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 Politics, Personalities and Architecture

Shruti Suresh (20062934)

Contents

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Brief 4

Abstract 4

 Need and Relevance 4

Aims and Objectives 5

Scope of the project 5

Introduction 6

History of Politics and Architecture 6

Egyptian Architecture 6

Roman Architecture 7

Political Personalities and Architecture…… 9

Introduction 9

Thomas Jefferson 10

Introduction 10

Architecture after independence-Federal/Jeffersonian Architecture 10

Philosophy 11

Influences 11

Characteristics and Attributes 12

Works 13

Impact 14

Relevance today 14

Adolf Hitler 19

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Introduction 19

Philosophy 19

Influences 20

 Nazi Architecture 20

The three Primary Roles 21

Cult of Victory 23

 Nazi Architectural Works 24

Jawaharlal Nehru 27

Introduction 27

Influences 27

Philosophy 28

Chandigarh 28

Relevance today 32

Inference 33

Inferences and Conclusions 35

Bibliography 38

Politics, Personalities and Architecture

Architecture and political power have been related throughout history in various ways. The

most prominent function of architecture in the political realm has been to raise the national

sentiment of people. Architectural form and aesthetics has been repeatedly used to sell ideas

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of a political system to the populace, both by the creation of new architecture and the

destruction of symbols contrary to the polity. The interrelationship of architecture and politics

often manifests as the rhetoric surrounding a certain building, monument or structure.

“Architecture combines the power of fact with the power of symbolism.”

Some of the greatest leaders in the world turned to architecture to help realise their vision,

dream or propaganda in their respective lands. After all, Architecture is, just like governance,

 by the people; although the ‘people’ in question might vary depending on the governance.

Power, when granted, is often used to realise personal propaganda and ideologies. These

 personal manifestations, when engaged on a public scale, are often instrumental in changing

 public sentiment.

The prevailing political ideology, agenda and agency has been, and perhaps will always be,

crucial in inventing the language that fashions the architecture of that time.

Need and Relevance

One of the most crucial players in determining the architecture of any period is politics and

government. How a powerful leader, in an era of change and revolution, is inspired to create

landmarks that will forever change history is an area worthy of study. Political ideologies are

often born in the minds of a few select individuals, before they spring into a national

revolution. Understanding how, on the brink of a historic national change, influential political

leaders, by sheer strength of their own personalities, have envisioned and succeeded in

creating a built environment intended to change, restore or retain public faith or fear (as the

case may be) is pivotal in fully grasping the reaches of architecture in political life. It is,

therefore, important to understand the relationship between the two, not only for the purpose

of academic study, but also to generate a more aware and empowered society that can

actively participate in, promote and even prevent, if the need arises, the architectural outcome

of a political design.

Aim

To study, compare and contrast how specific political personalities, during the time of 

historic national change, influenced the architecture of their nation.

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To establish how, different political ideologies of leaders, in different contexts, can either 

 prove successful or unsuccessful.

Scope and Limitations

The relationship of architecture and power is not so much in categories of outer form as it is

in meanings. With much of the product, as in any form of art, left to social interpretation

(however obvious) and the prevailing social atmosphere of the time of its inception, there can

never be a fixed essay on the exact impact and materialisation of the two. This being said, it

is indisputable that irrespective of how ambiguous and blurred the lines of contact between

architecture and politics are, one could not do without the other in any given time or place.

History of Politics and Architecture

Egyptian Architecture

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The close connection between politics(in terms of religion) and architecture is everywhere

manifest ; for the priesthood was powerful, invested with unlimited authority and equipped

with all the learning of the age. `The religious keynote of the Egyptians was one of awe and

submission to the great power represented by the sun, while their chief worship was for 

Osiris, the man-god, who died and rose again, the god of death, and through death of 

resurrection to life eternal. Judged by the elaborate preparations for the care of their bodies

after death, one may say that the Egyptians pre-eminently realised the truth that " in the midst

of life we are in death," so the wealthy built themselves lordly tomb-houses against the time

when they should enter the great land of silence. The prevalence of superstition is indicated

 by multitudes of amulets and fetishes, while for the masses of the people the magician with

his spells and magic figures was their accepted priest.

In those dawning days of the world's history in Egypt there was no strict dividing line

 between gods and kings ; no need for the doctrine of the divine right of kings ; for kings were

often ranked, both by themselves and by their people, as actual divinities. Often they filled

the double function as kings of their people and priests of their gods, and yet again they were

themselves gods, commanding priestly service. On the other hand, the gods themselves were

invested with superhuman and therefore with inventive powers, as when the awesome art of 

writing was regarded as the invention of the god Thoth. So gods, kings, and priests kept

sacred mysteries shrouded from the public vision, and the people groped in darkness and

reached out vain hands to a world outside their own experience, which was only partially

revealed to them through signs and symbols, and against the evil of which they sought to

 protect themselves by amulets and offerings.

Social and industrial conditions in Egypt were largely determined by the uninterrupted rule of 

a centralised, despotic government, which employed vast armies of unpaid labourers in the

erection of monumental buildings when the annual inundations made agriculture impossible ;

thus the continuity of social and industrial conditions may be traced in the building activities

of the long line of Pharaohs. The Pharaohs, like the Colossi of Memnon, are silhouetted

against the mysterious desert background ; sometimes they appear as gods or demi-gods,

often as mystery priests, generally as builders, invariably as despots, but never as fathers of 

their people. A study of the social system in ancient Egypt conjures up a sinister picture of an

almighty Pharaoh at one end of the scale and millions of slaves and forced labourers at the

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other, and of this system the royal pyramids and priestly temples are the outward and material

testimony to this day.

Ancient Roman Architecture

The Architecture of Ancient Rome adopted the external language of classical Greek 

architecture for their own purposes, which were so different from Greek buildings as to create

a new architectural style. Adopting this broader view of architecture we can see that social

elements such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to

discover new (architectural) solutions of their own. For example, the use of vaults and arches

together with a sound knowledge of building materials enabled them to achieve

unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing structures for public use. Examples

include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the

Pantheon, Rome (largest single span dome for well over a millennium), the basilicas and

 perhaps most famously of all, the Colosseum. They were reproduced at smaller scale in most

important towns and cities in the Empire.

Political propaganda demanded that these buildings should be made to impress as well as perform a public function. The Romans didn't feel restricted by Greek aesthetic axioms alone

in order to achieve these objectives. The Pantheon is a supreme example of this, particularly

in the version rebuilt by Hadrian and which still stands in its celestial glory as a prototype of 

several other great buildings of Western architecture. The same emperor left his mark on the

landscape of northern Britain when he built a wall to mark the limits of the empire, and after 

further conquests in Scotland, the Antonine wall was built to replace Hadrian's Wall.

