Politics, Power, and Politics, Power, and ViolenceViolence

Part IIPart II

Centralized Political Centralized Political Systems:Systems:

As a society’s social life becomes more As a society’s social life becomes more complex; as population rises, technology complex; as population rises, technology becomes more intricate, and specialization becomes more intricate, and specialization of labor and trade networks produce surplus of labor and trade networks produce surplus goods; the opportunity increases for some goods; the opportunity increases for some individuals or groups to exercise control at individuals or groups to exercise control at the expense of others. the expense of others.

In such societies, political authority and In such societies, political authority and power are concentrated in a singe individual power are concentrated in a singe individual (the chief) or in a body of individuals (the (the chief) or in a body of individuals (the state).state).

ChiefdomsChiefdoms

Chiefdom: a regional polity in which Chiefdom: a regional polity in which two or more local groups are organized two or more local groups are organized under a single chief, who is at the head under a single chief, who is at the head of a ranked hierarchy of people.of a ranked hierarchy of people.– The leaders are considered one class, the The leaders are considered one class, the

rest of the population another classrest of the population another class The office of the chief is usually for life The office of the chief is usually for life

and other hereditary. and other hereditary. – Typically, it passes from a man to his son Typically, it passes from a man to his son

or his sister’s son, depending on whether or his sister’s son, depending on whether descent is traced patrilineally or descent is traced patrilineally or matrilineally. matrilineally.

ChiefdomsChiefdoms The leader of a chiefdom is generally a true The leader of a chiefdom is generally a true

authority figure, whose authority serves to authority figure, whose authority serves to unite members in all affairs and at all times. unite members in all affairs and at all times.

Chiefdoms have a recognized hierarchy Chiefdoms have a recognized hierarchy consisting of major and minor authorities consisting of major and minor authorities who control major and minor subdivisions. who control major and minor subdivisions.

Although leaders of chiefdoms are almost Although leaders of chiefdoms are almost always men, in some cultures a politically always men, in some cultures a politically astute wife, sister, or single daughter of a astute wife, sister, or single daughter of a deceased male chief could inherit such a deceased male chief could inherit such a powerful position as well. powerful position as well.

ChiefdomsChiefdoms

Chiefs usually control the economic activities of Chiefs usually control the economic activities of those who fall under their political rule. those who fall under their political rule. – Typically, chiefdoms involve redistributive systems, Typically, chiefdoms involve redistributive systems,

and the chief has control over surplus goods and and the chief has control over surplus goods and perhaps even over the community’s labor force. perhaps even over the community’s labor force.

The chief may also amass a great amount of The chief may also amass a great amount of personal wealth and pass it on to offspring. personal wealth and pass it on to offspring. – High-ranking families of the chiefdom may engage in High-ranking families of the chiefdom may engage in

the same practice and use their possessions as the same practice and use their possessions as evidence of noble status. evidence of noble status.

ChiefdomsChiefdoms

Traditionally, chiefdoms in all Traditionally, chiefdoms in all parts of the world have been parts of the world have been highly unstable, with lesser highly unstable, with lesser chiefs trying to take power chiefs trying to take power from higher ranking chiefs or from higher ranking chiefs or paramount chiefs vying with paramount chiefs vying with one another for supreme one another for supreme power. power.

A Kpelle town chief A Kpelle town chief in Liberia, West in Liberia, West Africa, listens to a Africa, listens to a dispute in his district. dispute in his district.

Settling disputes is Settling disputes is one of several one of several ongoing traditional ongoing traditional tasks that fall to tasks that fall to paramount chiefs paramount chiefs among Kpelle among Kpelle people.people.

StateState

States differ from nations, which are States differ from nations, which are communities of people who see communities of people who see themselves as one people with a themselves as one people with a common language, culture and common language, culture and territorial base, but who may or may territorial base, but who may or may not have an independent political not have an independent political organization. organization. – About 200 states exist in today's world About 200 states exist in today's world

(the majority having come into existence (the majority having come into existence after World War II), compared to some after World War II), compared to some 5000 nations.5000 nations.

StateState

State: in anthropology, a centralized polity State: in anthropology, a centralized polity involving large numbers of people within a involving large numbers of people within a defined territory who are divided into defined territory who are divided into social classes and organized and directed social classes and organized and directed by a formal government that has the by a formal government that has the capacity and authority to make laws, and capacity and authority to make laws, and use force to defend the social order.use force to defend the social order.– This is the most formal of political This is the most formal of political

organizations and represents one of the organizations and represents one of the hallmarks of what is commonly referred to as hallmarks of what is commonly referred to as civilizationcivilization. .

