POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS

Dr. AfxendiouA.P. Comparative Government and PoliticsSachem North High SchoolPOLITICAL INSTITUTIONSTopicsLevels of governmentSupranational organizations and GlobalizationModern challenges to the nation-stateDevolutionExecutivesBureaucraciesLegislaturesLinkage Institutions - elections

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONSThe structures of a political system that carry out the work of governing.Comparative: BE CAREFUL - Just because you see the same type of institution in two different countries, dont assume that they serve the same functions for the political system. We study the way the particular structures operateWe study the functions they fillAnd then we compareCommon structures that exist in most countries are:LEGISLATURESEXECUTIVESJUCICIAL SYSTEMSBUREUCRACIESARMIESLevels of GovernmentAll states have many levels of authority but they vary on the geographic distribution of power.Three types of geographic distribution of authorityUnitary system all policymaking powers are concentrated in one central geographic place and the central government is responsible for most policy areasConfederal system - spreads the power among many sub-units, such as states, and has a weak central governmentFederal system - divides the power between the central government and the sub-units. Regional bodies have significant powers such as taxation, lawmaking, and keeping order. This system is often criticized for inefficiency since power is dispersed among many local authorities whose policies may sometimes conflictGeographic distribution of powerUnitaryFederalConfederalA very rare type of system

Supranational Organizations and GlobalizationAll political systems exist in an environment that is affected by other governments and supranational organizations (organizations that go beyond national boundaries)Most countries in the world must cope with influences from the outside and interactions with othersSupranational organizations reflect a trend towards integrationIntegration a process that encourages states to pool their sovereignty in order to gain political, economic and social clout. It binds states together with common policies and shared rules. Was a very common phenomenon in the 20th where national governments established relationships with regional organizations, ex. ??? _____, and with international organizations such as ________.??? Regional organizations NATO, EU, FAFTA, OPEC6Supranational Organizations and GlobalizationSupranational organizations reflect globalizationGlobalization an integration of social, environments, economic, and cultural activities of nations that has resulted from increasing international contacts.Political globalization a countertrend to the political power of states since it binds states to international organizations that they must follow and allow to shape their national positions. Consequently globalization breaks down the distinction between international relations and domestic politics making many aspects of domestic politics subject to global forces. At the same time it internationalizes domestic issues and events.Supranational Organizations and GlobalizationEconomic globalization intensifies international trade, connects markets, producers and labor together across the world. Integrates capital and financial markets around the world so that banking, credit, stocks and foreign direct investments are increasingly interrelated Foreign direct investments - purchase of assets in a country by a foreign firmGlobalization deepens and widens international connections, local events, even small ones, can have ripple effects throughout the world.Supranational Organizations and GlobalizationDiscussion questions:How does technology affect globalization?Do supranational organizations contribute to the countertrends of globalization or fragmentation. Or perhaps both?Supranational Organizations and GlobalizationSUPRANATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS:GLOBALIZATION OR FRAGMENTATION?GLOBALIZATIONFRAGMENTATIONForces that tie people of the world together; the integration of social, environmental, economic, and cultural activities of nationsForces that tear people of the world apart; loyalties based on ethnicity, language, religion or cultural identitySupranational Organizations and GlobalizationFragmentation a tendency for people to base their loyalty on ethnicity, language, religion or cultural identity. Connected to the concept of ___________________Regional supranational organizations may be seen as evidence of fragmentation because they divide the world into super blocs that often compete with one another

Modern challenges to the nation-state Centripetal vs. Centrifugal forcesChanges in environment are challenging some of the political institutions of states every whereDiscussion questions:Do you think that it is possible that large regional organizations like the EU will replace the smaller states as the basic model of political organization?Is it possible for an international organization like the UN to gain true governing power over nation-states?Modern challenges to the nation-state Centripetal vs. Centrifugal forcesCentral to any of the previously suggested changes is a change in the nature of SOVEREIGNTY states will have to accept and follow the rules of the supranational organizations for all major decisions and policiesSupranational organizations - cooperating groups of nations that operate on either a regional or international level

Modern challenges to the nation-state Centripetal vs. Centrifugal forcesPolitical scientists study the forces that affect nation-states:Centripetal forces bring the people of a state together and give it strengthNationalism one of the most powerful centripetal forces. Gives the identities that form the nation. Encourages allegiance to a single country, promotes loyalty and commitment to the country. Encourages people to obey the laws and accept the basic ideologies behind the functioning of the state.How do you promote nationalism?

