Political Parties: Overview and Function · 1787 Federalist and Anti-Federalist parties emerge out...

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Political Parties: Overview and Function

A political party is a group of people who seek to control government bywinning elections and holding public office. Usually the group joins togetheron the basis of common principles. A party seeks to implement its ownpublic policies and programs. Some political parties simply focus on gainingpower—they are election-oriented, not policy-oriented.

Political parties serve five major functions in our society.

Nominating Parties name the candidates who run for politicaloffice. Nominees are recruited and presented tovoters. Parties ensure that their candidates have asolid base of voter and financial support.

Informer-Stimulator Parties keep the public informed and stimulate themto participate in public affairs. They accomplish thisthrough campaigning and taking stands on publicissues. They use pamphlets, buttons, and stickers aswell as television, radio, newspapers, and the internet.

Seal of Approval The party plants a “seal ofapproval” on its candidates. Thiscreates loyalty in the candidateand helps to ensure that office-holders do a good job so that theparty can stay in power. If theparty falls out of favor or anoffice-holder embarrasses theparty, both candidate and partywill suffer in upcoming elections.

GovernmentFunction State legislatures and the U.S.Congress conduct much of theirbusiness on a partisan basis.Under the system of separationof powers, the party is the agentthrough which the differentbranches of governmentcooperate with one another,especially the executive andlegislative branches.

Watchdog The parties monitor publicbusiness. In particular, the partyout of power monitors thepolicies of the party in power.

Great State of

UTAHCasts its Ballots for

GEORGE

W. BUSH

Garden State of NEW JERSEY Votes to Nominate

GORE

Official

Republican

Seal of

Approval

ThePublic

Interest

Save Our Jobs Vote

Republican

SAVE

THE ENVIRONMEN

T

VOTE DEMOCRAT




Development and Highlights of the Two-Party System

1787 Federalist and Anti-Federalist parties emerge out ofconflict over the ratification of the Constitution.

1796 Federalists and Democratic-Republicans becomethe two established parties. Federalist JohnAdams becomes president.

1798 Federalist Party splits over Adams’s refusal todeclare war on France. High Federalists breakwith Adams and side with Alexander Hamilton.

1800 Thomas Jefferson of the Democratic-Republican Party wins the presidency, marking the Federalists’ decline.

1800-1820s Democratic-Republicans dominate U.S. politics until conflicts over banking, tariffs, and slavery shatter the party.

1828 Democratic-Republican Party splits into two factions.President Andrew Jackson sides with the groupcalling themselves Democrats; the other groupbecomes the National Republican or “Whig” Party.

1832 The first National Nominating Conventions are held for theWhig and Democratic Parties.

1850s Internal conflict over slavery wracks the Democratic Party.Many Whigs join a new anti-slavery party, the“Republicans.”

1860 Abraham Lincoln becomes the first Republican president.

1860-1932 Republican Party dominates U.S. politics during the CivilWar and until the Great Depression. Democrats holdpresidential office only four times during this period.

1912 Former President Theodore Roosevelt breaks with theRepublican Party and forms the Progressive Party (BullMoose Party). Roosevelt runs for president and gains amajority of Republican voters, but the Democratic candidateWoodrow Wilson wins the election. By 1917, theProgressive Party dies out.

1924 A liberal coalition from both the Republican and DemocraticParties forms a second Progressive Party; it wins 16.5% ofthe popular vote in the presidential election. Its influencedoes not last beyond the election.

1948 A faction of liberal Democrats who disagree with both majorparties forms another Progressive Party. It gains one millionvotes in the presidential election but their popularity fadesfollowing the election.

1968 Former Alabama Governor George Wallace runs forpresident on the American Independent Party ticket.Supporting anti-desegregation policies, he wins 13.5% of the popular vote and 46 electoral votes from five statesin the south.

1992 Independent candidate Ross Perot challenges the twoparties in the presidential election; he wins 18% of thepopular vote.

2000 Green Party candidate Ralph Nader runs for thepresidency; although he wins only 3% of thepopular vote, Nader’s candidacy affects theoutcome of the closely contested race betweenGeorge W. Bush and Al Gore.