StateState

A large population in a state-organized A large population in a state-organized society requires increased food production society requires increased food production and wider distribution networks. and wider distribution networks.

Together, these lead to a transformation of Together, these lead to a transformation of the landscape byway of irrigation and the landscape byway of irrigation and terracing, carefully managed crop rotation terracing, carefully managed crop rotation cycles, intensive competition for clearly cycles, intensive competition for clearly demarcated lands, roads, and enough demarcated lands, roads, and enough farmers and other rural workers to support farmers and other rural workers to support market systems and a specialized urban market systems and a specialized urban sector. sector.

StateState

Ethnic differentiation and Ethnic differentiation and ethnocentrism become more ethnocentrism become more pronounced, and the potential for pronounced, and the potential for social conflict increases dramatically. social conflict increases dramatically.

State institutions, which minimally State institutions, which minimally involved a bureaucracy, a military, involved a bureaucracy, a military, and (usually) an official religion, and (usually) an official religion, provide the means for numerous and provide the means for numerous and diverse groups to function together diverse groups to function together as an integrated whole.as an integrated whole.

A Nation without a StateA Nation without a State

About 73% of the world’s states are About 73% of the world’s states are pluralistic societies, having within their pluralistic societies, having within their boundaries peoples of more than one boundaries peoples of more than one nation. nation. – Often, smaller nations (including tribes) and Often, smaller nations (including tribes) and

other groups find themselves at the mercy of other groups find themselves at the mercy of one or more dominant nations or ethnic groups one or more dominant nations or ethnic groups controlling the state. controlling the state.

Frequently facing discrimination, even Frequently facing discrimination, even repression, some minority nations seek to repression, some minority nations seek to improve their political position by founding improve their political position by founding an independent state. an independent state.

A Nation without a StateA Nation without a State

Some examples Some examples are: are: – The Kurdish people The Kurdish people

in habiting the in habiting the borderland of Iran, borderland of Iran, Iraq and TurkeyIraq and Turkey

– The Palestinians The Palestinians whose lands have whose lands have been occupied by been occupied by Israel for several Israel for several decadesdecades

– The Chechens in the The Chechens in the Russian federation.Russian federation.

The Kurdish Nation

StateState

An important aspect of the state is An important aspect of the state is its delegation of authority to its delegation of authority to maintain order within and outside its maintain order within and outside its borders. borders. – Police, foreign ministries, war ministries, Police, foreign ministries, war ministries,

and other bureaucracies function to and other bureaucracies function to control and punish disruptive acts of control and punish disruptive acts of crime, dissention, and rebellion.crime, dissention, and rebellion.

Nation-StateNation-State

An example of a state is Swaziland in southern An example of a state is Swaziland in southern Africa, one of the world’s few true nation-Africa, one of the world’s few true nation-states. states. – The traditional Swazi authority system was The traditional Swazi authority system was

characterized by a highly developed dual monarch, characterized by a highly developed dual monarch, a hereditary aristocracy, and elaborate kinship a hereditary aristocracy, and elaborate kinship rituals, as well as by statewide age sets. rituals, as well as by statewide age sets.

– Swazi government extended from the smallest local Swazi government extended from the smallest local unit, the homestead, upward to the central unit, the homestead, upward to the central administration. administration.

– Swazi officials held their positions for life and were Swazi officials held their positions for life and were dismissed only for treason or witchcraft.dismissed only for treason or witchcraft.

Political Systems and the Political Systems and the Question of Legitimacy:Question of Legitimacy:

Centralized political systems may Centralized political systems may rely upon coercion as a means of rely upon coercion as a means of social control. social control. – The emphasis on force may create The emphasis on force may create

resentment and lessen cooperation. resentment and lessen cooperation. Thus, police states are generally Thus, police states are generally

short-lived; most societies choose short-lived; most societies choose less extreme forms of social less extreme forms of social coercion. coercion.

Political Systems and the Political Systems and the Question of Legitimacy:Question of Legitimacy:

Also basic to the political process is the Also basic to the political process is the concept of legitimacy.concept of legitimacy.

Legitimacy: the right of political leaders to Legitimacy: the right of political leaders to govern; to hold, use, and allocate power; govern; to hold, use, and allocate power; based on the values of a particular society.based on the values of a particular society.– Like force, legitimacy is a form of support for a Like force, legitimacy is a form of support for a

political system; unlike force, legitimacy is political system; unlike force, legitimacy is based on the values a particular society holds. based on the values a particular society holds.

– While the basis for legitimacy varies across While the basis for legitimacy varies across cultures, power based on legitimacy always cultures, power based on legitimacy always results in authority. results in authority.