Modern challenges to the nation-state Centripetal vs. Centrifugal forcesCentripetal forces bring the people of a state together and give it strengthSchools instill the societys beliefs, values and behaviors in the young. They teach the nations language and encourage students to identify with the nationTransportation and communication systems broadcasting companies, part of the media, present the point of view of the nation. Transportation systems allow people to travel to other parts of their country and allow the government to reach all the citizens.

Modern challenges to the nation-state Centripetal vs. Centrifugal forcesCentrifugal forces opposite of centripetal forces. They are destabilizing forces, push the country apart.Weak institutions country is not well organized, government loses the loyalty of the citizensStrong institutions challenge the government for the loyalty of the people orthodox church in USSR and RussiaNationalism different ethnic groups within the country have more loyalty to their ethnicity than to the state and its government.Separatist movements nationalities within a country may demand independence ex. the breakup of the Soviet Union, Basques in Northern SpainDevolution a response to centrifugal forces. Tendency to decentralize decision-making to regional governments. Ex. Britain devolved power to the Scottish and Welsh parliaments in an effort to keep peace with Scotland and Wales (this is a move towards federalism, but London is still the geographic center of decision-making)Strong institutions that could challenge the state the orthodox church in communist USSR16Devolution: Ethnic, Economic, and Spatial ForcesWithout looking at yesterdays notes, write down a definition of DEVOLUTION to the best of your understanding of the termDevolution: Ethnic, Economic, and Spatial ForcesDEVOLUTION decentralization of decision-making from central government to regional governmentsA reaction to centrifugal forces (forces that divide and destabilize)Three types of devolutionary forces:Ethnic forces a group has a strong sense of belonging to the same culture; shares an identity based on language, religion and customs. If these forces are strong enough, the territorial integrity of the state is threatened. Explain this.

Devolution: Ethnic, Economic, and Spatial ForcesEthnonationalism the tendency for an ethnic group to see itself as a distinct nation with a right to autonomy or independence. Fundamental centrifugal promoting devolution. Examples Britain (not very strong), Yugoslavia (strong)Economic forces economic inequalities especially if they are regional. Examples?Spatial forces away from the center of government, on the periphery of the state especially if geographic feature separates areas from the center of power. Examples?2. Example is Italy with a prosperous north and a problematic south. Industrialized north and a rural south. The Ancona Line, the Northern league called for an independent state called Padania in the North, leaving the South on its own.19EXECUTIVESRole of the executive to carry out the laws and policies of a stateMost countries split the executive intoHead of state symbolizes and represents the people nationally and internationally and may or may not have any real policymaking powerHead of government runs the state, directs other members of the executive branch.Consider Britain and JapanConsider the USConsider Russia

