JA 4 NUARY 200

BRIEFING PAPER

Policy Department External Policies

BIRTH REGISTRATION AND THE RIGHTS

OF THE CHILD

HUMAN RIGHTS

May 2007 EN

This study was requested by the European Parliament's Subcommittee on Human Rights. This study is published in the following languages: EN

Author: Michael James Miller, PhD Consultant, Child Rights

Copies can be obtained through: Andrea Subhan European Parliament

Directorate-General for External Policies of the Union Policy Department BD4 06M071 rue Wiertz B-1047 Brussels E-mail: andrea.subhan@europarl.europa.eu

Manuscript completed on 9 May 2007

The study is available on the Internet at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/activities/expert/eStudies.do?languageEN

If you are unable to download the information you require, please request a paper copy by e-mail : xp-poldep@europarl.europa.eu

Brussels: European Parliament, 2007.

Any opinions expressed in this document are the sole responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official position of the European Parliament.

© European Communities, 2007.

Reproduction and translation, except for commercial purposes, are authorised, provided the source is acknowledged and provided the publisher is given prior notice and supplied with a copy of the publication.

EXPO/B/DROI/2007/13 i MAY 2007 PE 381.391 EN

Abstract:

Birth registration is the legal recognition a child’s existence. It can be generally defined as the official recording of the birth of a child by some administrative level of the State and coordinated by a particular branch of government. The briefing paper suggests 10 recommendations which are devised from the experience of a range of actors involved in birth registration. The recommendations intend to contribute to the creation of a "protective environment" for children.

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction 4

2. Birth registration and human rights standards 5

3. The importance of birth registration 6

4. The extent of non-registration 7

5. Who are the unregistered children? 9

6. Moving toward universal birth registration 10

6.1. Building a sustainable registration system: the case of Mozambique 12

7. Recommendations 14

7.1. Recommendation no. 1: raising awareness 14

7.2. Recommendation no. 2: legislative environment 14

7.3. Recommendation no. 3: administrative coordination 15

7.4. Recommendation no. 4: outreach 15

7.5. Recommendation no. 5: adequate materials 16

7.6. Recommendation no. 6: training and capacity building 16

7.7. Recommendation no. 7: sustainable and permanent registration systems 16

7.8. Recommendation no. 8: integrated approaches 16

7.9. Recommendation no. 9: emergency and armed conflict 17

7.10. Recommendation no. 10: international support 17

8. Conclusions 18

Appendix I: Resolutions, reports, statements and documents relevant to birth

registration issued by the European Parliament, the European Commission

and the European Council 19

Appendix II: Level of registration among children aged 0-59 months for selected countries 24

Bibliography 27

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1. Introduction

Birth registration is the legal recognition a child’s existence. It can be generally defined as the official

recording of the birth of a child by some administrative level of the State and coordinated by a particular

branch of government (UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2002, p.2). It is estimated that some 36 per

cent of children around the world today - and as many as 71 per cent of children born in the least

developed countries - do not have their birth registered(1) (UNICEF, Strategic Information Section,

Division of Policy and Planning, 2005, p.3).

Ideally, birth registration is an element of an effective civil registration system that acknowledges the

existence of a person before the law, establishes his or her identity and family ties and tracks the major

events of that individual’s life, from birth, to marriage, parenting and death. A fully functional civil

registration system should be universal, permanent and compulsory. It should collect, transmit and store

data in an effective way and guarantee their quality, integrity and confidentiality. Such a system, and its

instrumental value in safeguarding human rights, contributes to the normal functioning of any society.

The European Union has demonstrated a clear commitment to the promotion of child rights around the

world (in the context of the European Initiative for Democracy and Human Rights, for example).

Supporting the promotion of birth registration has a clear strategic value since, in addition to being an

individual human right, birth registration also provides the basis for the enjoyment of a range of other

rights. A comprehensive list of resolutions, reports, statements and documents relevant to birth

registration issued by the European Parliament, the European Commission and the European Council is

included in Annex I(2).

This report sets out the principal human rights standards that address birth registration and briefly outlines

the importance of this measure for the child and for the State. It goes on to discuss the extent of non-

registration around the world on the basis of the most up-to-date figures available. Certain categories of

children are particularly vulnerable to missing out on registration, and efforts to improve registration rates

should, to the greatest extend possible, focus on these groups. The report discusses the characteristics of

these children before going on to examine the elements of some successful registration initiatives in

recent years, including two projects supported by the European Union.

