. The extent to which an individualis harmed by air pollution usually depends on the total exposure to thedamaging chemicals, i.e., the duration of exposure and theconcentration of the chemicals must be taken into account.

Examples of short-term effectsinclude irritation to the eyes, noseand throat, and upper respiratoryinfections such as bronchitis andpneumonia. Other symptoms can

include headaches, nausea, andallergic reactions. Short-term airpollution can aggravate the medicalconditions of individuals with asthmaand emphysema. In the great "SmogDisaster" in London in 1952, fourthousand people died in a few daysdue to the high concentrations ofpollution.

Long-term health effects can include chronic respiratory disease, lung

cancer, heart disease, and even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, orkidneys. Continual exposure to air pollution affects the lungs ofgrowing children and may aggravate or complicate medical conditionsin the elderly. It is estimated that half a million people die prematurelyevery year in the United States as a result of smoking cigarettes.

Research into the health effects of air pollution is ongoing. Medicalconditions arising from air pollution can be very expensive. Healthcarecosts, lost productivity in the workplace, and human welfare impactscost billions of dollars each year.

Additional information on the health effects of air pollution is availablefrom the Natural Resources Defense Council. A short article on thehealth effects of ozone (a major component of smog) is available fromthe B.A.A.Q.M.D.

3. LAND POLLUTION


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Land pollution is basically about the contamination of the land surfaceand soil of the Earth. Read more about it here.

Land pollution basically is about contaminating the land surface of theEarth through dumping urban waste matter indiscriminately, dumpingof industrial waste, mineral exploitation, and misusing the soil by

harmful agricultural practices. Land pollution includes visible litter andwaste along with the soil itself being polluted. The soil gets polluted bythe chemicals in pesticides and herbicides used for agriculturalpurposes along with waste matter being littered in urban areas such asroads, parks, and streets.

Land Pollution Comprises Of: Solid Waste and Soil Pollution

Solid Waste: Semisolid or solid matter that are created by human oranimal activities, and which are disposed because they are hazardousor useless are known as solid waste. Most of the solid wastes, like

paper, plastic containers, bottles, cans, and even used cars andelectronic goods are not biodegradable, which means they do not getbroken down through inorganic or organic processes. Thus, when theyaccumulate they pose a health threat to people, plus, decaying wastesalso attract household pests and result in urban areas becomingunhealthy, dirty, and unsightly places to reside in. Moreover, it alsocauses damage to terrestrial organisms, while also reducing the usesof the land for other, more useful purposes.

INTRODUCTION

Overcrowding in GJ causes exploitation of the land beyond its capacity,which leads to land pollution. This exceeds the capacity of sewersystems and landfill sites. Sewage problems mainly exist in large partsof Alexandra and Soweto townships. South and southwest of Jhb, dustpollution from mine dumps, are the main sources of land degradation,whiles the CBD experiences continuous overflowing of sewers,especially in Hillbrow, New Town and Jeppestown. All these activitiesreduce the quality of the land. The main sources of land pollution wereidentifies as informal settlements, waste disposal sites, miningactivities and activieties in CBDs.

DRIVING FORCE

Mining

Mining activities and the extraction of gold, chiefly in the north westernarea of the SMLC (where ore has a relatively high uranium content),artificially enhances the concentrations of naturally occurring


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radioactive elements in mine tailing dams. Radioactive minerals fromthe mine tailings could enter the environment by airborne dust andleaching into waterways. The key mining issues are:

Dust from mines, particularly apparent in informal settlements whichare presently located in the peripheral areas and the smoke emanating

from this area trap the dust particles blowing from the mines)

Informal Settlements

A number of Informal Settlements occur within Greater JohannesburgMetropolitan area as outlined in table ____ that impact on theenvironment mainly through land pollution in the form of:Dust from gravel roadsLack of clean running waterLack of regular refuse removalBroken and non-maintained sewerage pipes

Lack of regular refuse removal and excessive loads of refuse to betreated due to overcrowdingAbsence of toilet facilities and ignorant littering

The overcrowding of the inner city with migrants who are unemployedand unable to pay the housing rents leads to a serious decay of theflats/buildings in the inner city. The measure of serious decay includesaccommodation which does not have functioning toilets (7%),electricity (3%), drains that block regularly (20%), and leaking waterpipes (25%). High density and poor living conditions with insufficientprovision of services, due to urbanization contribute to environmental

health.