Federalist HighFederalist

Federalist

Democratic-Republican

Anti-Federalist

Democrats Whigs

Democrats Republicans

Republicans

(Federalists Split andDecline by 1800)




Independent and Third Parties

TYPE & NATURE OF PARTY

Single-issue party Focuses on one major social,economic, or moral issue.

Ideological party Focuses on effecting overall changein society, rather than on a particularissue. The views of these partiestend to be extreme.

Splinter party Splits away from a major partybecause of a disagreement. Mostsplinter parties have formed around astrong leader, usually one who failedto win the party’s nomination.

DURATION

Brief. Tends to fade away quicklywhen the issue is no longer importantor is adopted by one of the majorparties.

Long-term.

Lasts as long as candidate hassupport or until party’s goals are re-absorbed by a major party.

EXAMPLES

The Citizens Party was organized in1979 around opposition to nuclearpower and nuclear-armsdevelopment. In 1980, BarryCommoner was the party’spresidential candidate. He won only0.3% of the vote.

The Socialist Party was organized in1898 by Eugene V. Debs and otherlabor activists. In its best year, 1912,the Socialist Party won 6% of thepresidential vote. It still exists today.

Theodore Roosevelt’s “Bull Moose”Progressive Party splits from theRepublican Party in 1912.

What Are Third Parties?

A “third,” or independent, party isany party other than the Republicanor Democratic parties. In anelection, more than one party mayrun against the two major parties,yet they are all considered thirdparties.

Most Americans do not support thirdparties, yet they have influencedAmerican politics. Third parties playkey roles as critics and innovators.They are much more willing toconfront divisive issues thancandidates of the major parties.Also, a strong third party candidatecan take votes away from the majorparty candidates, changing theoutcome of an election.

Three Types of Third Parties

Votes for Leading Third Party Presidential Candidates, 1960-2000(percent of votes)

Year Candidate Party % of Votes

1960 Eric Hass Socialist Labor less than 1%

1964 Eric Hass Socialist Labor less than 1%

1968 George Wallace American Independent 14%

1972 John Schmitz American 1%

1976 Eugene McCarthy Independent 1%

1980 John Anderson Independent 7%

1984 David Bergland Libertarian less than 1%

1988 Ron Paul Libertarian less than 1%

1992 Ross Perot Independent 19%

1996 Ross Perot Reform 9%

2000 Ralph Nader Green 3%

BALLOT




Third Party Case Study: 2000 Presidential Election

The Green Party was established in 1996 to promote such causes as environmentaljustice and grassroots democracy. In the 2000 presidential election, Ralph Nader, theGreen Party presidential candidate, received 3 percent of the popular vote, taking criticalvotes away from the Democratic candidate, Al Gore, and, according to some analysts,costing the Democrats the election.

Ralph Nader on the Issues

States with the highest voter percentage for Green Party, 2000

Foreign aid must be addressed in the context of retiring this [Third World countries’] debt and not forcing structural adjustments via the IMF and World Bank on the economies of the underdeveloped world.

I support the end of the economic blockade of Cuba. Unjust economic coercion by one state against another constitutes a violation of human rights.

On Foreign PolicyNader believed that the pursuit of human rights should dictate U.S. foreign policy. His platform focused on aid to Third World countries and a cessation of arms to belligerent nations.

I think we are in a real transitory period, which gives us a real opportunity to recast our health care system in a nonprofit mode and implement universal health care.

Price restraints should be placed on all drugs especially [those] developed with taxpayer money, and multiple licenses should be issued for those drugs in order to stimulate competition and bring prices down.

On Health CareUsing Canada’s health care system as a model, Nader suggested that the nation should create a universal nonprofit health care plan.

We’ve got priorities. Abolishing child poverty should be one. Rebuilding and repairing America, the public works, the drinking water systems.

Citizens must have full legal standing to challenge in the courts the waste, fraud, and abuse of government spending.

On the EconomyAn advocate of small government, Nader wanted to reduce the federal budget and spend any surplus funds on the nation’s infrastructure and public works.

I would veto any legislation that makes it impossible to consider increasing fuel efficiency. . . . We need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 50 percent to 70 percent immediately just to keep global warming from getting any worse.