In addition, the report provides a detailed illustration of what might be termed “birth registration good

practices”, using the example of the ongoing registration efforts in Mozambique. The report concludes by

1 These figures refer to the percentage of children aged 59 months or younger whose births have not been registered. The list of the 52 countries identified as “least developed” is provided in UNICEF, The State of the World’s Children 2007, p.136. 2 Compiled by UNICEF, Brussels Office.

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setting out a number of recommendations that the European Parliament may wish to take into

consideration in efforts to promote birth registration in developing countries.

2. Birth registration and human rights standards

Registration at birth is a fundamental human right that confers a distinct legal identity on every child. It

also enables the enjoyment of other rights such as participation, protection from discrimination, abuse and

exploitation and access to education and health care. Article 24 of the 1966 International Covenant on

Civil and Political Rights states that,

Every child shall be registered immediately after birth and shall have a name. […] Every child has the right to acquire a nationality.

This right is further elaborated under Article 7 of the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child, ratified

to date by 192 states. Article 7 states that,

The child shall be registered immediately after birth and shall have the right from birth to a name, the right to acquire a nationality and, as far as possible, the right to know and be cared for by his or her parents.

Article 7 also elaborates the obligations of States Parties to ensure the safeguard of this right:

States Parties shall ensure the implementation of these rights in accordance with their national law and their obligations under the relevant international instruments in this field, in particular where the child would otherwise be stateless.

In addition, Article 8 of the Convention outlines the obligations of States Parties both to preserve and,

where necessary, re-establish the child’s identity:

States Parties undertake to respect the right of the child to preserve his or her identity, including nationality, name and family relations […] Where a child is illegally deprived of some or all of the elements of his or her identity, States Parties shall provide appropriate assistance and protection, with a view to re-establishing speedily his or her identity.

Articles 7 and 8 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child recognize the child’s right to identity and

citizenship as an individual. In other words, this right is not contingent upon the status – economic,

ethnic, political or otherwise - of a child’s parents. This is in keeping with the general principle of non-

discrimination contained in the Convention, a principle that requires States Parties to respect and ensure

the rights set forth in the Convention to each child without discrimination of any kind, irrespective of the

status of the child or that of his or her parent(s) or legal guardian(s).

On a regional level, important standards relating to birth registration and nationality include the 1997

European Convention on Nationality (Article 6), which asserts that:

Each State Party shall provide in its internal law for its nationality to be acquired ex lege by […] foundlings found on its territory who would otherwise be stateless […and] for its nationality to be acquired by children born on its territory who do not acquire at birth another nationality

and the 1990 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (Article 6), which recognizes that:

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Every child shall have the right from his birth to a name […] shall be registered immediately after birth […and] has the right to acquire a nationality.

3. The importance of birth registration

Effective birth registration establishes a child’s name and nationality. It also enables that child to obtain a

birth certificate. In some cases, the issuing of a certificate automatically follows birth registration, while

in others a separate application must be made. In either case, a birth certificate is a personal document

issued to an individual by the State. The registration of a birth and the issuing of a birth certificate are,

therefore, two distinct yet interlinked events. A birth certificate is the most visible evidence of a State’s

legal recognition of the existence of a child as a member of society and, in turn, of the State's

accountability for the

safeguard of that child’s rights.

Every child is entitled to State protection against exploitation and abuse. In the case of the unregistered

child, however, he or she may not enjoy the guaranteed protection of a specific national jurisdiction.

Birth registration helps protect children against rights violations that thrive on doubts about their age or

identity including child labour, early marriage and military recruitment and participation in hostilities.

Unregistered children also become a more attractive commodity to child traffickers, illegal adoption rings

and others who seek to take advantage of what is effectively these children’s non-status. If a child is

arrested, a birth certificate can protect him or her against prosecution as an adult, prevent their being held

in detention centres together with adults and help ensure that he or she receives special legal protection

available to juveniles under the justice system. Furthermore, if some form of age- or identity-related

abuse does take place, a birth certificate enables a child,

or that child’s family, to seek legal redress.

