Politics of the Politics of the Environment (ESS 112)Environment (ESS 112)

Lecture 2: Lecture 2:

Environmental Sustainability as a Environmental Sustainability as a policy issuepolicy issue

Is there a need today for a policy shift Is there a need today for a policy shift towards environmental towards environmental sustainability?sustainability?

The Earth‘s surface temperatureThe Earth‘s surface temperature

Summer in winter?Summer in winter?

Is the current warm weather period in Is the current warm weather period in Cape Town and other parts of South Cape Town and other parts of South Africa an indication of global warming?Africa an indication of global warming?

Worldwide Growth 1960-2000Worldwide Growth 1960-2000

Ecological Footprint: Ecological Footprint: Do we fit on the planet?Do we fit on the planet?

The world‘s ecological footprintThe world‘s ecological footprint

Today humanity uses the equivalent of 1.5 Today humanity uses the equivalent of 1.5 planets to provide the resources we use and planets to provide the resources we use and absorb our waste. This means it now takes the absorb our waste. This means it now takes the Earth one year and six months to regenerate Earth one year and six months to regenerate what we use in a year. what we use in a year.

Moderate UN scenarios suggest that if current Moderate UN scenarios suggest that if current population and consumption trends continue, population and consumption trends continue, by the 2030s, we will need the equivalent of by the 2030s, we will need the equivalent of two Earths to support us. And of course, we two Earths to support us. And of course, we only have one.only have one.

My personal Ecological Footprint My personal Ecological Footprint (1)(1)

My personal Ecological Footprint My personal Ecological Footprint (2)(2)

How big is your Ecological How big is your Ecological Footprint?Footprint?

Go to the following website to calculate Go to the following website to calculate your own footprint:your own footprint:

http://www.footprintnetwork.orghttp://www.footprintnetwork.org

Glossary of most important terms Glossary of most important terms (1)(1)

AnthropocentrismAnthropocentrism: A way of thinking that regards humans as : A way of thinking that regards humans as the source of all value and is predominantly concerned with the source of all value and is predominantly concerned with human interestshuman interests

BiodiversityBiodiversity: The number, variety and variability of living : The number, variety and variability of living organisms; sometimes refers to the total variety of life on Earthorganisms; sometimes refers to the total variety of life on Earth

Climate changeClimate change: Any change in climate over time, whether : Any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or to human activitydue to natural variability or to human activity

Deep ecologyDeep ecology: The pre-eminent radical economic moral : The pre-eminent radical economic moral theory which has the primary aim of preserving nature from theory which has the primary aim of preserving nature from human interferencehuman interference

EcocentrismEcocentrism: A mode of thought that regards humans as : A mode of thought that regards humans as subject to ecological and systems laws and whose ethical, subject to ecological and systems laws and whose ethical, political and social prescriptions are concerned with both political and social prescriptions are concerned with both humans and non-humanshumans and non-humans

Ecological footprintEcological footprint: A measure of the amount of nature it : A measure of the amount of nature it takes to sustain a given population over the course of a yeartakes to sustain a given population over the course of a year

EcologismEcologism: A distinctive green political ideology encompassing : A distinctive green political ideology encompassing those perspectives that hold that a sustainable society requires those perspectives that hold that a sustainable society requires radical changes in our relationship with the non-human natural radical changes in our relationship with the non-human natural world and our mode of economic, social and political lifeworld and our mode of economic, social and political life

Glossary of most important terms Glossary of most important terms (2)(2)

Genetically modified organismGenetically modified organism: New organisms created by : New organisms created by human manipulation of genetic information and materialhuman manipulation of genetic information and material

Green consumerismGreen consumerism: The use of environmental and ethical : The use of environmental and ethical criteria in choosing whether or not to purchase a product or criteria in choosing whether or not to purchase a product or serviceservice

HolismHolism: The view that wholes are more than just the sum of their : The view that wholes are more than just the sum of their parts, and that wholes cannot be defined merely as a collection of parts, and that wholes cannot be defined merely as a collection of their basic constituentstheir basic constituents

Intrinsic valueIntrinsic value: The value which something has, independently : The value which something has, independently of anyone finding it valuableof anyone finding it valuable

Limits to growthLimits to growth: The belief that the planet imposes natural : The belief that the planet imposes natural limits on economic and population growth.limits on economic and population growth.