Politics and Religion:Politics and Religion:

Religion is often intricately connected Religion is often intricately connected with politics. with politics.

Frequently it is religion that legitimizes Frequently it is religion that legitimizes the political order and leadership. the political order and leadership. – Religious beliefs may influence or provide Religious beliefs may influence or provide

authoritative approval to customary rules authoritative approval to customary rules and laws. and laws.

– In both industrial and nonindustrial In both industrial and nonindustrial societies, belief in the supernatural is societies, belief in the supernatural is important and is reflected in people’s important and is reflected in people’s political institutions.political institutions.

Politics and Religion:Politics and Religion:

Within the United States there are Within the United States there are several instances of the use of religion several instances of the use of religion to legitimize political power. to legitimize political power. – the president of the United States takes the the president of the United States takes the

oath of office by swearing on the Bible. oath of office by swearing on the Bible. – the phrase “one nation, under God” in the the phrase “one nation, under God” in the

Pledge of Allegiance. Pledge of Allegiance. – the phrase “In God We Trust” on U.S. coins. the phrase “In God We Trust” on U.S. coins.

In spite of an official separation of In spite of an official separation of church and state, religious church and state, religious legitimization of government lingers.legitimization of government lingers.

Visual CounterpointVisual Counterpoint

Iran and Great Britain permit a closer relationship Iran and Great Britain permit a closer relationship between political and religious affairs. Shiite Muslim between political and religious affairs. Shiite Muslim religious leader Ayatollah Khamenei is Iran’s supreme religious leader Ayatollah Khamenei is Iran’s supreme spiritual leader and his country’s highest political spiritual leader and his country’s highest political authority. In England, Queen Elizabeth is her country’s authority. In England, Queen Elizabeth is her country’s nominal head of state and head of the Anglican Church.nominal head of state and head of the Anglican Church.

Political Leadership and Political Leadership and GenderGender

Irrespective of cultural configuration or Irrespective of cultural configuration or type of political organization, women hold type of political organization, women hold important positions of political leadership important positions of political leadership far less often than men. far less often than men. – When they do occupy publicly recognized When they do occupy publicly recognized

offices, their power and authority rarely exceed offices, their power and authority rarely exceed those of men. But significant exceptions occur. those of men. But significant exceptions occur.

– Perhaps most notable is Queen Victoria, the Perhaps most notable is Queen Victoria, the long-reigning queen of England, Scotland, long-reigning queen of England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. Wales, and Ireland.

Political Leadership and Political Leadership and GenderGender

In addition to inheriting high positions In addition to inheriting high positions of political leadership, growing of political leadership, growing numbers of women have also been numbers of women have also been elected as presidents or prime elected as presidents or prime ministers. ministers. – Countries with female heads of state now Countries with female heads of state now

or in recent years include Indonesia, or in recent years include Indonesia, Pakistan, Ireland, Sri Lanka, Norway, Pakistan, Ireland, Sri Lanka, Norway, India, Turkey, Liberia, Chile, Germany, India, Turkey, Liberia, Chile, Germany, and the Philippines.and the Philippines.

Political Leadership and Political Leadership and GenderGender

Lower visibility in politics does not Lower visibility in politics does not necessarily indicate that women lack necessarily indicate that women lack power in political affairs. power in political affairs. – Among the Iroquois nations of New York, Among the Iroquois nations of New York,

men hold all positions o the village and men hold all positions o the village and tribal councils, as well as on the great tribal councils, as well as on the great council of the Iroquois Confederacy. council of the Iroquois Confederacy.

– They were, however, completely They were, however, completely beholden to women because only beholden to women because only women could nominate men to high women could nominate men to high office. Women could also lobby to have office. Women could also lobby to have someone removed from office. someone removed from office.

Political Leadership and Political Leadership and GenderGender

In the dual-sex system of the Igbo in Nigeria, In the dual-sex system of the Igbo in Nigeria, West Africa, each political unit has separate West Africa, each political unit has separate political institutions for men and women, so political institutions for men and women, so that both have an autonomous sphere of that both have an autonomous sphere of authority, as well as an area of shared authority, as well as an area of shared responsibility. responsibility. – When the British imposed colonial rule on the Igbo When the British imposed colonial rule on the Igbo

in the late 1800s, they failed to recognize the in the late 1800s, they failed to recognize the autonomy and power of the women. autonomy and power of the women.

– As a result, Igbo women lost much of their As a result, Igbo women lost much of their traditional equality and became subordinate to traditional equality and became subordinate to men.men.