I advocate the immediate cessation of commercial logging on U.S. public lands and the protection from road-building of all 60 million acres of large forest tracts remaining in the National Forest system.

On the EnvironmentAn environmentalist, Nader proposed more federal funding for the National Park system as well as cutbacks on commercial logging to protect the nation’s forests.

Percent Green Vote of Popular Vote

Alaska10.1%

Hawaii5.9%

Montana5.9%

Rhode Island

6.1%

Massachusetts6.3%

Note: Percentages based on total votes.

Vermont6.9%

Alaska

Vermont

Massachusetts

Rhode Island

Montana

Hawaii

79,004

149,022

1,616,487

249,508

137,126

205,286

167,398

119,775

878,502

130,555

240,178

137,845

28,747

20,374

173,564

25,052

24,437

21,623

Democratic Popular Vote

Republican Popular Vote

Green Popular Vote




Campaign Finance

Parties and their candidates receive money from privatecontributors as well as the public treasury. Campaigndonations are a form of political participation. A contributordonates money in hope of electing officials who supporthis/her interests.

Timeline: Campaign-Finance Laws

1907 Congress bars any corporation or nationalbank from making a contribution to acandidate for federal office.

1910 Congress requires that campaign sourcesand amounts be reported.

1925 Congress begins to limit presidentialcampaign expenditures.

1971 The Revenue Act establishes public funding forpresidential campaigns by allowing each person to contribute $1 to a campaignfund on federal tax forms. The Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) demandsdisclosure of sources of campaign funds.

1972 President Nixon spends a record $60 million, some of it hidden in foreign bankaccounts, on his re-election campaign; this prompts renewed concern overcampaign spending and finance.

1974 Congress establishes the Federal Election Commission (FEC), which administersall campaign-finance laws. Amendments to FECA (1971) institute stricterdisclosure requirements and contribution and spending limits.

1997 Congress examines campaign-finance reform due to widespread charges ofabuse, especially in the area of “soft money,” donations made to political partiesthat are often spent in indirect support of specific candidates.

2003 The Supreme Court upholds the constitutionality of the Bipartisan CampaignReform Act. The act heavily restricts the use of “soft money” in fund-raising andlimits the use of political advertisements near election time.

Campaign FinanceRegulationCash gifts of more than $100 areprohibited.

A person can give up to $1,000 toany federal candidate’s primaryand general election campaign.

A contribution of more than $200must be reported to the FEC.

Corporations cannot directlycontribute to federal elections.However, they can contributeindirectly through Political ActionCommittees (PACs).

Facts on PACsPolitical Action Committees are the politicalarms of special interest groups.

PACs collect money and provide financialsupport for candidates.

A PAC must raise funds from at least 50contributors.

A PAC must give to at least 5 candidates onthe federal level.

A PAC must give no more than $5,000 to acandidate per election.

PAC Contributions to Congressional Elections, 1986–2000(in millions of dollars)

1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 20000

50

100

150

200House

Senate

House1986 87.41988 102.21990 108.51992 127.41994 132.41996 155.01998 158.72000 193.4

Senate 1986 45.31988 45.71990 41.21992 51.21994 47.21996 45.61998 48.12000 51.9

PAC Contributions to Congressional Elections, 1986–2000(in millions of dollars)

1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 20000

50

100

150

200House

Senate




Interest Groups: Definition and Types

What Is an Interest Group?An interest group, also called a special interest group, is an organization of peoplewho share common goals. They bridge the gap between the public and lawmakers,and seek to influence public opinion, elections, and public policy.

Interest groups come in all sizes and shapes. They may have thousands, millions, or just a handful of members.They may be highly structured or loose and informal. Some have many resources, while others have few.

Types of Interest Groups

TYPE OF INTEREST GROUP & PURPOSE

Business and Labor GroupsTo influence lawmakers about policies regarding theeconomy and business

Agricultural GroupsTo represent the needs of farmers and farm businesses

Professional GroupsGroups of individuals with specialized training (law,medicine, etc.) representing the needs of their profession

Specific CausesTo influence and promote policies geared to specificcauses

Religious Groups To represent the needs and viewpoints of their members

Public-Interest GroupsTo represent the broad-based needs and interests of thepublic

Government-Interest GroupsGroups of government officials who represent their needsto other government officials

General Welfare OrganizationsTo promote the welfare of a particular group

EXAMPLES

National Manufacturers Association works to limitgovernment regulation of industry.