Modern environmentalismModern environmentalism: The emergence, from the late : The emergence, from the late 1960s, of growing public concern about the state of the planet, 1960s, of growing public concern about the state of the planet, new political ideas about the environment and a mass political new political ideas about the environment and a mass political movement.movement.

Ozone depletionOzone depletion: Depletion of ozone in the Earth’s upper : Depletion of ozone in the Earth’s upper atmosphere which leaves the surface of the Earth vulnerable to atmosphere which leaves the surface of the Earth vulnerable to harmful ultraviolet radiation.harmful ultraviolet radiation.

Glossary of most important terms Glossary of most important terms (3)(3)

PostmaterialismPostmaterialism: The theory that, as material affluence spreads, : The theory that, as material affluence spreads, ‘quality of life’ issues and concerns tend to replace material ones, ‘quality of life’ issues and concerns tend to replace material ones, fundamentally changing the political culture and value of industrialised fundamentally changing the political culture and value of industrialised countries.countries.

Precautionary principlePrecautionary principle: The principle states that the lack of : The principle states that the lack of scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation.measures to prevent environmental degradation.

RegimeRegime: The principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedures : The principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedures which form the basis of co-operation on a particular issue in which form the basis of co-operation on a particular issue in international relations.international relations.

RegulationRegulation: Any direct (‘command-and-control’) attempt by the : Any direct (‘command-and-control’) attempt by the government to influence the behaviour of businesses or citizens by government to influence the behaviour of businesses or citizens by setting environmental standards (e.g. for air quality) enforced via setting environmental standards (e.g. for air quality) enforced via legislation.legislation.

Renewable energyRenewable energy: Energy sources, such as wind, sun, geothermal : Energy sources, such as wind, sun, geothermal and hydroelectric, that never run out.and hydroelectric, that never run out.

Sustainable developmentSustainable development: The ability of the present generation to : The ability of the present generation to meet its needs without undermining the ability of future generations to meet its needs without undermining the ability of future generations to meet their needs.meet their needs.

TechnocentricTechnocentric: A mode of thought which optimistically believes that : A mode of thought which optimistically believes that society can solve all environmental problems, using technology and society can solve all environmental problems, using technology and science, and achieve unlimited material growth.science, and achieve unlimited material growth.

Are the causes for environmental Are the causes for environmental degradation political?degradation political?

LaFerrière and Stoett argue that the causes for environmental degradation are mostly LaFerrière and Stoett argue that the causes for environmental degradation are mostly political. And the consequences of natural disasters are always of a political political. And the consequences of natural disasters are always of a political dimension: dimension:

““The ‘attack on nature’ is symptomatic of a commitment to material growth and The ‘attack on nature’ is symptomatic of a commitment to material growth and state power, which requires the systematic control and use of human and non-state power, which requires the systematic control and use of human and non-human nature. The roots of this social project can be traced back to the human nature. The roots of this social project can be traced back to the momentous intellectual and political developments of the seventeenth century, momentous intellectual and political developments of the seventeenth century, where Newtonian science and the nation-state arose as twin pillars of modernity. where Newtonian science and the nation-state arose as twin pillars of modernity. With the development of capitalism, contract theories effectively abolished the With the development of capitalism, contract theories effectively abolished the organic character of communities, leaving the presumably self-interested individual organic character of communities, leaving the presumably self-interested individual to survive in a competitive world. Contemporary ideologies of growth and power – to survive in a competitive world. Contemporary ideologies of growth and power – and, in popular parlance, prevailing of conceptions of sustainable development – and, in popular parlance, prevailing of conceptions of sustainable development – have harnessed the forces of science and technology to create large markets for have harnessed the forces of science and technology to create large markets for high value-added goods. In the process, ‘natural resources’ have been mined at high value-added goods. In the process, ‘natural resources’ have been mined at staggering levels, with often disastrous ecological consequences and violations of staggering levels, with often disastrous ecological consequences and violations of basic human rights. In general, the state has continuously perpetrated the ideology basic human rights. In general, the state has continuously perpetrated the ideology of control necessary for this process, though it has also acted to mitigate some of of control necessary for this process, though it has also acted to mitigate some of the environmental excesses that result from it. There have been substantial the environmental excesses that result from it. There have been substantial intellectual challenges to the hegemony of this ideology as well, though we should intellectual challenges to the hegemony of this ideology as well, though we should avoid the error of categorizing all forms of environmentalist thought as anti- or post-avoid the error of categorizing all forms of environmentalist thought as anti- or post-modern.”modern.”