The buildings in these cities directly and indirectly served Roman power.

A building type known as the basilica served administrative functions. The

 basilica acted like a town hall or court house in American cities. A

characteristic element of these basilicas was a projection called an apse

which served as the seat of the magistrate responsible for dispensing the law. For a citizen of 

the empire the basilica in a Roman city conveyed the idea of Roman authority. The

associations with authority was an important rationale for the use of the basilica type as the

standard form of the Christian church from the time of the Emperor Constantine. 

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The foundation of temples was particularly important to

Emperors. Religion and politics were very much allied in the

Roman world. The public cults celebrated outside these temples

were a significant way the population attested to their 

membership to the community and to the Empire. The building of a temple by an emperor 

was a clear testament of his pietas, or his dedication to the traditional customs of Roman

society. 

Influence of Roman Architecture on Western Architecture

Echoes of the tradition of the Roman Empire are found in cities throughout the western

world. Nations and leaders to give visual testament to their authority and power have

emulated the distinct forms of Roman architecture. Particularly good examples can be found

in Paris. After Napoleon was crowned emperor in 1804, he set out to make

Paris a new Rome. The Arc de Triomphe, commissioned by Napoleon in 1806

 but not completed until 1836, is the most famous example of the French

 borrowing of Roman formulas.

The tradition of Roman architecture has had an important influence on

American architecture. For example, many courthouses throughout

America can be seen to be based on Roman architecture. A particularly

striking example is the U.S. Supreme Court building in Washingon.

Designed by Cass Gilbert and completed in 1935, the core of the building can be seen to be

directly based on the Roman Temple type including the characteristics of being raised on a

 podium and approached by a formal front staircase. Like Roman temples, the free-standingcolumns only appear on the front of the Supreme Court building.

Political Personalities and Architecture

Most regimes, especially new ones, wish to make their mark both physically and emotionally

on the places they rule. The most tangible way of doing so is by constructing buildings and

monuments. Architecture is considered to be the only art form that can actually physically

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meld with the world as well as influence the people who inhabit it. Buildings, as autonomous

things, must be addressed by the inhabitants as they go about their lives. In this sense, people

are "forced" to move in certain ways, or to look at specific things. In so doing, Architecture

affects not only the landscape, but also the mood of the populace who are served.

Although the list of personalities who have influenced architecture at different times would

 be exhaustive, three names stand out in history. Thomas Jefferson, Adolf Hitler and

Jawaharlal Nehru, from completely different nations, working under completely different

 political atmospheres and from different times in history, have one thing in common-they

were instrumental in setting a precedence in architecture, during an important time in the

history of their nation.

Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, contributed some of the most

influential architectural ideas after (and perhaps because of) the American war of 

independence. The general atmosphere in America at that time was to break free from Britain

and establish a free, liberal society.

Adolf Hitler, on the other hand, was in leadership right before the Second World War, and in

his unshakeable belief that Germany would win the war, was already carving out his

architectural vision for Germany- that of a supreme power seat, intimidating, overwhelmingand fear-inspiring.

Jawaharlal Nehru, often known as the architect of Modern India, was in power post the

Indian Independence. The mood was of freedom and liberty, and the public sentiment was

extremely spirited during that period. And while the country was grappling with the mixing

of traditional culture and the ones the British left behind, Nehru had a very clear vision of 

India.

Thomas Jefferson

Introduction

When the Europeans settled in North America, they brought their architectural traditions and

construction techniques for building. The oldest buildings in America show surviving9

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examples. Construction was dependent upon the available resources: wood and brick are the

common elements of English buildings in New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and coastal South.

It is also brought the conquest, occupation, and displacement of the indigenous peoples in

their homeland, and their dwelling and settlement construction techniques devalued. The

colonizers appropriated territories and sites for new forts, dwellings, missions and churches,

and agriculture.

Architecture after Independence- Federal Architecture and Jeffersonian

Architecture

In 1776, the members of the Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence of 

the Thirteen Colonies. After the long and distressing Revolutionary War the 1783 Treaty of 

Paris recognized the existence of the new republic, the United States of America. Even

though it was a firm break with the English politically, the Georgian influences continued to

mark the buildings constructed. Public and commercial needs grew in parallel with the

territorial extension. The buildings of these new federal and business institutions used the

classic vocabulary of columns, domes and pediments, in some referencing to ancient Rome

and Greece. Architectural publications multiplied: in 1797, Asher Benjamin published The

Country Builder's Assistant . Americans looked to affirm their independence in the domains

of politics, economics, and culture with new civic architecture for government, religion, and

education.

In the 1780s, the Federal style began to diverge bit by bit from the Georgian style and became

a uniquely American genre. At the time of the War of Independence, houses stretched out

along a strictly rectangular plan, adopting curved lines and favoring the decorative details

such as garlands and urns. Certain openings were ellipsoidal in form, one or several pieces

were oval or circular.

The Federal style was popular along the Atlantic coast from 1780 to 1830. Characteristics of 

the federal style include neoclassical elements, bright interiors with large windows and white

walls and ceilings, and a decorative yet restrained appearance that emphasized rational

elements. Significant federal style architects at the time include: Asher Benjamin, Charles

Bulfinch, Samuel McIntire, Alexander Parris, and William Thornton

Thomas Jefferson, who was the third president of the United States between 1801 and 1809,

was a scholar in many domains, including architecture. Having journeyed several times in

Europe, he hoped to apply the formal rules of  palladianism and of antiquity in public and10

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 private architecture and master planning. Jeffersonian Architecture is an American form

of  Neo-Classicism or  Neo-Palladianism embodied in American

 president and polymath Thomas Jefferson's designs for his home (Monticello), his retreat

(Poplar Forest), his school (University of Virginia), and his designs for the homes of friends

and political allies (notably Barboursville). Over a dozen private homes bearing his personal

stamp still stand today. Jefferson's style was popular in the early American period at about

the same time that the more mainstream Greek Revival architecture was also coming into

vogue (1790s-1830s) with his assistance.

Philosophy

Jefferson believed that architecture was the heart of the American cause. In his mind, a

 building was not merely a walled structure, but a metaphor for American ideology, and the

 process of construction was equal to the task of building a nation. The architecture of any

American building should express the American desire to break cultural--as well as political--

ties to Europe. American architecture, Jefferson believed, would embody the fulfilment of the

civic life of Americans, and he sought to establish the standards of a national architecture,

 both aesthetically and politically.