Russia president is head of state with strong powers and the pm is the head of government with subordinate powers20EXECUTIVESFunctions of the Chief ExecutiveMost important person in policy-making whether president or prime minister Presidential chief executive has veto powerinitiate and adopt new policiesHolds other executive branch officials accountable for their performanceMakes decisions in a foreign policy crisisEXECUTIVESThe CabinetMost important collective decision-making body in parliamentary systemsMade up of ministers that head all the major departments into which the executive branch is dividedLed by the PRIME MINISTER who is a first among equalsMinisters are all members of majority party in parliamentCabinet coalition if there is no clear majority party in parliament several parties will join forces and the cabinet will be made up of the members of these parties. Tend to be unstableIn presidential systems the president chooses the cabinet members from any area of political life. Appointments may have to be approved by the legislatureAs cabinet members are not necessarily members of the dominant party and not members of the legislature they have more independence from the president than do ministers from the prime ministerBUREAUCRACIESAgencies that implement government policyUsually part of the executive branchGrew in the 20th and 21st centuries as government has improved health, security and welfare services for their populationsMax Weber German political philosopher who wrote about bureaucracies. According to him a bureaucracy is a well-organized, complex machine that is a rational way for a modern society to organize its business. It is a necessary response to a changing societyUse your notes to create a comparison chart of executives:EXECUTIVES__________________________________BUREAUCRACIESCharacteristics of bureaucracy according to Weber:Hierarchical authority structure top bureaucrat has ultimate control and authority flows from top downTask specialization clear division of labor, every member has a specialized jobExtensive rules clearly written, well-established formal rules that all people in the organization followClear goals clearly defined set of goals that all people in the organization strive towardsThe merit principle - merit-based hiring and promotion; no nepotismImpersonality job performance is judged by productivityBUREAUCRACIESIn democracies:Problem with having appointed officials, influence policymaking. In democracy only elected officials, have that right Discretionary power the power to make small decisions in implementing legislative and executive decisions. These may add up to significant policymaking influence.BUT while elected officials may be changed every election cycle, bureaucrats may keep their positions allowing for stability and continuity of expertise.BUREAUCRACIESIn authoritarian regimes:Directly under the control of the head of the governmentIt is a patronage systemPatronage system personal supporters receive jobs in return for their carrying out the rulers agenda Technocrats in a military regime, the civilian bureaucrats who formed a coalition with the military officers who took over the government. A dominant model in Latin America in the 1960s and 1970s. They enforced an authoritarian state bureaucracy in the name of efficiency in modernizing the economyBUREAUCRACIESCOMPARING BUREAUCRACIESBureaucracies consist of agencies that implement government policy, but their functions generally depend on whether they exist in a democracy or an authoritarian regime.Bureaucracies in DemocraciesBureaucracies in Authoritarian RegimesBureaucrats usually have discretionary power, which allows them to make small decisions that influence policy.

Bureaucrats are usually appointed, not elected, so they often serve as a source of stability when elected officials are voted out of office.The head of government exercises almost complete control over bureaucratic activities.

Bureaucrats are more likely to receive their jobs through patronage (loyalty or favors to the leaders) than merit, although patronage exists in democratic systems as well.BUREAUCRACIESCommon Characteristics of BureaucraciesNon-elected positions bureaucrats are appointed, usually salaried, and are not elected by the publicImpersonal, efficient structures bureaucracies tend to be impersonal because they are goal oriented and have little concern for personal feelings. Bureaucracies are meant to be efficient in accomplishing their goals.Formal qualifications for jobs although authoritarian leaders may appoint whoever they want to government positions, they must at least factor in formal qualifications (education, experience) in making their appointments. The only way a bureaucracy can fulfill its goals of efficiency and competent administration. Most democracies has formal qualifications as prerequisites for appointment.BUREAUCRACIESCommon Characteristics continued:Hierarchical organization top-down organizations where higher officials give orders to lower officials. Everyone in the hierarchy has a boss (except the top official)Red tape/inefficiency despite the goal of efficiency, large bureaucracies weigh themselves down, people dont know who is responsible for what, what order business is meant to follow one hand doesnt appear to know what the other is doingLEGISLATURESBranch of government charged with making laws.The representative popular component of government (80+% of UN member states have legislatures)BicameralismLegislatures may be bicameral (two houses) or unicameral (one house)Bicameral- the most usual form. Originates from the British model of the House of Lords and the House of Commons.

Why do you think most countries have a bicameral legislature?31LEGISLATURESWhy do you think most countries have a bicameral legislature?In federalism (system where power is shared between a central government and subunit governments)Two houses allow for representation of regional governments and local interests (usually the upper house) and for representation of population as whole so that it is a direct democratic link to the voters (the lower house)Two houses keep any one region from getting disproportional power (ex. Populous states in the US)In unitary system (power is centralized in one place)Two houses disperse power by requiring two bodies to approve legislationLegislative membership varies widely, from election to selection by government officials to party membership.LEGISLATURESFunctions of LegislaturesFormulate, debate and vote on political policies in different countries they hold varying degrees of power. Ex. US Congress is very active but the National Peoples Congress of the Peoples Republic of China is a rubberstamp organization for policies made by the leaders of the Chinese Communist PartyMay control a countrys budget in terms of fund-raising and spendingMay appoint officials to the executive and judicial branchesMay play a role in elite recruitmentElite recruitment identifying future leaders of the governmentMay hold hearings about the behaviors of public officialsJUDICIARIESVary widely from country to country but all have some sort of legal structureIn authoritarian systems courts have little or no independence. Decisions are controlled by the chief executiveGuilt or innocence courts -Tradition for these courts goes back to medieval England and were very limited to their focusConstitutional courts serve to defend democratic principles; they are recent historical phenomenon. They are the highest judicial body that rules on constitutionality of laws and government actions.Judicial review mechanism that allows courts to review laws and executive actions for their constitutionality. First established in the US in the 19th century. Guiding principle was the protection of human rights Criticism of constitutional court members not elected so they do not represent the will of the people.