In some cases, lack of a birth certificate can prevent a child from enrolling in school or, at least, make it

difficult to ensure that the child is enrolled at the correct age. Similarly, it is generally more difficult for

medical programmes and campaigns, such as immunization drives, to identify and reach unregistered

children (UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2002, pp.4-5).

Lack of a birth certificate can also present a serious obstacle to a child or adolescent inheriting his or her

parents’ estate – an issue of increasing importance with the rise in numbers of orphaned children as a

result of the HIV/AIDS epidemic(3).

3 In adult life, a birth certificate is normally required in order to obtain an identity card, passport, marriage licence or driver’s licence. Proof of name and nationality, and state recognition in the form of a birth certificate, is also the first step towards ensuring one’s democratic rights.

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In conflict and post-conflict situations, the vulnerability of unregistered children becomes still more acute,

presenting obstacles to the provision of appropriate protection, access to humanitarian aid, the

investigation of individual cases and the process of family tracing and unification (Larsson Bellander, E.,

2003). Indeed, the importance of this measure becomes increasingly evident at a time when the social

environment that ensures the well-being of families and communities is substantially eroded. Moreover,

the inability of the State to identify and monitor children requiring assistance is a major obstacle when

planning and implementing humanitarian assistance and development interventions(4).

The implications of non-registration are not necessarily most extreme in developing countries. In

Bangladesh, for example, where only 7.2 per cent of children were registered in 2003 (UNICEF(b) 2006),

non-registration is the norm and there exists a plethora of mechanisms - some formal, some decidedly less

so - to circumscribe the requirement for a birth certificate. This leads to a lack of standardisation and

problems of false or inaccurate documents. In contrast, in countries of Europe where “universal”

registration prevails, there is an assumption that every individual is registered and has the possibility of

producing a birth certificate to prove his or her name, nationality and family relations. Since

administrative structures reflect this assumption, in the (rare) case where a child is unregistered the

implications of exclusion can be extreme.

Finally, effective birth registration, as part of a functioning civil registry system is also crucial for the

State and the international community if development planning to tackle poverty, provide basic services

and support child-related policies is to be effective (UNICEF, Strategic Information Section, Division of

Policy and Planning, 2005, p.1). In the absence of accurate data on child births, it is, for example, a major

challenge to plan and budget effectively for universal immunisation programmes. Periodic censuses give

a demographic “snapshot” of a nation, but the ongoing registration of births, deaths and marriages

provides a country with a means to continuously track its own population statistics and trends.

4. The extent of non-registration

The exact number of children who are missing from national registries is unknown. These children

remain ‘invisible’, and their existence can only be estimated based on available statistics. There are two

basic measurements of birth registration: the percentage (or number) of children born in any given year

whose birth is registered, and the percentage (or number) of children under the age of five years whose

birth is registered. When one discusses the “level” of birth registration in a country or region of the

world, this refers to the latter. Care should be taken to distinguish between the two concepts(5).

4 The implications of non-registration in conflict situations is extensively explored in the forthcoming publication, Birth Registration and Armed Conflict, from UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. 5 In the UNICEF publication The ‘Rights’ Start to Life: A statistical analysis of birth registration, it is stated that “[o]ver 48 million children under five years of age are not registered at birth.” The figure of 48 million in fact refers to the number of births unregistered in a single year. Globally, the number of unregistered children under the age of five is likely to be closer to 250 million.

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Despite the importance of birth registration and the clear commitments of States under international law

to ensure this right, available estimates indicate that as many as 48.3 million children born in 2003 were

not registered (UNICEF, Strategic Information Section, Division of Policy and Planning, p.3) (this,

nonetheless, points to an improvement since 2000, when it was estimated that 50 million children born in

that year had no legal identity)(6). Of these, almost all (48.1 million) were living in developing countries.

In regional terms, South Asia accounted for almost half of all unregistered births in 2003 (23.4 million),

followed by Sub-Saharan Africa (14.8 million) and East Asia and the Pacific (5.9 million). In

“industrialized” countries it is generally agreed that 2 per cent of all births are not registered. From a

statistical perspective, the registration of 98 per cent of children is defined as universal coverage, but from

a human rights perspective, universality is only achieved with the registration of each and every child

born under a State’s jurisdiction.