Pressure

No standards exist for the prevention of land pollution which can beused to determine the pressure of land pollution. However the keycausative factors are the exploitation of land (overcrowding) beyond itscapacity, together with the inability to increase the sewer capacity anddegradation of the sewer system. This particular cause for concern isespecially evident in large parts of Alexandra and Soweto townships,which appears to have suffered complete breakdown. The lack ofmaintenance or upgrading/expansion and the mushrooming of squatterand informal settlements without formal services in these areasexacerbate the already dismal situation of soil pollution.

Inadequate service deliver coupled with poverty and overcrowdingoften result in a breakdown of services which result in overflown and


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broken sewerage pipes, illegal dumping and blockage of systems. Withthe high percentage of communities who do not have access toadeqaute sanitation high levels of land pollution occur.

IMPACT

Mining

The environmental impacts of mining are particularly severe inGauteng Province. The effects of water resources and soil quality arepossibly the most important. Although many of the mines are no longeroperational, the environmental legacy of mining impacts still needs tobe addressed. Currently there are smaller mining operations, such asquarries, which can have large negative impacts on the environmentand which need to be controlled and managed by the Department fEnvironmental Planning in the South in co-ordination with othergovernment bodies (Mining Engineering and the Provincial

Environmental Directorate).

Johannesburg City has its roots in gold mining. The consequentiallegacy is a proliferation of mine tailings in a broad belt spanning theSouth of the CBD and abutting the residential areas to the South.Whilst relatively less mining is taking place now than in the past, oldermine dumps are being reworked and shifted as the gold price andtechnology make this process viable. However, natural decompositionof the iron pyrites contents of these tailings leads to acidic leachatecontamination of the areas surface water.

Dust from the mine dumping, another environmental pressure, faceslocal communities, specifically in situations where no or inadequatemitigation measures have been applied to tailing services. With theimprovement in extraction technology, many of the mine tailings havebeen and are being reprocessed for its residual gold content.Consequently, exposed land may become available for developmentwhere there are no shallow mines or where radioactive contaminatedsoil is not a mitigating factor.

Central Business District

Soil pollution from the residential of Greater Johannesburg generallyrelates to litter and the product of overflowing sewers during rainfallevents and most importantly ignorance (lack of litter awareness). Soilpollution from city center areas-Alexandra, Hillbrow, Newtown andJeppestown-result from the contamination of raw sewage which occurson a continuous basis, irregular maintenance to sewers andovercrowding which puts immense strain on urban services.


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Informal Settlements - SewerageIn Alexandra some people still use bucket system.Which can increase the risk of environmental contamination fromsewage.Through direct contact with bacterial agents found in excreta people

may become predisposed to a wide range of illnesses e.g. diarrhoealdiseases, cholera, tyhoid fever and helminthic infections.

Solid WasteInappropriate disposal of waste may lead to fatal injuries amongstyoung children as well as poisonings and incidents of suffocation.Organic waste attracts vectors such as rodents and insects and maycause gastrointestinal and parasitic diseases.Most frequent complaints from Alexandra area are related to mice, ratand "bedbug" infestations.

Causes of land pollution:

Increase in urbanization. Construction uses up forestland. Moreconstructions means increase in demand for raw materials liketimber. This leads to the exploitation and destruction of forests.There is more demand for water. Reservoirs are built leading tothe loss of land.

Increase in agricultural land . As the human population grew therewas a greater demand for food. This caused more land allocatedto agriculture. Forests were cut down for this purpose.