LINKAGE INSTITUTIONSGroups that connect the government to its citizens, such as political parties, interest groups, electronic and print mediaThey are most developed in countries where there is a large population and complex policymaking activities by the government

35LINKAGE INSTITUTIONSPartiesIn democracies:They help bring different people and ideas together to establish the means by which the majority can rule.They provide labels for candidates that help citizens decide how to voteThey hold politicians accountable to the electorate and other political elitesusually we find a multi-party system. The two-party system found in the US is unusualTwo party system found in about 15 countries around the world and is due to the plurality electoral system.Multi-party systems are found in most European countries and are the result of the proportional representation method for elections. They are also associated with strong parliamentary systems.In authoritarian states:One party systems LINKAGE INSTITUTIONSElectoral Systems and ElectionsElectoral systems the rules that decide how votes are cast, counted and translated into seats in a legislatureFirst-past-the-post used in the US, Great Britain and India. Constituencies are divided into single-member districtsSingle-member districts candidates compete for a single representatives seat. Also called the plurality system or the winner-take-all system. Winner does not need a majority to win, s/he simply must get more votes than anyone else.LINKAGE INSTITUTIONSElectoral Systems and Elections Proportional representation used in many countries. Creates multi-member districts. Voters cast their ballots for a party rather than for a candidate and the percentage of votes a party receives determines how many seats the party will gain in the legislature.Multi-member districts more than one legislative seat is contested in each districtMixed system combines first-past-the-posts and proportional representationLINKAGE INSTITUTIONSElectoral Systems and ElectionsPlurality systems encourage large, broad-based parties because no matter how many people run in a district, the person with the largest number of votes wins. Parties without the support of a large number of voters have little chance of winningProportional representation electoral systems encourage multiple parties because they have a good chance of getting some of their candidates elected. It allows minor parties to form coalitions to create a majority vote so that legislation can be passedLINKAGE INSTITUTIONSElectoral Systems and ElectionsTYPES OF ELECTIONSElection of public officials may vote for thousands of officials on the national, regional and local level. In Europe they can now vote for representatives to the EU ParliamentReferendum the public votes on particular policy issues. In the US they are used on the state and local level but there are countries that have them at the national level.Plebiscite also a ballot seeking to consult public opinion but unlike the referendum, it is nonbinding.Initiative a vote on a policy that is initiated by the people. It proposes an issue for a nation-wide vote and its organizers must collect a certain amount of signatures from the public in support and then the government is obligated to schedule a vote. LINKAGE INSTITUTIONSInterest Groupsorganizations of like-minded individuals whose main political goal is to influence and shape public policy.In liberal democracies they are independent from the government so they maintain a strong civil societyBased on any type of common interest occupation, labor, business interests, agriculture, community action, or a causeMay be formal national organizations or they may be local onesMay also have nonpolitical goals ex. a business group that forms to promote their common product (ex. orange growers of Florida)

LINKAGE INSTITUTIONSInterest GroupsDifferences between Parties and Interest GroupsParties run candidates for office, interest groups may support candidates but they do not run their own candidatesParties are interested in a large number of policies, interest groups are focused on policies that related to their interestsThe strength of interest groups It is in their independence from the government found in strong, western democraciesIn authoritarian states no interest groups existThere are systems where interest groups are few and are approved and some times are protected by the state this is called corporatism. There are two types:State corporatism the state determines which groups are operatingSocietal corporatism - interest groups take the lead and dominate the stateLINKAGE INSTITUTIONSPolitical Elites and Political Recruitment found in all countriesPolitical elites leaders who have a disproportionate share of policy-making power. In democracies selected by elections.Elite recruitment ways to identify and select people for future leadership positions

Where are we?Unit I Introduction to Comparative PoliticsSovereignty, Authority and PowerPolitical InstitutionsCitizens, Society and the StatePolitical and Economic ChangePublic PolicyComparison: Sources and Analysis of Data