Question:Question:

In a chiefdom:In a chiefdom:A.A. Each male member of the society is Each male member of the society is

basically equalbasically equal

B.B. Each kinship group is basically equalEach kinship group is basically equal

C.C. The leaders are considered one class, The leaders are considered one class, the rest of the population another classthe rest of the population another class

D.D. Every member of the society has a Every member of the society has a unique position in the heirachyunique position in the heirachy

Question: CQuestion: C

In a chiefdom In a chiefdom the leaders are the leaders are considered one class, the rest of considered one class, the rest of the population another class.the population another class.

Question:Question:

The Kpelle soceity’s leadership is The Kpelle soceity’s leadership is provided by:provided by:

A.A. Several paramount chiefsSeveral paramount chiefs

B.B. A kingA king

C.C. A “Big Man”A “Big Man”

D.D. An informal “owner”An informal “owner”

Question: AQuestion: A

The Kpelle soceity’s leadership is The Kpelle soceity’s leadership is provided by provided by several paramount several paramount chiefschiefs..

Question:Question:

Religion is used to legitimize Religion is used to legitimize political structures and leadership:political structures and leadership:

A.A. RarelyRarely

B.B. Chiefly in industrial societiesChiefly in industrial societies

C.C. Chiefly in uncentralized political Chiefly in uncentralized political systemssystems

D.D. In a wide range of societiesIn a wide range of societies

Question: DQuestion: D

Religion is used to legitimize Religion is used to legitimize political structures and leadership political structures and leadership in a wide range of societiesin a wide range of societies..

Types Of Political Types Of Political Organization: MembershipOrganization: Membership

MembershipMembership Number of peopleNumber of people Settlement patternSettlement pattern

BandBand Dozens and upDozens and up MobileMobile

TribeTribe Hundreds and upHundreds and upMobile or fixed: 1 Mobile or fixed: 1 or more villagesor more villages

ChiefdomChiefdom Thousands and upThousands and upFixed: 1 or more Fixed: 1 or more

villagesvillages

StateStateTens of thousands Tens of thousands

and upand upFixed: Many Fixed: Many

villages and citiesvillages and cities

Types Of Political Organization: Types Of Political Organization: MembershipMembership

MembershipMembershipBasis of Basis of

relationshipsrelationshipsEthnicities and Ethnicities and

languageslanguages

BandBand KinKin 11

TribeTribeKin, descent Kin, descent

groupsgroups11

ChiefdomChiefdomKin, rank and Kin, rank and

residenceresidence11

StateStateClass and Class and residenceresidence

1 or more1 or more

Types Of Political Types Of Political Organization: GovernmentOrganization: Government

MembershipMembershipDecision making, Decision making,

leadershipleadershipBureaucracyBureaucracy

BandBand ““Egalitarian”Egalitarian” None None

TribeTribeEgalitarian” or Egalitarian” or

Big-ManBig-ManNoneNone

ChiefdomChiefdomCentralized, Centralized, hereditaryhereditary

None, or 1 or 2 None, or 1 or 2 levelslevels

StateState CentralizedCentralized Many levelsMany levels

Types Of Political Types Of Political Organization: GovernmentOrganization: Government

MembershipMembership Conflict resolutionConflict resolutionHierarchy of Hierarchy of settlementsettlement

BandBand InformalInformal No No

TribeTribe InformalInformal No No

ChiefdomChiefdom CentralizedCentralizedNo Paramount No Paramount village or head village or head

towntown

StateState Laws, judgesLaws, judges CapitalCapital

Types Of Political Types Of Political Organization: EconomyOrganization: Economy

MembershipMembershipDivision of laborDivision of labor

ExchangesExchangesExchangesExchanges

BandBand NoNo ReciprocalReciprocal

TribeTribe NoNo ReciprocalReciprocal

ChiefdomChiefdom No -> YesNo -> YesRedistributive Redistributive

(“tribute”)(“tribute”)

StateState YesYesRedistributive Redistributive

(“taxes”)(“taxes”)

Types Of Political Types Of Political Organization: SocietyOrganization: Society

MembershipMembership StratifiedStratified SlaverySlavery

BandBand NoNo NoNo

TribeTribe NoNo NoNo

ChiefdomChiefdomYes, ranked by Yes, ranked by

kinkinSome small-scaleSome small-scale

StateStateYes, by class Yes, by class

or casteor casteSome large-scaleSome large-scale

Types Of Political Types Of Political Organization: SocietyOrganization: Society

MembershipMembershipLuxury goods Luxury goods

for elitefor eliteIndigenous literacyIndigenous literacy

BandBand NoNo NoNo

TribeTribe NoNo NoNo

ChiefdomChiefdom YesYes No ->SomeNo ->Some

StateState YesYes OftenOften