((Eric LaFerrière and Peter J. Stoett, Eric LaFerrière and Peter J. Stoett, International Relations Theory and Ecological Thought: Towards a SynthesisInternational Relations Theory and Ecological Thought: Towards a Synthesis, (London: , (London: Routledge, 1999), p. 3f.)Routledge, 1999), p. 3f.)

Politics and the environment (1)Politics and the environment (1)

The environment has been on the political The environment has been on the political agenda since the late 1960s.agenda since the late 1960s.

Much has happened in that time, but is the Much has happened in that time, but is the planet better off?planet better off?

If one calculates the If one calculates the ecological footprintecological footprint of the of the current world population, things are bad and current world population, things are bad and getting worsegetting worse

The global ecological footprint of humanity is a The global ecological footprint of humanity is a measure of the amount of nature it takes to measure of the amount of nature it takes to sustain a given population over the course of a sustain a given population over the course of a year.year.

Politics and the environment (2)Politics and the environment (2)

Because of more and more visible signs of Because of more and more visible signs of environmental degradation (e.g. dying forests in environmental degradation (e.g. dying forests in Northern Europe because of acid rain) and Northern Europe because of acid rain) and environmental disasters like the explosion of the environmental disasters like the explosion of the Chernobyl nuclear reactor in April 1986, environmental Chernobyl nuclear reactor in April 1986, environmental awareness has risen among the populations and awareness has risen among the populations and governments of countries governments of countries

Millions of people joined environmental groups, signed Millions of people joined environmental groups, signed petitions and marched on demonstrationspetitions and marched on demonstrations

The environmental lobby has become an important The environmental lobby has become an important actor in national and international politicsactor in national and international politics

Politics and the environment (3)Politics and the environment (3)

However, entrenched business interests and technocratic However, entrenched business interests and technocratic elites continue to exercise far greater influence over most key elites continue to exercise far greater influence over most key political decisionspolitical decisions Governments everywhere have introduced a wide range of Governments everywhere have introduced a wide range of

environmental protection policies and regulations, and most environmental protection policies and regulations, and most countries are formally committed to the principles of countries are formally committed to the principles of sustainable developmentsustainable development..

But priority is still almost always given to economic growth But priority is still almost always given to economic growth over environmental protectionover environmental protection

There are international efforts of co-operation to address There are international efforts of co-operation to address global environmental problems like global environmental problems like climate changeclimate change (e.g. the (e.g. the Kyoto Protocol)Kyoto Protocol)

Thus, there is no doubt that environmental issues have had a Thus, there is no doubt that environmental issues have had a big impact on contemporary politics. But still governments big impact on contemporary politics. But still governments often adopt a business-as-usual response to environmental often adopt a business-as-usual response to environmental problems.problems. So has there really changed anything yet?So has there really changed anything yet?

The three core components of The three core components of environmental politicsenvironmental politics

Environmental politics is a wide-ranging subject Environmental politics is a wide-ranging subject with three core components:with three core components:

1.1. the study of political theories and ideas the study of political theories and ideas relating to the environmentrelating to the environment

2.2. the examination of political parties and the examination of political parties and environmental movementsenvironmental movements

3.3. the analysis of public policymaking and the analysis of public policymaking and implementation affecting the environment at implementation affecting the environment at international, national and local levelsinternational, national and local levels

Important questions in Important questions in environmental politicsenvironmental politics

Should environmental activists try to Should environmental activists try to (substantially) (substantially) reformreform the capitalist system by the capitalist system by getting elected to parliament, or should they try getting elected to parliament, or should they try to radically to radically changechange the system? the system?

Is collective action (through green parties and Is collective action (through green parties and pressure groups) or individual action (by pressure groups) or individual action (by changing lifestyles and green consumerism) changing lifestyles and green consumerism) more effective?more effective?