Domestic waste . Every single day, tons and tons of domesticwaste is dumped ranging from huge pieces of rubbish such asunused refrigerator to fish bones. If all these wastes are notdisposed of properly, the damage they can do to theenvironment and humankind can be devastating. While wastecollected from homes, offices and industries may be recycled orburnt in incinerators, a large amount of rubbish is neither burntnor recycled but is left in certain areas marked as dumpinggrounds. We throw away more things today and there is anincrease in the quantity of solid waste. This has given rise to

problems as new dumping grounds have to be found. Agricultural activities. Besides domestic waste, pesticides and

herbicides used by farmers to increase crop yields also pollutethe land when they are washed into the soil.

Industrial activities. Industrial activities also are a contributingfactor to land pollution. For example, in open cast mining, hugeholes are dug in the ground and these form dangerously deepmining pools. Heaps of mining waste are left behind and these


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waste often contain several poisonous substances that willcontaminate the soil.

4.NOISE POLLUTION

Noise pollution (or environmental noise) is displeasing human- ormachine-created sound that disrupts the activity or balance of humanor animal life. A common form of noise pollution is from transportation,principally motor vehicles.[1] The word "noise" comes from the Latinword nausea meaning "seasickness", referring originally to nuisancenoise.

Thousands of people in Britain and around the world are dyingprematurely from heart disease triggered by long-term exposure toexcessive noise, according to research by the World HealthOrganisation. Coronary heart disease caused 101,000 deaths in the UKin 2006, and the study suggests that 3,030 of these are caused bychronic noise exposure, including to daytime traffic. Deepak Prasher,professor of audiology at University College London, told the NewScientist magazine: "The new data provide the link showing there areearlier deaths because of noise. Until now, noise has been theCinderella form of pollution and people haven't been aware that it hasan impact on their health." The WHO's working group on the NoiseEnvironmental Burden on Disease began work on the health effects ofnoise in Europe in 2003. In addition to the heart disease link, it foundthat 2% of Europeans suffer severely disturbed sleep because of noisepollution and 15% can suffer severe annoyance. Chronic exposure toloud traffic noise causes 3% of tinnitus cases, in which peopleconstantly hear a noise in their ears. Research published in recentyears has shown that noise can increase the levels of stress hormones


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such as cortisol, adrenaline and noradrenalin in the body, even duringsleep. The longer these hormones stay in circulation around thebloodstream, the more likely they are to cause life-threateningphysiological problems. High stress levels can lead to heart failure,strokes, high blood pressure and immune problems. "All this ishappening imperceptibly," said Prof Prasher. "Even when you think you

are used to the noise, these physiological changes are still happening."The WHO came to its figures by comparing households with abnormallyhigh exposure to noise with those in quieter homes. It also studiedpeople with problems such as coronary heart disease and tried to workout if high noise levels had been a factor in developing the condition.This data was then combined with maps showing the noisiest Europeancities. According to the WHO guidelines, the noise threshold forcardiovascular problems is chronic night-time exposure of 50 decibels(dB) or above - the noise of light traffic. For sleep disturbance, thethreshold is 42dB, for general annoyance it is 35dB, the sound of awhisper. Ellen Mason, a cardiac nurse at the British Heart Foundation,

said: "Our world is undoubtedly getting busier and noisier. Somepeople find noise pollution more stressful to live with than others do.Noise cannot directly kill us, but it may add to our stress. Occasionally,stressful events can trigger a heart attack in someone with underlyingheart disease. We know that stressed people are more likely to eatunhealthily, exercise less and smoke more, and these can increase therisk of developing heart disease in the first place."

Human health effects

Noise health effects are both health and behavioural in nature. The

unwanted sound is called noise. This unwanted sound can damagephysiological and psychological health. Noise pollution can causeannoyance and aggression, hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus,hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects.Furthermore, stress and hypertension are the leading causes to healthproblems, whereas tinnitus can lead to forgetfulness, severedepression and at times panic attacks.

Chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-induced hearing loss. Oldermales exposed to significant occupational noise demonstratesignificantly reduced hearing sensitivity than their non-exposed peers,though differences in hearing sensitivity decrease with time and thetwo groups are indistinguishable by age 79. A comparison of Maabantribesmen, who were insignificantly exposed to transportation orindustrial noise, to a typical U.S. population showed that chronicexposure to moderately high levels of environmental noise contributesto hearing loss.


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High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects and exposureto moderately high levels during a single eight hour period causes astatistical rise in blood pressure of five to ten points and an increase instress and vasoconstriction leading to the increased blood pressurenoted above as well as to increased incidence of coronary arterydisease.

Noise pollution is also a cause of annoyance. A 2005 study by Spanishresearchers found that in urban areas households are willing to payapproximately four Euros per decibel per year for noise reduction.

Environmental effects

Noise can have a detrimental effect on animals by causing stress,increasing risk of mortality by changing the delicate balance inpredator/prey detection and avoidance, and by interfering with theiruse of sounds in communication especially in relation to reproduction

and in navigation. Acoustic overexposure can lead to temporary orpermanent loss of hearing.

An impact of noise on animal life is the reduction of usable habitat thatnoisy areas may cause, which in the case of endangered species maybe part of the path to extinction. One of the best known cases ofdamage caused by noise pollution is the death of certain species ofbeached whales, brought on by the loud sound of military sonar.

Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is calledLombard vocal response. Scientists and researchers have conducted

experiments that show whales' song length is longer when submarine-detectors are on. If creatures don't "speak" loud enough, their voicewill be masked by anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices mightbe warnings, finding of prey, or preparations of net-bubbling. When onespecies begins speaking louder, it will mask other species' voice,causing the whole ecosystem to eventually speak louder.

Zebra finches become less faithful to their partners when exposed totraffic noise. This could alter a population's evolutionary trajectory byselecting traits, sapping resources normally devoted to other activitiesand thus lead to profound genetic and evolutionary consequences.

Sources of noise

The overarching cause of most noise worldwide is generated bytransportation systems, principally motor vehicle noise, but alsoincluding aircraft noise and rail noise. Hybrid vehicles for road use arethe first widely sold automobiles in 100 years to achieve significantnoise source reduction. Poor urban planning may also give rise to noise


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pollution, since juxtaposition of industrial to residential land uses, forexample, often results in adverse consequences for the residentialacoustic environment.

Besides transportation noise, other prominent sources are officeequipment, factory machinery, appliances, power tools, lighting hum

and audio entertainment systems. With the popularity of digital audioplayer devices, individuals in a noisy area might increase the volume inorder to drown out ambient sounds. Construction equipment alsoproduces noise pollution.

Noise from recreational off-highway vehicles (OHVs) is becoming aserious problem in rural areas. ATVs, also known as quads or fourwheelers, have increased in popularity and are joining the traditionaltwo wheeled dirt motorcycles for off-road riding.

The noise from ATV machines is quite different from that of the

traditional dirt bike. The ATVs have large bore, four stroke engines thatproduce a loud throaty growl that will carry further due to the lowerfrequencies involved. The traditional two stroke engines on dirt bikeshave gotten larger and, while they have higher frequencies, they stillcan propagate the sound for a mile or more. The noise produced bythese vehicle is particularly disturbing due to the wide variations infrequency and volume.

Recreational off-road vehicles are generally not required to beregistered and the control of the noise they emit is absent in mostcommunities. However, there is a growing awareness that operation of

these machines can seriously degrade the quality of life of those withinearshot of the noise and some communities have enacted regulations,either by imposing limits on the sound or through land use laws. Riderorganizations are also beginning to recognize the problem and areenlightening members as to future restrictions on riding if noise is notcurtailed.

Pollution and Its Part

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