A man of the Age of Enlightenment, Thomas Jefferson had participated in the emancipation

of New World architecture by expressing his vision of an art-form in service of democracy.

He contributed to developing the Federal style in his country and adapting

European Neoclassical architecture to American democracy.

Influences

Jefferson was not formally trained in architecture or draughtsmanship. As an amateur 

architect and classicist, he was most heavily influenced by the Italian revivalist

architect, Andrea Palladio (1508–1580). Over time Jefferson acquired an intense appreciation

of Palladio's architectural theories based on their connection to ancient Rome. Recognizing

the powerful political connotations inherent in ancient Roman structures Jefferson designed

many of his civic buildings in a neo-Roman style. Jeffersonian architecture is therefore

 perhaps best described as "Palladian" in inspiration.

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Jefferson was also influenced by architect James Gibbs (1682–1754), and by French Neo-

classical buildings, such as the Hôtel de Salm in Paris, when he served as Ambassador to

France. While acting as Minister to France from 1784-89 Jefferson studied the architectural

heritage of France, gaining insight from architectural historians and site visits. This interest in

Roman elements appealed in a political climate that looked to the ancient Roman Republic as

a model.

Georgian architecture was the style of architecture utilized by many Americans during

Jefferson's time, but he was strongly against it. He believed that it was too similar to the

English architecture, which he felt was ugly and soul-less. The reason for such an opinion

could have been because he wanted to break away from all British ties.

While the Jeffersonian style incorporates Palladian proportions and themes, it is at the same

time unique to Jefferson's own personal sensibility and the materials available to him in early

republican Virginia.

Characteristics and Attributes

Palladian design (e.g., central core, symmetrical wings)

Portico-and- pediment primary entries

Classical orders and moldings (especially Tuscan)

 Piano nobile (main floor elevated above ground level)

Red brick construction

White painted columns and trim

Octagons and octagonal forms

Chinese railings

"Suppressed" (hidden) stairs, instead of grand stairways

One characteristic which typifies Jefferson's architecture is the use of the octagon and

octagonal forms in his designs. Palladio never used octagons, but Jefferson employed them as

a design motif—halving them, elongating them, and employing them in whole as with thedome of Monticello, or the entire house at Poplar Forest.

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Works

Designed by Jefferson:

"First Monticello" (1768–1784; demolished)

Monticello (1794–1805)

Poplar Forest (1806–1826)

The Lawn/"Academical Village" (1817), University of Virginia

Barboursville (Completed ca. 1822; ruins)

The Rotunda, University of Virginia (1822–26; burnt 1895; rebuilt 1898-99)

Directly influenced by Jefferson:

Manor house, Lower Brandon Plantation (1760s; Possibly designed by Jefferson)

Virginia State House (Completed 1788; Design partially credited to Jefferson)

Manor house, Belle Grove Plantation (1794–1797; Consultation by Jefferson)

Indirectly influenced by Jefferson:

Various buildings, University of Mary Washington (Post-1908)

"Grand Auditorium", Tsinghua University, Beijing (1917)

Thomas Jefferson Memorial, Washington, DC (1939–1943)

Impact

In the United States

In 1803, President Jefferson appointed Benjamin Henry Latrobe as surveyor of public

 buildings in the United States, thus introducing Greek Revival architecture to the country for 

the first time. Latrobe went on to design a number of important public buildings

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in Washington, D.C. and Philadelphia, including work on the United States Capitol and

the Bank of Pennsylvania.[3]

Even after Jeffersonian designs went out of vogue for other public buildings, they continued

to have an influence on many Protestant church designs on the East Coast through the mid-

twentieth century. The style is still employed on some southern college campuses,

 particularly in Virginia, and has enjoyed a certain re-emergence among some newer twenty-

first century evangelical church complexes.

Jefferson appears above all as a lover of freedom, whether in politics, in religion, or in

research; but the freedom he thus loved from youth was essentially the freedom of reason to

reach its logical conclusions, not freedom to degenerate into formless anarchy.

 

Relevance Today Elsewhere

An example of Jeffersonian architecture outside the United

States can be found in one of China's top universities,

Tsinghua University in Beijing. The University's "Grand

Auditorium" was designed with elements of the

Jeffersonian architectural style in the early 20th century.

MONTICELLO

Monticello is a historical site just

outside Charlottesville, Virginia, U ni

ted States. It was the estate

of Thomas Jefferson. The house,which Jefferson himself designed,

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was based on the neoclassical principles described in the books of the Italian

Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio. It is situated on the summit of an 850-foot (260 m)-

high peak in the Southwest Mountains south of the Rivanna Gap. Its name comes from

the Italian"little mountain." It's an example of the Neo Palladian style, with the Hôtel de

Salm in Paris, that Jefferson saw when ambassador to France, as a model. This was the

American variation on Palladian architecture borrowed from British and Irish models.

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

Thomas Jefferson founded the University of Virginia in

1819. He wished the publicly-supported school to have

a national character and stature. Jefferson envisioned a

new kind of university, one dedicated to educating

leaders in practical affairs and public service rather 

than for professions in the classroom and pulpit

exclusively. It was the first nonsectarian university in the United States and the first to use the

elective course system. 

He contributed to the plans for the University of Virginia, which began construction in 1817.

The project was completed by Benjamin Latrobe applying Jefferson's architectural concepts.

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The University of Virginia was to

 become the physical model of 

Jefferson's cultural and educational

ideals. In the design of his

"academical village," Jefferson

envisioned a democratic

community of scholars and

students coexisting in a single

village which united the living and

learning spaces in one

undifferentiated area. In the plan

 below, Jefferson organized the

space around the open expanse of "The Lawn," surrounded it with student rooms and central

 pavilions which housed faculty members and offered common rooms for the community, and

crowned the space with the Rotunda, his monument to Classicism. The effect of this design

was intended to represent Jefferson's plan for American education: progressive, yet rooted in

classical disciplines; broad-based and elective, but still centralized; and accessible, but still

reserved for the privileged elite.

The Lawn is used to refer either to the original grounds designed by Thomas Jefferson for 

the University of Virginia, or specifically to the grassy field around which the original

university buildings are arrayed. The Lawn consists of four rows of colonnades on which

alternate student rooms and larger buildings. The inner rank of colonnades, facing the central

Lawn proper, contains ten Pavilions (which provided both classrooms and housing for the

 professors who ) and 54 student rooms, while the outer rank, facing outward, contain six

Hotels (typically service buildings and dining establishments) and another 54 student rooms.

At the head of the colonnades, facing south down the Lawn,

is the Rotunda, a one-half scale copy of the Pantheon in brick 

with white columns, that originally held the University's

library.