As regards data for individual countries, the most reliable source for developing nations is provided by

household surveys, namely Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) and Demographic and Health

Surveys (DHS). These data are compiled by UNICEF(7) to assess progress towards international targets

such as the Millenium Development Goals and the World Fit for Children commitments. As of May

2006, data were available for 72 countries (UNICEF(b), 2006). These are listed in Appendix 1 of this

report. Countries with the highest levels of birth registration among children under five years of age

include Albania (98.8 per cent), Armenia (96.6 per cent) Azerbaijan (96.8 per cent), Bosnia and

Herzogovina (98.4 per cent), Cuba (100 per cent), Occupied Palestinian Territories (99.5 per cent), Korea

DPR (98.9 per cent), Moldova (97.9 per cent)

and Mongolia (97.6 per cent). The fact that several of the highest performers with regards to birth

registration are former Communist countries with currently modest GDPs suggests that once an effective

system for civil registration has been established, the resources to maintain it need not be prohibitive.

Bangladesh (7.2 per cent), Botswana (5.0 per cent), Cambodia (22.0 per cent), Chad (24.9 per cent),

Lesotho (26.3 per cent), Tanzania (7.1 per cent), Timor Leste (22.3 per cent), Uganda (4.2 per cent) and

Zambia (9.6 per cent) number among those countries with the lowest levels of registration. These

countries - like the majority of countries in which less than 40 per cent of children are registered - tend to

be heavily indebted, war-affected, or both (UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, forthcoming).

6 The overall level of non-registration may be higher that these figures indicate, since many births take place in countries which have no effective civil registration system. 7 These data are available from the ChildInfo website, www.childinfo.org

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5. Who are the unregistered children?

Around the globe, unregistered children are those who belong to the poorest and most marginalized

sectors of a given society. Lack of registration, and the statelessness that generally results, underscore

their marginalization still further. Those most at risk include:

• children of poor parents (because of direct costs associated with registration – fees or fines for

late registration - and indirect opportunity costs, including travel to registry offices, and time

away from income earning activities) (UNICEF, Strategic Information Section, Division of

Policy and Planning, 2005, p.21);

• children living in remote rural areas (across developing countries, the level of birth registration in

rural areas is 34 per cent compared to 62 per cent in urban areas) (UNICEF(c), 2006, p.135);

• children from particular ethnic or indigenous groups, especially those that experience

discrimination;

• children born to illiterate or poorly educated parents (mothers’ education level is particularly

significant in determining the likelihood that a child is registered) (UNICEF, Strategic

Information Section, Division of Policy and Planning, 2005, pp.10-11 & p.21);

• children of refugees or internally displaced persons;

• children who have been separated from or who have lost their parents, including children

orphaned by AIDS;

• children born to single mothers, especially in patriarchal societies or countries with

discriminatory registration legislation. In Egypt, for example, it is estimated that some one

million children born to Egyptian women and non-Egyptian fathers cannot claim Egyptian

citizenship (Schemm, P., 2003);

• children of migrants, especially undocumented migrants.

It is becoming clear, on the other hand, that children whose birth is attended by trained medical personnel,

or who are born in medical facilities tend to be more likely to have their birth registered than those who

are born without medical supervision. In a statistical study of birth registration, UNICEF reports that

“[d]ata from African countries clearly support the hypothesis that children delivered by a skilled attendant

have a higher level of birth registration” (UNICEF, Strategic Information Section, Division of Policy and

Planning, 2005, p.13), while multivariate analysis of available household survey data indicates the high

significance of having access to vaccination and assistance at birth in determining the likelihood that a

child is registered (UNICEF, Strategic Information Section, Division of Policy and Planning, p.22). The

logic is simple: mothers come into close contact with a branch of the national infrastructure at a critical

point in terms of registration – the actual birth of the child.

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Marginalised children who are already at high risk of non-registration in normal circumstances are still

less likely to be registered in situations of armed conflict or civil unrest. This reflects both the difficulty

of accessing civil registries and, as the EU Guidelines on Children and Armed Conflict recognise, the

collapse of birth registration systems (European Union, 2003, para.I.1). Fear of repercussions can also

prevent parents from registering the birth of a child: for example, in Kosovo, before the war, Albanian

families did not register children from fear of approaching and being associated with the Serbian State

authorities(8). In Eritrea, it is reported that people continue to avoid registration of children from fear of

them being conscripted as child soldiers (UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, forthcoming). In other

cases, children registered at birth may have lost their documents due to displacement or may have

purposely destroyed them in order to escape the threat of violence based upon identity, including ethnic or

national origin. In post-conflict Guatemala, many altered or destroyed their personal information and

registered themselves using false information in an attempt to hide from Government security forces(9).