The environment as a policy The environment as a policy problemproblem

What does “policy” in politics mean?What does “policy” in politics mean? Policy is an explicit, purposive Policy is an explicit, purposive plan of plan of

actionaction which includes a design of which includes a design of expectationsexpectations, , interestsinterests and and goalsgoals and and the the measuresmeasures taken to execute these taken to execute these designs in response to a situation.designs in response to a situation.

The environment as a policy The environment as a policy problem (2)problem (2)

Key issues:Key issues:

What are the core characteristics of What are the core characteristics of environmental problems?environmental problems?

Where does power lie in environmental Where does power lie in environmental policymaking?policymaking?

What are the structural and institutional What are the structural and institutional barriers to policy change?barriers to policy change?

Why does policy change?Why does policy change?

Core characteristics of the Core characteristics of the environment as a policy problem environment as a policy problem

(1)(1)1. Public goods1. Public goods many environmental resources are ‘public goods’many environmental resources are ‘public goods’

public goods: each individual’s consumption leads to no public goods: each individual’s consumption leads to no subtraction from any other individual’s consumption of that subtraction from any other individual’s consumption of that good (e.g. clean air)good (e.g. clean air)

in short: public goods are for everyone, and nobody has the in short: public goods are for everyone, and nobody has the right to own themright to own them

for policymakers it is therefore difficult to make laws for policymakers it is therefore difficult to make laws that protect public goods or to prevent harm like that protect public goods or to prevent harm like pollutionpollution

there is the problem of collective actionthere is the problem of collective action this has also consequences for the use of common this has also consequences for the use of common

resources, as illustrated in “The Tragedy of the resources, as illustrated in “The Tragedy of the Commons”Commons”

Core characteristics of the Core characteristics of the environment as a policy problem environment as a policy problem

(2)(2)

2. Transboundary problems2. Transboundary problems problems of the global commons are problems of the global commons are

frequently transboundaryfrequently transboundary climate change, ozone depletion and climate change, ozone depletion and

marine pollution do not respect national marine pollution do not respect national bordersborders

global environmental problems require global environmental problems require concerted action by the international concerted action by the international communitycommunity

Core characteristics of the Core characteristics of the environment as a policy problem environment as a policy problem

(3)(3)3. Complexity and uncertainty3. Complexity and uncertainty policymaking can be hampered by the complexity policymaking can be hampered by the complexity

and uncertainty that characterise many and uncertainty that characterise many environmental problemsenvironmental problems

e.g.: Is the climate changing? Are humans responsible? e.g.: Is the climate changing? Are humans responsible? What are the impacts? How can the effects be What are the impacts? How can the effects be avoided/mitigated? What policies are necessary?avoided/mitigated? What policies are necessary?

many issues are also complex and interconnected, many issues are also complex and interconnected, therefore policymakers cannot just deal with one part therefore policymakers cannot just deal with one part of the problem but often need to set up broader of the problem but often need to set up broader policiespolicies

different views and interests of policymakers, different views and interests of policymakers, lobbyists and scientists make solutions even more lobbyists and scientists make solutions even more difficultdifficult

Core characteristics of the Core characteristics of the environment as a policy problem environment as a policy problem

(4)(4)

4. Irreversibility4. Irreversibility The problem of uncertainty is exacerbated by The problem of uncertainty is exacerbated by

the irreversibility of many environmental the irreversibility of many environmental problemsproblems

Irreversibility places great pressure on Irreversibility places great pressure on policymakers to “get it right”, because there policymakers to “get it right”, because there might not be a second try to get a wrong might not be a second try to get a wrong policy right to avoid irreversible damagepolicy right to avoid irreversible damage

Core characteristics of the Core characteristics of the environment as a policy problem environment as a policy problem

(5)(5)5. Temporal and spatial variability5. Temporal and spatial variability Many environmental issues are complicated Many environmental issues are complicated

by the fact that their impact will be long-term, by the fact that their impact will be long-term, whereas remedial policies need to be whereas remedial policies need to be adopted before the full negative effects of a adopted before the full negative effects of a problem are felt. problem are felt.

But it is easier to make policy that responds But it is easier to make policy that responds to today’s political pressures than to to today’s political pressures than to tomorrow’s environmental problems.tomorrow’s environmental problems.