Jefferson's design for the Lawn sought to find an alternative

to traditional single-building college architecture, such as that

he experienced as a student at the College of William and

Mary, due to its being "noisy, unhealthy, vulnerable to fires,

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and affording little privacy." The overall model for the Lawn (the U-shaped plan with a

central dome) is similar to, and may have been influenced by, Joseph Jacques Ramée's design

for Union College and Benjamin Latrobe's design for a military academy, as well as by the

designs of Palladio and by his own house, Monticello. Along the legs of the U, the

colonnades provide sheltered, but outdoor, communication between the pavilions and the

student rooms, and while everything in the Lawn communicates with the Lawn or the outside

world, there is privacy afforded by the walled gardens.

Jefferson separated the buildings of the lawn into 10 units, or Pavilions, to reflect his

classification of the branches of learning, and designed the relationship between them and the

rest of the Lawn Each of the ten Pavilions has a unique design, intended to give individual

dignity to each branch of study, and the whole was intended to serve as a sort of outdoor classroom for architectural study

Although expressed in terms of education, Jefferson's political beliefs resound in both the

theory and the design of his University. In both the layout of the buildings on the Lawn and

in the jumble of architectural styles, Jefferson continually evokes and confounds the dictates

of European architecture and emerges with an architectural "bricolage" of Italian, Greek,

French, and Chinese influences--all cast in American building materials and presented in an

academic community. As if to frustrate the pure classicist further, some materials, such as the

columns on Pavilion Three, were made in Italy and imported as "educational materials" while

other materials, like the columns on Pavilion One, were manufactured in Charlottesville.

Jefferson has excerpted styles from the European traditions and reordered them according to

his own tastes, expressing his wish to sever the ties to Europe and develop a uniquely

American identity. The assemblage of styles present on the Lawn serve to symbolize

Jefferson's own New World Order, both architecturally and intellectually. The European

traditions have been studied, borrowed, incorporated, and then recast in American materials

according to American needs and tastes.

If the architecture suggests Jefferson's desire to break from Europe both culturally and

intellectually, then the actual construction embodies the toil behind the pastoral ideals

espoused by Jefferson as the model for life in America. A project of this magnitude,

especially when combined with the concurrent work at Monticello, was nothing short of 

monumental at the time. Charlottesville's remote location, small population, and limited

cache of available resources made the construction project even more difficult that it already

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was. The university had to be in complete accord with the natural environment around it, and

Jefferson had to adjust his design to accomodate the slope of the hill. Classical senses of 

 perspective and proportion are distorted to account for the changing grade of the site, and the

gardens to the east are larger than the ones to the west, destroying perfect symmetry. But the

lack of ideal proportion and the chaos of architectural styles is cleverly contained by the

uniform building materials and carefully ordered layout. Order is illusorily imposed on the

Lawn, proving Jefferson's own point about the need to recast classical ideas in American

terms. For Jefferson, "classicism is the language, but it was elastic and capable of change and

growth."

CAPITOL OF VIRGINIA

Thomas Jefferson prepared plans for the Virginia capitol in Richmond based on the famous

 building Maison Carrée in Nîmes, France, with the assistance of French architect and

antiquarian Charles-Louis Clérisseau. The Virginia capitol was the first public building in the

United States designed in the neoclassical style. Thomas Jefferson designed the neo-classical

central building of the state capitol. Jefferson's achievement in civic design began with the

Virginia State Capitol in which he united the lofty principles and grand scale of the Classical

tradition with established Virginia customs. 

Jefferson drew his first design for a Virginia Capitol in

early or mid–1770. He had decided to treat the exterior 

as a giant Ionic temple and had also probably thought

of using the Capitol to set a model for "cubic

architecture" and the Orders. The chance to create a

new Capitol did not arise until 1785, when the

commonwealth's Directors of Public Buildings

requested a design from Jefferson while he was serving as minister to France. The site

chosen for the new building, Shockoe Hill, overlooked the falls of the James River in

Richmond. Jefferson consulted certain Greek and Roman temples, such as a temple at

Baalbek and the Erechtheum and at this time probably developed the idea of the Capitol as a

"temple" to Liberty or Justice.

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Adolf Hitler

Introduction

 Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, is the common name for the country of Germany while

governed by Adolf Hitler and his National Socialist German Workers' Party.

On 30 January 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany. Although he

initially headed a coalition government, he quickly eliminated his government partners. At

this time the German national borders still were those established in the peace Treaty of 

Versailles (1919), between Germany and the Allied Powers.

The Nazis promised strong, authoritarian government in lieu of effete parliamentary

republicanism, civil peace, radical economic policy (including full employment), restored

national pride (principally by repudiating the Versailles Treaty), and racial cleansing, partly

implemented via the active suppression of Jews and Marxists, all in name of national unity

and solidarity, rather than the partisan divisions of democracy, and the social class

divisiveness of Marxism. The Nazis promised national and cultural renewal based

upon Völkisch movement traditionalism, and proposed rearmament, repudiation of 

reparations, and reclamation of territory lost to the Treaty of Versailles.

Philosophy

Hitler's desire to be the founder of a thousand-year Reich were in harmony with

the Colosseum being associated with eternity. He envisioned all future Olympic games to be

held in Germany in the Deutsches Stadion. He also anticipated that after winning the war,

other nations would have no choice but to send its athletes to Germany every time theOlympic games were held. Thus, this building foreshadowed Hitler's craving for control of 

the world long before this aim was put into words. Hitler also seemed to derive satisfaction

from seeing world-famous monuments being surpassed in size by German equivalents.

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Influences

Adolf Hitler was an admirer of imperial Rome and was aware that some

ancient Germans had, over time, become part of the social fabric and exerted influence on the

Empire. Adolf Hitler admired ancient Rome as the "crystallization point of a world empire," a

capital with massive public monuments that reflected the supremacy of the State and the

 political might of the ancient world's "master-race." He also admired the way Mussolini

turned the monuments of imperial Rome into validatory symbols of Fascism. Hitler planned a

Reich that would be a as durable as the Roman Empire. Its capital, Berlin, would surpass the

architectural magnificence of ancient Rome before the advent of Christianity as its official

religion.

He considered the Romans an early Aryan empire, and emulated their architecture in an

original style inspired by bothneoclassicism and art deco, sometimes known as "severe" deco,

erecting edifices as cult sites for the Nazi party. He also ordered construction of a type

of Altar of Victory, borrowed from the Greeks, who were, according to Nazi ideology,

inseminated with the seed of the Aryan peoples.