AFL-CIO, the largest labor organization in the U.S., seekspolicies favorable to workers.

American Farm Bureau Federation is composed of larger,successful farmers.

National Farmers’ Union represents smaller farmers.

American Medical Association promotes, protects, andregulates doctors.

American Bar Association promotes, protects, andregulates the law profession.

American Civil Liberties Union is devoted to defending thecivil liberties of all Americans.

Sierra Club promotes the exploration and conservation ofwilderness in the U.S.

National Council of Churches is dedicated to advancingreligious institutions nationwide.

Anti-Defamation League of B’nai B’rith fights discrimination,particularly against people of the Jewish faith.

Common Cause promotes openness and honesty in U.S.government.

Public Citizen monitors government and corporate policiesthat affect the public.

National Governors Association tries to influence Congressand the president to benefit their states.

National Conference of State Legislators tries to influencefederal officials to benefit their states and localities.

American Legion and Veterans of Foreign Wars advancethe interests of veterans.

Association for the Advancement of Retired Personspromotes the interests of senior citizens.

Save Our Jobs Vote

Republican

SAV

E

THE ENVIRONMEN

T

VOTE DEMOCRAT




Lobbying and Other Interest-Group Tactics

Lobbying Interest groups seek to influence government policy bycontacting lawmakers or other government leaders.The people who make such contacts are lobbyists.They work at the federal, state, and local levels.

Most large and important interest groups havelobbyists on their payrolls in Washington, D.C.

Many lobbyists are former government officials whohave friends in Congress and the executive branch.Lawyers and public relations specialists may alsobecome lobbyists.

The Job of a Lobbyist

They spend most of their time trying to influencemembers of Congress, but also seek out members of the executive and judicial branches.

They supply lawmakers with information that supportsthe position of the interest group on a particular issue.(Members of Congress realize that lobbyists may bebiased, but a lobbyist who purposely misrepresentsthe facts may lose access to the legislator.)

They help to draft bills. Many large interest groupsretain legal and research staffs for this purpose.

Election SupportInterest groups can promise campaign contributions to lawmakers who favor their policies or threaten towithhold support from those who do not. The elected official may not always vote the way the interest groupwould like, but the contribution assures the group access.

Interest groups also conduct “get out the vote” campaigns urging members and people who share their viewsto vote for particular candidates.

Interest groups may also encourage their own members to seek public office.

Court ActionInterest groups may take their concerns to the courts. For example, business groups may sue the governmentto protest federal regulations.

Public SupportInterest groups may run campaigns to gain public support for their policies, using television, radio, theinternet, newspapers, and magazines.

The term “lobbyist” wascoined because interest-group representativeswould contact senators orrepresentatives in thelobbies of state or federalcapitol buildings.

?! Did You Know

?




Debate Over Interest Groups

Positive1. James Madison believed that factions were

inevitable and that a republican form of governmentwould allow groups to balance each

other so that none could becometoo powerful.

2. Interest groups provide additionalrepresentation for the public in

Congress. People can be representedin terms of their economic, social, or

occupational interests.

3. A pressure group also serves as a watchdog andcan protest government policies that

might harm its members.

Negative1. James Madison warned the new nation againstthe dangerous side of “factions,” which he defined

as “a number of citizens . . . who areunited by some common impulse . . .adverse to the rights of other citizens”(Federalist 10, 1787). Today, thecompetition among interest groupscan cripple efforts to change policy.

2. The greatest concern over interestgroups in recent years has been their

contributions to political campaigns. Many arguethat interest groups have far too much control overmembers of Congress.

3. Regulating lobbying by interest groups is difficult.By law, all lobbyists must register with the clerk ofthe House and the secretary of the Senate; until1995, only interest groups that claimed their primaryfunction to be lobbying were required to register.The Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995, however,extended the definition of a lobbyist to include anyindividual who spends at least 20% of his or hertotal time lobbying on behalf of an interest group. Asa result of this legislative reform, many more interestgroups were required to register with Congress.