Spatial and temporal variability mean that the Spatial and temporal variability mean that the costs of environmental problems, and their costs of environmental problems, and their solutions, are unevenly distributed.solutions, are unevenly distributed.

Core characteristics of the Core characteristics of the environment as a policy problem environment as a policy problem

(6)(6)6. Administrative fragmentation6. Administrative fragmentation The administrative structure of government is usually The administrative structure of government is usually

divided into distinct policy sectors with specific divided into distinct policy sectors with specific responsibilities (e.g. education, defence).responsibilities (e.g. education, defence).

Core ministries concerned with economic matters Core ministries concerned with economic matters (e.g. finance, industry, agriculture) make policy (e.g. finance, industry, agriculture) make policy decisions that have negative consequences for the decisions that have negative consequences for the environment.environment.

On the other hand, many environmental problems On the other hand, many environmental problems are cross-sectoral and require co-ordinated are cross-sectoral and require co-ordinated responses that overcome sectoral boundariesresponses that overcome sectoral boundaries

Core characteristics of the Core characteristics of the environment as a policy problem environment as a policy problem

(7)(7)7. Regulatory intervention7. Regulatory intervention Environmental damage is often a by-product Environmental damage is often a by-product

of otherwise legitimate activitiesof otherwise legitimate activities as a consequence, governments may have to as a consequence, governments may have to

intervene in the economy and society to regulate intervene in the economy and society to regulate these damaging activitiesthese damaging activities

Regulatory intervention can involve a mix of Regulatory intervention can involve a mix of policy instruments, not just legal instrumentspolicy instruments, not just legal instruments

e.g. setting factory emission standards or e.g. setting factory emission standards or encouraging the recycling of paperencouraging the recycling of paper

The traditional policy paradigmThe traditional policy paradigm A policy paradigm provides policymakers with the A policy paradigm provides policymakers with the

terminology and a set of taken-for-granted assumptions terminology and a set of taken-for-granted assumptions about the way they communicate and think about a policy about the way they communicate and think about a policy areaarea

The traditional paradigm that emerged during the 1970s The traditional paradigm that emerged during the 1970s treated the environment like any other new policy area, treated the environment like any other new policy area, rather than recognising the interdependency of the rather than recognising the interdependency of the relationships between ecosystems and political, relationships between ecosystems and political, economic, social and cultural systemseconomic, social and cultural systems

but this means that policymakers were not able to deal but this means that policymakers were not able to deal with environmental problems adequatelywith environmental problems adequately

The weaknesses in the traditional paradigm have become The weaknesses in the traditional paradigm have become increasingly apparent to policy elites.increasingly apparent to policy elites.

But despite the emergence of the alternative paradigm of But despite the emergence of the alternative paradigm of sustainable development, the traditional paradigm has sustainable development, the traditional paradigm has proved very resistant to changeproved very resistant to change

Economic growth still top priority?Economic growth still top priority?

Political obstacles to changePolitical obstacles to change

Special interests of different groupsSpecial interests of different groups The institutional structure of the state and governmentThe institutional structure of the state and government Sectoral divisions within government (and the bureaucracy)Sectoral divisions within government (and the bureaucracy) The power of producers and businessesThe power of producers and businesses

The technocentric commitment of policymakers to economic The technocentric commitment of policymakers to economic expansion encourages them to define the interests of the state expansion encourages them to define the interests of the state as largely synonymous with those of producers. Often interests as largely synonymous with those of producers. Often interests of producer groups trump those of environmental groups. of producer groups trump those of environmental groups. Therefore economic growth takes priority over environmental Therefore economic growth takes priority over environmental protectionprotection..

Is industry the main villain in environmental policy?Is industry the main villain in environmental policy? Does the capitalist state present insuperable barriers to a co-ordinated Does the capitalist state present insuperable barriers to a co-ordinated

environmental policy?environmental policy?

Achieving policy changeAchieving policy change

Despite the powerful structural and Despite the powerful structural and institutional factors reinforcing the traditional institutional factors reinforcing the traditional environmental policy paradigm, policy change environmental policy paradigm, policy change is not impossibleis not impossible

In recent years, all governments have In recent years, all governments have introduced new measures to improve introduced new measures to improve environmental protectionenvironmental protection

However, there is not much evidence of However, there is not much evidence of radicalradical changes changes