Nazi Architecture

 Nazi architecture was an architectural plan which played a role in the Nazi party's plans to

create a cultural and spiritual rebirth in Germany as part of the Third Reich. The

 Nazis believed architecture played a key role in creating their new order. Architecture had a

special importance to the politicians, who like most totalitarian leaders, sought to influence

all aspects of human life.

Moreover, not only major cities but also small villages were to express the achievement and

the nature of the German people. It seemed as though the basic design of commonly practiced

architecture at the time was to be either left in place or modified within Germany's dominion.

The new building style may have been intended to give the idea to the rest of the world and to

the unconverted Germans that the era of the thousand-year Reich had dawned.

Three Primary Roles

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 Nazi architecture has three primary roles in the creation of its new order:

(i) Theatrical;

(ii)  Symbolic;

(iii)  Didactic.

In addition, the Nazis saw architecture as a method of producing buildings that had a

function, but also served a larger purpose. For example, the House of German Art had the

function of housing art, but through its form, style and design it had the purpose of being a

community structure built using an Aryan style, which acted as a kind of temple to acceptable

German art.

• Theatrical

Many Nazi buildings were stages for communal activity, creations of space meant to embody

the principles on which Nazi ideology was based. From Albert Speer 's seemingly

iconoclastic use of  banners for the May Day celebrations in the Lustgarten, to the Nazi co-

option of the ‘Thing’ tradition, the Nazis wanted to link themselves to a German past.

The link could be direct; a Thingplatz was a meeting place near or directly on a site of supposed special historical significance, used for the holding of festivals associated with

a Germanic past. This was an attempt to link the German people back to both their history

and their land. The use of 'Thing' places was closely associated with the 'blood and soil' part

of Nazi ideology, which involved the perceived right of those of German blood to occupy

German land. The Thingplatz would contain structures, which often included natural objects

like stones and were built in the most natural setting possible. These structures would be built

following the pattern of an ancient Greek theatre, following a structure of a historical culture

considered to be Aryan. This stressing of a physical link between the past and Nazism aided

to legitimatize the Nazi view of history, or even the Nazi regime itself. Still, the 'Thing'

movement was not successful.

• Symbolic

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Hitler saw the buildings of the past as direct representations of the culture that created them

and how they were created. Hitler believed they could be used by man to transmit his time

and its spirit to posterity and that in his time, ultimately, all that remained to remind men of 

the great epochs of history was their monumental architecture. Nazi Architecture should

speak to the conscience of a future Germany centuries from now. As Hitler said in a speech,

'The purpose of Nazi architecture and technology should be to create ruins that would last a

thousand years and thereby overcome the transience of the market.

Central to this was Albert Speer's Theory of Ruin Value, in which the Nazis would build

structures which even in a state of decay, after hundreds or thousands of years would more or 

less resemble Roman models. Speer intended to produce this result by avoiding elements of 

modern construction such as steel girders and reinforced concrete which are subject toweathering. In this respect, it can be seen that by going back to the materials of the past and

 by the proper engineering of buildings it was possible to create a permanence that was

impossible with contemporary building materials and styles. To Hitler, only the great cultural

documents of humanity made of granite and marblecould symbolize his new order.

Symbolism, graphic art and hortatory inscriptions were prominent in all forms of Nazi-

approved architecture. The eagle with the wreathed swastikas, heroic friezes and free-

standing sculpture were common. Often mottoes or quotations from Mein Kampf or Hitler's

speeches were placed over doorways or carved into walls. The Nazi message was conveyed

in friezes, which extolled labour, motherhood, the agrarian life and other values. Muscular 

nudes, symbolic of military and political strength, guarded the entrance to the Berlin

Chancellery.

• Didactic

While Hitler saw the architecture of the Weimar Republic as an object lesson in cultural

decline, the new buildings he would build would teach a different lesson, that of national

rebirth. The size of the buildings proposed for Berlin would be among the largest in the

world, meant to instil in each individual German citizen the insignificance of individuals in

relation to the community as a whole. The distinct lack of any detailing at a human scale in

the urban neo-classical building would have simply overawed, imparting the message without

any subtlety. If the message was not understood it would be drummed in by making people

go in straight lines to predetermined positions.

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Cult of Victory

Both the Nazis and the Romans employed architecture of colossal dimensions to overawe and

intimidate. Both cultures were preoccupied with architectural monuments that celebrated or 

glorified a victory ideology: triumphal arches (the largest in the world on Berlin's north-south

axis), columns, trophies and a cult of pageantry associated with the subjugation of others. As

Albert Speer remarked, when it was safe to do so: "The Romans built arches of triumph to

celebrate the big victories won by the Roman Empire, while Hitler built them to celebrate

victories he had not yet won".

The Nazis planned and built many military trophies and memorials [Mähnmaler] on the

eastern borders of the Reich. In the same way, the Romans had built celebratory trophies on

the borders of their empire to commemorate victories and warn off would-be attackers. One

of the most prominent memorial buildings intended to commemorate Germany's past and

anticipated military glory was Wilhelm Kries's Soldatenhalle. This was to be yet another cult

centre to promote the regime's glorification of war, patriotic self-sacrifice

and virtutes militares. The main architectural features of this building were overtly Roman. A

groin-vaulted crypt beneath the main barrel-vaulted hall was intended as a pantheon of 

generals exhibited here in effigy. In addition, it functioned as a herõon, since the bones

of Frederick the Great were to be placed in the building.

 

Flags and insignia played an important part in Nazi ceremonial and in the decoration of 

  buildings. The eagle-topped standards carried by the SA at Nuremberg rallies were

reminiscent of Roman legionary standards, the uniformity of which Hitler admired. There can

  be little doubt that Hitler state architecture, even when seen today in photographs of 

architectural models, conveys a sense of "Power and Force" which of course Hitler wanted it

to embody.

Nazi Architectural works

Hitler’s Chancellery

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From Wilhelmsplatz an arriving diplomat drove through great

gates into a court of honour. By way of an outside staircase he first

entered a medium-sized reception room from which double doors

almost seventeen feet high opened into a large hall clad in mosaic.

He then ascended several steps, passed through a round room with

domed ceiling, and saw before him a gallery 480 feet long. Hitler 

was particularly impressed by my gallery because it was twice as

long as the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.

Hitler was delighted: "On the long walk from the entrance to the reception hall they'll get a

taste of the power and grandeur of the German Reich!"