In no country in the world has the principle of association been more successfully used, or applied to a

greater multitude of objects, than in America . . . In the United States

associations are established to promote the public safety, commerce,

industry, morality and religion.

Alexis de TocquevilleDemocracy in America

1835

In no country in the world has the principle of association been more successfully used, or applied to a

greater multitude of objects, than in America . . . In the United States

associations are established to promote the public safety, commerce,

industry, morality and religion.

Alexis de TocquevilleDemocracy in America

1835




Defining and Measuring Public Opinion

In a democracy, public opinion affectsgovernment policy. Therefore, it isessential that public opinion be measured.Public opinion can be gauged through:

A letter-writing campaign convincedGeorge Washington to seek asecond term as president.

? ?! Did You Know

Elections Election results are one measureof public opinion. They can be animperfect measure, however, ascandidates may hold a variety ofpositions on different issues.Thus a candidate’s election doesnot reflect a clear statement ofpublic opinion.

Political PartiesLocal and state political partyorganizations have historicallybeen a reliable source ofinformation about the attitudes of voters, because theseorganizations offer direct contactwith the electorate.

Interest GroupsElected officials try to keep intouch with local interest groups.Because interest groupsrepresent only those specificattitudes of their members, theyare not a good measure ofbroad-based public opinion.

Mass MediaPoliticians keep an eye on theissues as they are reported inthe newspapers, on television,on the Internet, and inmagazines. These sources mayprovide a somewhat distortedview of public opinion, however,because of the tendency of themedia to focus on news that hasentertainment value.

Letter WritingWriting letters to public officials is a traditional method ofexpressing one’s politicalopinion. Today, interest groupsstage massive letter-writingcampaigns to arouse support onan issue.

Calls, Telegrams, E-MailImmediate reactions tospeeches, press conferences, orheadline events are registered bytelephone calls, telegrams, ande-mail. Telephone calls can be adistorted measure of publicopinion because those who callare often those who alreadysupport or dislike a candidate.

Save Our Jobs Vote

Republican

SAVE

THE ENVIRONMEN

T

VOTE DEMOCRAT

32U.S.

U.S. CongressCapitol HillWashington DC

M. Jones123 Main St.Westbrook, AL

BALLOT




Opinion Polls

Scientific Polls

These polls follow careful guidelines designed to ensure the accuracy of their results.

1. A sample group to be questioned is selected from the larger group to be studied.

The larger group is known as the “universe.”

A “sampling error” is a measurement of how much the sample results may differ from those of the universe.

2. Carefully worded questions are presented to the individuals in the sample. The way a question isworded can greatly influence the response.

3. The results are interpreted.

Straw PollsInformal, unscientific attempts to measure public opinion carried out by newspapers, radio, or televisionprograms are called “straw polls.”

Ballots may be printed in newspapers or radio and television programs may ask callers to answer a particularquestion on an issue.

Straw polls are poor indicators of public opinion because the opinions given may not represent the largerpopulation.

The opinions represent a biased sample because only certain people choose to respond.

Problems With PollingIndividuals may give what they think is the “socially acceptable” answer.

The respondent might not have any knowledge of an issue.

The interviewer may influence the respondent.

Polls only give a “snapshot” of public opinion at a given point in time.

Telephone polls are now the mostcommon polling method.

? ?! Did You Know




Mass Media: Function and Types

“Mass media” refer to the various forms of communication that reach large, widelydispersed audiences simultaneously. The function of mass media today is extensive—from keeping the public informed on government actions to helping to mold public opinionon candidates and issues.

Four types of mass media are important in the U.S. today.

TelevisionSince the late 1930s, television has providedinformation to millions of households. By the 1960s,television had replaced newspapers as people’sprincipal source of political information.

RadioBy the 1930s radio was exposing millions ofAmericans to national and international politics asnever before. President Franklin D. Roosevelt wasthe first president to use the radio effectively in his“fireside chats” in the 1930s.

Generally, radio covers less political news thantelevision does; however, it is still a vital source ofinformation on government and politics.