In the case of refugee children, host countries are often unwilling to facilitate birth registration and still

more reluctant to grant nationality to refugee babies born on their soil. The United Nations High

Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) confirms that

Statelessness is often caused by States’ deliberate policies not to confer nationality to children born to refugees. It may also be caused by the existence of conflicting laws regarding nationality […]. All refugee children in the country of asylum must be considered as having, or being able to acquire, including through naturalization, an effective nationality (United Nations High Commission for Refugees, 1994, 8.II.).

The sheer number of human beings involved in refugee movements gives an indication of the scale of the

challenge. UNHCR estimates that at the end of 2004, there were 9.6 million refugees in the world and

some 1.5 million stateless persons (United Nations High Commission for Refugees, 2006, p.8).

6. Moving toward universal birth registration

Significant steps are being taken to promote birth registration around the world. For example, since the

launch of its universal birth registration campaign in February 2005, Plan International has supported the

registration of more than 5 million children, worked to promote policy and legislative changes in ten

countries (with a further 21 countries working towards change) and encouraged the reduction of costs for

registration, issuing of certificates and retrospective fees in 11 countries.

8 Communication from UNICEF, Kosovo, September 2003. 9 This is reported in: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division, Programa Internacional para Acelerar el Mejoramiento de los Sistemas de Estadísticas Vitales y Registro Civil. Estudio de factibilidad para acelerar el mejoramiento de los sistemas de registro civil y estadísticas vitales en Guatemala, United Nations, New York, 1993, and cited in UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Birth Registration and Armed Conflict, UNICEF, forthcoming.

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Since 1996, the Commission of the European Communities, along with the Government of the

Netherlands and Plan International, has been supporting the Government of Bangladesh in implementing

a strategy for universal birth registration (UNICEF Bangladesh, 2006). With technical support from

UNICEF, the initiative has seen:

• the adoption of a new Births and Deaths Registration Act in 2004 and the registration of over 12

million births;

• strengthening of inter-sectoral collaboration through high-level events and innovative pilot

interventions linking birth registration with the health and education systems;

• creation of task forces from national to village levels to implement the birth registration strategy;

• incorporation of a birth registration component in the curricula of all local government training

institutes;

• printing and dissemination of a training manual and administrative materials for birth registration;

• establishment of an NGO network to promote birth registration and child rights;

• promotion of birth registration for vulnerable children in collaboration with Terre des Hommes,

Italy;

• production of a television spot on birth registration;

• development and dissemination of communication and advocacy materials, including news letters

and annual planners, to various stakeholders;

• the establishment of a computer software package for registration in selected registry offices.

In addition, the European Initiative for Democracy and Human Rights is providing support for an

initiative in Zimbabwe which has the aim of addressing the interrelated issues of cross-border trafficking

of children and birth registration. In particular, the project aims to increase the proportion of children (0

to 18 years of age) with birth certificates by 25 per cent in a minimum of ten districts by July 2008

(UNICEF(d), 2006).

Experience from the field indicates that, even in the most challenging circumstances, the registration of

every child is a practicable possibility. To give just one striking example, in Afghanistan, between May

and October 2003, a total of 775,000 children were successfully registered, representing 97 per cent of the

target group of all girls and boys under one year of age. This was achieved using trained volunteers who

accompanied polio vaccination teams as they made house-to-house visits to immunize young children

(UNICEF, 2003). In 2004, the campaign expanded to reach 1.7 million children under the age of five

(UNICEF(a), 2006).

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6.1 Building a sustainable registration system: the case of Mozambique

Many of the key elements necessary for promoting a sustainable system of birth registration are present in

the ongoing registration efforts in Mozambique(10). While there are no household survey data to provide

a precise picture of birth registration in this country, it is estimated that the level of registration is low,

lying in the broad category of 0 to 39 per cent of births(11) (UNICEF, Strategic Information Section,

Division of Policy and Planning, 2005, p.4) Contributing to this low level of registration is the fact that

the birth registration system inherited from colonial rule was associated with taxation and registration

itself involved payment of a fee. Furthermore, during the country’s civil war (1977-92) many parents are

thought to have lost their identity documents, complicating the procedure for registering their children.