Zeppelinfeld,  Nuremburg Party Rally Grounds

 Nazi party rally grounds (in German

Reichsparteitagsgelände) is the name of a site in the

southeast of Nuremberg where the Nazi party rallies

were held from 1933 until 1938. It includes the Congress

Hall, the Zeppelin Field, the Märzfeld (March Field), the

Deutsche Stadion (German stadium), the former Stadion

der Hitlerjugend ("stadium of the Hitler Youth", today Frankenstadion) and the Große Straße

("great road"). The party grounds were planned by Hitler's first architect Albert Speer .

Congress Hall, Nuremburg Party Rally Grounds

Hitler conferred upon Nuremberg the title, "City of the Party Rallies" for mainly pragmatic

reasons. Up to one million Party members would travel to Nuremberg for the week-long

rallies, completely swamping the city, and the city, situated in the centre of Germany was

easily accessible. Hitler also wanted to appropriate the city's history for the glorification of 

the Nazi party. A large auditorium was needed for this once a year event and so Hitler 

comissioned the Congress Hall. The Hall was designed to hold over 50,000 people, but was

never finished. The horseshoe-shaped building covers a total area of about 300 x 300 metres.

The scale of this structure is overwhelming with an immense arcade running around the lower 

level of the u-shaped structure. The arcade only serves to dwarf the visitor and make themfeel more insignificant in the face of the Nazi system. The monumentality of the building is

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increased by the simplicity of the oversized architectural

detailing.

Berlin and the Reshaping of Cities

The order for the reshaping of other German cities was

signed by Hitler on October 4, 1937. The plan that Speer coordinated as 'Inspector General of 

Construction' (GBI) for the centre of Berlin was based on Roman, not Greek, planning

 principles, which might or might not have been influenced by Roman-derived town plans in

Fascist Italy. Speer's plan was to create a

central north-south axis, which was to join

the major east-west axis at right angles. On

the north side of the junction a massive

forum of about 35 hectares was planned,

around which were to be situated buildings

of the greatest political and physical

dimensions: a vast domed Volkshalle on the north side, Hilter's vast new palace and

chancellery on the west side and part of the south front and on the east side now-dwarfed the

 pre-Nazi Reichstag and the new High Command of the

German armed forces. These buildings placed in strong

axial relationship around the forum designed to contain

one million people were collectively to represent the

"maiestas imperii" (The Majesty of the Empire) and make

the new world capital, Germania, outshine its only avowed

rival, Rome. The plan for the centre of Berlin differed

only in its dimensions from the plans drawn up for thereshaping of smaller German cities and for the

establishment of new towns in conquered territories.

 

The new community buildings were not to be randomly cited in town, but were to have

 prominent (usually central) positions within the town plan. The clarity, order and objectivity

that Hitler aimed at in the layout of his towns and buildings were to be achieved in conquered

territories in the East by founding new colonies and in Germany itself by reshaping

the centres of already established towns and cities. In order to provide a town with centrally

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located community centres, principles of town planning reminiscent of Greek, but more

especially Roman, methods were revived. 

 Nazi architecture was also both in appearance and symbolically intimidating, an instrument

of conquest; total architecture was an extension of total war. Speer wrote in 1978 "My

architecture represented an intimidating display of power."

 

The colossal dimensions of Roman and Nazi buildings also served to emphasize the

insignificance of the individual engulfed in the architectural vastness of a state building.

Autobahns

Upon assuming power in January 1933, Adolf 

Hitler enthusiastically embraced an ambitious autobahn

construction project as part of his program of  public

works to help fulfill his promise to

reduce unemployment. As well as providing

employment and improved infrastructure, necessary for 

economic recovery efforts, the project was also a great success for propaganda purposes. It

has been said that another aim of the autobahn project, beyond creating national unity and

strengthening centralized rule, was to provide mobility for the movement of military forces.

Jawaharlal Nehru

Introduction

After 200 years under colonial rule, India gained independence on 15 th August, 1947. This

marked the dawning of a new era in Indian History. With new found independence, the most

important agenda of the time was the question of what direction India should take in

formulating policies for its future. In all fields, from education, legislation to architecture,

there was a constant tug of war between the inherited colonial principles and the traditional

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heritage original to the country. It was in this background that Jawaharlal Nehru became the

first prime minister of independent India. Nehru was a charismatic and radical leader,

advocating complete independence from the British Empire.

"Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall

redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the

midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment

comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an

age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance. It is fitting that at

this solemn moment we take the pledge of dedication to the service of India and her people

and to the still larger cause of humanity."

Influences

Jawaharlal Nehru received education in some of the finest schools and universities of the

world. He did his schooling from Harrow and completed his Law degree from Trinity

College, Cambridge. The seven years he spent in England widened his horizons and he

acquired a rational and sceptical outlook and sampled Fabian socialism (Democratic

socialism via gradualist and reformist, rather than revolutionary, means) and Irish

nationalism, which added to his own patriotic dedication. Nehru's appreciation of the virtues

of parliamentary democracy, secularism and liberalism, coupled with his concerns for the

 poor and underprivileged, are recognised to have guided him in formulating socialist policies

that influence India to this day. They also reflect the socialist origins of his worldview.

Philosophy

 Nehru lived to see conditions both pre and post independence. Almost considered a right

hand man to Gandhi, Nehru was at the forefront in the fight for independence. He succeeded

in gaining important positions in the political realm at a relatively younger age. Nehru was a

firm believer in socialist democracy, liberalisation and secularism. Ambitious and radical,

 Nehru vision for India was a modern one, where the country would be on par with any other 

country in the world, economically, socially, and politically. Jawaharlal Nehru wanted India

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to go from old to new, to discard the past and move forward towards a newer more

 productive future.

Jawaharlal Nehru was a passionate advocate of education for India's children and youth,

 believing it essential for India's future progress. His government oversaw the establishment of 

many institutions of higher learning, including the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, 

the Indian Institutes of Technology and the Indian Institutes of Management.

Chandigarh 

Chandigarh, the dream city of India's first Prime Minister,

Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, was planned by the famous French

architect Le Corbusier. Pt. Nehru christened it "City

Beautiful", appreciating the vision and genius of Le

Corbusier. Picturesquely located at the foothills of the

Shivaliks, it is known as one of the best experiments in

urban planning and modern architecture in India.

On 15 August 1947, India’s hard-won freedom was

accompanied by a partition that established Pakistan as a

separate country. As a result, the Indian state of Punjab lost its historic capital, Lahore, to

Pakistan. Consequently, the search for a replacement capital for East Punjab was high on the

agenda of the fledgling Indian nation-state.

A burgeoning sense of national pride focused attention on the search for this new capital, and

the project took on great symbolic value as a demonstration of the new government’s

effectiveness, ideals, and abilities. Although the development of this new capital was

ostensibly a state project, the central government took an active role in the endeavour,

 propelled by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru’s personal interest in it. Instead of choosing an

existing city, Nehru advocated the making of a new capital that would express the ideals of 

the new nation-state, which was precipitously embracing modernism as a catalyst for change.