PrintNewspapers rank second only to television in theamount of information provided on government andpolitics; also, they provide greater depth thantelevision and often show different points of view.Over 95 million adults in the U.S. read the paper onaverage for one half hour daily.

In the mid-1800s the first political magazines, HarpersWeekly and the Atlantic Monthly, were published. Ofthe more than 10,000 magazines published today,most are special-interest journals or trade magazines.There are also influential news magazines such asTime and Newsweek, as well as public opinionmagazines like The Nation and The New Republic.

InternetThe expansion of the Internet in the 1990srevolutionized the transmission of information toU.S. households. Today, more than half of U.S.households have Internet access; this number isexpected to rise.

The Internet has begun to play a large role inpolitics. Partisan Web sites such as MoveOn.organd the Republican National Committee site havesuccessfully used the Internet to encourage politicalparticipation from their constituencies. Manyindividual candidates have used the Internet tomobilize voter support and raise campaign funds.

RadiosTelevisionDailyNewspapers

Internet

55% 54%

65%

99%

0

20

40

60

80

100

In the early days of the country, newspapers werethe most vital form of mass communication. ThomasJefferson understood their importance. In 1787, he said:

Were it left to me to decide whether you shouldhave a government without newspapers, ornewspapers without a government, I should nothesitate a moment to prefer the latter.

Distribution of Media in the U.S., 2000(Percent of U.S. households)




Mass Media: Impact on Politics

MediaFunnel

Voting Public

Public Agenda

As the media report andcomment on issues,events, personalities, andproblems, they determineto a large extent whatissues people will thinkabout and discuss.

The media have the powerto focus people’s attentionon some issues and todraw it away from others.

Top government officialspay close attention to the media. The presidentreceives daily analyses ofthe news.

Electoral Politics

The media have madecandidates much lessreliant upon parties forreaching voters; candidatescan now appeal directly tovoters via television.

Some candidates createtheir own campaignorganization and functionwith only loose ties to theirparty by using the mediaas their primary means ofreaching voters.

The image a candidateprojects in the media candetermine the outcome ofan election.

Campaign managers know that short, focusedmessages or “sound bites”are sought by the mediaand can sell candidates.




Mass Media: Impact on Government

Media events are visually interesting events that reinforce aposition on some issue. For example, dedicatingnew school buildings and public parks links anofficial to educational and environmental issues.

Press releases are prepared by government officials and releasedto the media at a specified time. They highlight aspecific action or policy.

News briefings are events when a government official announces apolicy or decision. Reporters may ask questions. Thepresident’s press secretary meets daily with the pressto provide information on the president’s activities.

Press conferences allow the news media to question a high-levelgovernment official.

“Background information” is shared with the news media on an unofficial basisand attributed to unnamed sources, “a senior WhiteHouse official,” for example. This allows officials totest new ideas or send messages to other policymakers.

Leaks are the release of secret information by ananonymous government official.

Executive Branch

The president and the media can have a mutually beneficial relationship. The presidentprovides news for the media; the media provide a forum for the president. Nevertheless,the media often report negatively on presidential actions, resulting in a strain on therelationship. Also, each of the executive departments assigns public relations officers todeal with the press. For example, the Department of Defense employs some 1,500 pressofficers.

Legislative Branch

About 5,000 reporters have press credentials to cover Congress, but only about 400cover it full-time. Most of the coverage is on individual lawmakers and is reported tonewspapers in their home states. The national media tend to report on the mostcontroversial aspects of Congress.

Judicial Branch

The public relies on the mass media to learn about Supreme Court and federal courtdecisions. However, the courts receive much less coverage than the president or theCongress. On average, newspapers report on less than 50% of the Supreme Court’scases. Reporters are assigned to the Court, but the remoteness of the justices and thetechnicality of the law make the task of informing the public more difficult.

ThePublic

Interest

U.S. government officials andmembers of the mass media havean uneasy relationship. They needto work together, yet they are oftenat odds. For instance, the mediaoften play the “watchdog” role inuncovering corruption.

Press Officers’ Tools of the TradePress officers handle an official’s relations with the media. Here’s how they do it:

Political Parties: Overview and Function · 1787 Federalist and Anti-Federalist parties emerge out...

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