The present site was selected in 1948 taking into account various attributes such as its Central

location in the state, proximity to the national capital & availability of sufficient water 

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supply, fertile of soil, gradient of land for natural drainage, beautiful site with the panorama

of blue hills as backdrop & moderate climate. Pandit Nehru immediately took the final

decision and on his visit to the project site on April 2, 1952, said," The site chosen is free

from the existing encumbrances of old towns and old traditions. Let it be the first expression

of our creative genius flowing on our newly earned freedom. Let it be a new town symbolic

of the freedom of India..”

Of all the new town schemes in independent India, the Chandigarh project quickly assumed

 prime significance, because of the city's strategic location as well as the personal interest of 

Jawaharlal Nehru. Commissioned by Nehru to reflect the new nation's modern, progressive

outlook, Nehru famously proclaimed Chandigarh to be "unfettered by the traditions of the

 past, a symbol of the nation's faith in the future."

This kind of ideological momentum propelled the project quickly to a developmental stage.

The new capital was intended to resettle not only the Punjabi government and university but

also thousands of refugees displaced in the political upheaval. The new city was named

Chandigarh after an existing village which had a temple dedicated to the Hindu goddess

Chandi.

Although industrialization and modernization were key to Nehru’s agenda, he did not

actually prescribe a modernist architectural language for Chandigarh. The architectural vision

for the city first took shape under A.L.Fletcher, the government of Punjab’s “Officer on

Special Duty” for the capital project. Of Indian descent, Fletcher was trained as a civil service

officer under the colonial administration. In what could be considered a postcolonial reflex

reaction, Fletcher turned to contemporary official town-planning practices of England to

derive his vision for a modern Chandigarh.

In 1948, English town-planning practices were strongly influenced by the principles of the

Garden City movement and Ebenezer Howard’s 1898 book To-Morrow: A Peaceful Path to

 Real Reform (republished as Garden Cities of To-Morrow in 1902). Howard’s fundamental

goal was to invent new living environments that could coexist with industry without suffering

from the congestion and squalor that resulted from industrial pollution and agglomeration of 

labour.

Fletcher recommended a vision for Chandigarh based on these ideas. In the late 1940's very

few Indian architects were professionally trained in town planning so it was necessary to look abroad for a man to carry out the Chandigarh scheme. Nehru suggested Albert Mayer for the

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 job. Mayer was an American town planner who had been working on an innovative pilot

 project for rural development in the state of Uttar Pradesh and the urban development plan of 

greater Bombay. Although his ideas were quite close to those of the Garden City movement,

he had made considerable effort to ensure that there was effective citizen participation in the

design process based on the principle of what Mayer called “inner democratization.” Nehru

was attracted by Mayer’s modern ideals and innovative practice.

Mayer accepted the commission in 1950 and began preparing the Master Plan for the new

City. Albert Mayer and Mathew Novicki evolved a fan shaped Master Plan and worked out

conceptual sketches of the super block. The super block was designed as a self –sufficient

neighbourhood units placed along the curvilinear roads and comprised of cluster type

housing, markets and centrally located open spaces. Novicki was tragically killed in an air 

accident and Mayer decided to discontinue. Thereafter, the work was assigned to a team of 

architects led by Charles Eduard Jeanneret better known as Le Corbusier in 1951.

The city of Chandigarh presents in practical shape, the high ideas which Nehru had for the

construction and development of a new resurgent India. Le Corbusier gave physical shape to

many of his ideologies regarding what a modern progressive nation should be like.

The city is a product of Nehru's vision. The spirit of the city is symbolized by the "Open

Hand" which represents the city's readiness to accept any individual or culture.

Le Corbusier's Master Plan

'The Master plan prepared by Le Corbusier was broadly similar to the one prepared by the

team of planners led by Albert Mayer and Mathew Novicki except that the shape of the city

 plan was modified from one with a curving road

network to rectangular shape with a grid iron

 pattern for the fast traffic roads, besides reducing its

area for reason of economy. The city plan was

conceived as post war ‘Garden City’ wherein

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vertical and high rise buildings were ruled out, keeping in view the socio economic-

conditions and living habits of the people.

Sector- The Basic Planning Unit

The primary

module of city’s

design is a Sector,

a neighbourhood

unit of size 800

meters x 1200

meters. It is a self-

sufficient unit

having shops,

school, health

centers and places

of recreations and

worship. The

  population of a

sector varies

 between 3000 and

20000 depending

upon the sizes of 

 plots and the topography of the area. The shops are located along the V4 street (shopping

street), which runs North-West to South-East across the sector. Every sector is introvert in

character and permits only 4 vehicular entries into its interior.

The shopping street of each sector is linked to the shopping street of the adjoining sectors

thus forming one long, continuous ribbon like shopping street. The central green of each

Sector also stretches to the green of the next sector.

The majority of the buildings within the city (other than those developed privately) were

designed by Jeanneret, Fry, and Drew, with assistance from their Indian team. All the designs

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After the British left India in 1947, Indian architecture dropped into an abyss. Indian

architects, who were relegated to the role of being assistants to the British architects under the

British Raj, took their own time to express their ingenuity. Perhaps, there was an identity

crisis, a dilemma whether to bask in the glory of the past or move forward with times using

new ideas, images and techniques. While in other fields like art, music and culture, the

distinct Indian imprint was more enhanced in the post-Independence period; no such thing

was discernible in the case of architecture. It is no doubt that the Indian architects were

unable to achieve a transformative architecture despite the existence of great potential at the

time of Indian Independence.

With such a background, it was only natural to turn to already established institutions in the

realm of architecture. The 1940’s, post world war 2, was the period of modernist architecture

in the world. And Nehru did not want India to be left far behind. Although he never directly

advocated Modern architecture per se, he did encourage a modernist approach, and a

equalisation internally with what was going on in the world.

It was because of Nehru’s personal interest in the construction of Chandigarh, that it became

what it has. Nehru chose and commissioned the architects, and he was clear that he wanted to

appoint on an international level.

His political intent is clear and genuine- to create a new capital, in the wake of independence,

that stands for modern, new and progressive, that sets an example nationally, as well as

internationally.

Chandigarh, in spite its criticism and short comings, continues to stand as an example of what

was envisioned for India decades ago. It remains unique, grand, and is a proud reminder of 

independent India.

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INFERENCES AND CONCLUSIONS

Any popular notion, at its root, is conceived in a single or a few select heads. That notion

gains popularity when a large number of people start accepting it as correct, or right. This is

the basis for any landmark in human society, from its very beginning. The concept of 

community, division of labour, monogamy, dictatorship, governance, democracy, and even

religion, would have a very specific origin of birth. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to

 pin point the exact source of birth in every occasion.

Perhaps realising this, man, early in his existence, started documenting events and

happenings. Looking back and learning from history has been an extremely important process

in the progress of human civilisation. Learning, specifically, from the feats and mistakes of 

important personalities in history.

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In the field of architecture too, the impact of specific personalities is a study worth making,

 because of the many lessons one can derive from such information.

Architecture and politics have been woven together since the beginning of time. Perhaps the

most important manifestation of any political system, is its architecture. Nothing quite

establishes the permanence of a particular school of thought, as its architectural product. A

structure, a building, a monument, speaks much louder than any inspiring speech or action

 performed. Moreover, while words, thoughts, systems and people perish, architecture remains

through time, elevating the idea it represents to an eternal status. It is no wonder that humans

realised the significance of erecting structures as more than serving the primary function of 

shelter.

Architecture, thus evolved to become the ultimate representation of power. Kings and rulers

started competing to establish evidence of their superiority. The bigger, grander, and more

overwhelming, the more powerful is one considered. But architecture has not been used just

to prove ones power. Architecture has been used as a tool by politicians to win over public

sentiment. Use architecture to better the lives of the commons, and win their support. There is

no end to the number of ways in which architecture can be manipulated to serve a political

 purpose.

In this scenario, it is debatable, whether architecture is always used appropriately in each

instance. From a study of the architectural contributions of non-architect leaders, a few

 points arise:

a) Architectural ideology depends heavily, not only on the character of the

individual, but also on the prevailing mood in the environment, and the current

 political scenario in the country.

 b) Architecture gains manifold importance in the wake of any important

landmark in the history of the nation, eg. Independence, world war, etc. When

an event of nation-altering importance has come to pass, the need to express

and represent more boldly and more righteously becomes a priority.

c) Political personalities held singular power in deciding the nature of 

architecture that will manifest, and very often, common people had little say in

the matter.

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d) In some cases, the nation pays for the personal intentions of the leader in

question, and product is not always to the benefit of society. Sometimes,

leaders fail in realising what their original intent was.

Both Thomas Jefferson and Jawaharlal Nehru were in leadership during the independence of 

their respective nations. Both Jefferson and Nehru wanted to break ties with the English

colonial rule and create a new philosophy for their nation. However, while Jefferson sought

to create a new, original and specific kind of architecture, Nehru wished to follow the most

 popular international movement of that time-modernism. The result was that jeffersonian

architecture became a template for most of the architectural products that followed, and is his

ideals stand up till today. One can safely say that Jefferson successfully achieved what he

sought to achieve. In Jawaharlal Nehru’s case, intent though arguably noble, the vision with

which the project was initiated, did not see it to its last. Lost in overwhelming modernism,

Chandigarh’s success has been a topic of criticism for decades now. However, no matter how

functionally questionable the working of this city maybe, it still stands, undeniably, as an

evidence of Indian independence, as a symbol of breaking free from the British. Chandigarh,

one of its kind, and never repeated again, still instils a sense of pride in any patriotic citizen

of India.

Adolf Hitler’s architectural pursuits, on the other hand, fall under a completely different

category. The main difference being, that Hitler was, first and foremost, a dictator, and in his

mind, Germany had already won the World War. His work, and his ideologies were not a

result of anything that had happened, but in anticipation of what would happen. And his idea

was single and straightforward- to make Germany frighteningly and overwhelmingly

dominant in the architectural field. His primary motto was to establish, without a shade of 

doubt, the permanent power of the Nazi. Architecture had to represent power. It had to make

 people bow down and feel insignificant in the face of power. The result is a number of 

seemingly bold and ugly buildings that stand as a constant reminder of the Hitler debacle.

The German population at large, today, consider the architectural remnants of Hitler’s time as

a blotch on the landscape. This is an example of how a political personality, in the pursuit of 

realising his own agenda, did so with least thought for the people of his country.

This study makes evident a few conclusions:

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a) A person in power has an obligation to act responsibly, especially when

endeavouring to establish permanent markers like architecture in the history of 

the nation. Personal intent can go awry and out of hand if not checked.

b) It is debatable if political personalities in contemporary society can continue to

influence architecture as they did in history. Today, the public is more

 participatory and involved in most decisions taken in their nation.

c) Although intent is not always realised, when betterment of society is the

 primary motivation behind an ideology, chances of success are higher.

Architecture, at the end of the day, is by the people and for the people, whether to serve them

or to establish an idea among them. Politics, too, is by the people and for the people.

Architecture and politics will always remain interlinked and in very rare instances can be

expected to be independent of each other. With ties that run so deep, one has to undrstand the

responsibility each has to each other and subsequently to the people they serve.

Bibliography

• Hitler's State Architecture: The Impact of Classical Antiquity by Alex Scobie 

• Chandigarh, India by VIKRAMADITYA PRAKASH WITH AMY POTTER 

• Constant, Caroline, “From the Virgilian Dream to Chandigarh,” The Architectural 

 Review (London), no. 1079 (1987)

• Curtis, William J.R., Le Corbusier: Ideas and Forms, New York: Rizzoli, 1986

• Curtis, William J.R., “L’Ancien dans le moderne,” Architecture en Inde, Saint-

Gobain, France: Electa Manteur, 1985• Correa, Charles, “Chandigarh: The View from Benares,” in Le Corbusier, edited by

H. Allen Brooks, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1987

• Doshi, Balkrishna V., Le Corbusier and Louis I. Kahn: The Acrobat and the Yogi of 

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• Architecture and Politics by Stephen Hicks, Ph.D.

• Documentary History of the Construction of the Building at the University of 

Virginia, 1817-1828 by Frank E.Grizzard Jr.

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• Britannica Concise Encyclopedia

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• De Jaeger, Charles. The Linz File, New York: Henry Holt & Co, 1982. ISBN 0-03-

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• Zoller, Albert von.  Hitler privat , 1949. ISBN B0000BPY63.

• Cohen, Peter. The Architecture of Doom, First Run Features, 1991.

• Thomas Jefferson: Writings: Autobiography / Notes on the State of Virginia / Public

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• Padover, Saul K.  Jefferson: A Great American's Life and Ideas

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• “Nehru: The Great Awakening.” by Robert Sherrod. Saturday Evening Post vol. 236,

no. 2 (19 January 1963): 60-67.

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