Participatory research conducted by a local NGO, Wona Sanana, additionally revealed that levels of birth

registration were low due to difficulty in traveling to registration centres and complicated bureaucratic

procedures (UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, forthcoming).

In keeping with its commitments under the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Government of

Mozambique waived registration fees in 2004, incorporated birth registration in the Code of Civil

Registry and, together with civil society, developed a National Plan for Birth Registration. The elements

of this National Plan have been incorporated into sub-national plans for all districts of Mozambique.

Furthermore, birth registration is included in the country’s Plan of Action for Orphaned and Vulnerable

Children and National Plan of Action for Children approved in 2006. The issue is also addressed in the

Government’s Five Year Plan (2005-2009) and in the country’s second Poverty Reduction Strategy

Paper, thus helping to ensure that resources for birth registration are allocated under the State Budget.

Against this legislative and policy background, the Government, civil society and international partners,

with funding from the Government of the Netherlands(12), are working together to ensure that all

Mozambican children enjoy their right to a name and to acquire a nationality. In 2006, activities covered

four key areas:

• modeling a sustainable system for birth registration in three selected districts;

• accelerating registration activities in 22 districts to address the “backlog” of unregistered births

using mobile brigades;

• implementing a community-based social mobilization strategy for awareness raising, with special

emphasis on orphaned and other vulnerable children (in certain pilot cases this included mobile

units, theatre groups, community radio and tv spots);

10 The information in this section was supplied by UNICEF Mozambique. 11 Estimate for 2004. It is expected that the 2007 national census will include two questions on birth registration. Census data will become available in 2009. 12 The contribution covers the period 2006-8.

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• supporting the development of routine data collection tools and a database for the compilation of

birth registration data, as well as providing training on data collection, validation and data entry

to national and provincial staff.

Specifically, in 2006 district planning sessions for programme implementation were carried out in a

phased manner and standard training materials for registration agents and social mobilization activist

were developed. A total of 748 permanent registration agents and mobile brigade staff were provided

with a 10-day training course, which included an HIV/AIDS awareness component(13). These agents also

received a standard training manual containing basic information on the legal framework for birth

registration, the correct procedures to complete forms, practical exercises and responses to frequently

asked questions. Funds were used to purchase essential registration materials and equipment, including

1.25 million birth certificates and 19 motorcycles for mobile registration purposes. In addition, 418

community activists, including community and religious leaders, together with youth from target

communities, took part in a two-day training course on communication skills and community

mobilization. Schools were also directly involved in communication activities, an initiative that proved

highly successful in ensuring the wide distribution of information and the active participation of children.

A pilot database for the collection of birth registration data was also established, and a training manual on

data validation and entry was developed.

Through a combination of mobile brigades and permanent registration agents, a total of 1,036,731

children – representing approximately 10 per cent of the country’s child population – had been registered

by the end of 2006(14). Of this total, 90,309 orphaned children were reported registered(15).

The multi-sectoral nature of the approach adopted in Mozambique, bringing together national and district

administrations, civil society and communities themselves, requires concerted coordination efforts both in

terms of planning and implementation, but there are already indications that the investment in building

stronger institutional relations will provide a solid basis for sustainable registration activities in

subsequent years. In 2007, the programme will continue to support the testing of the model community-

based registration system. It will also expand to 11 more districts where a registration campaign will be

complemented by the establishment of the tested routine system. It is expected that a further 800 000

Mozambican children will receive birth certificates in 2007.

13 In all cases a verification procedure was also put in place to ensure the accuracy of completed registrations. 14 44,000 parents were also registered. 15 Paternal, maternal and double orphans.

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7. Recommendations

The following recommendations are derived from the experience of a range of actors involved in birth

registration, and are intended to contribute to the creation of a “protective environment” for children(16).

7.1. Recommendation no. 1: raising awareness

Promoting effective registration involves raising awareness of the importance of birth registration as

an individual human right at all levels of society and gaining the commitment of all stakeholders,

from central government to local communities. In part this involves promoting the “demand” for the

service by directing awareness raising and communication initiatives toward communities, families and

children through registration campaigns, clear messages in local media (including local radio) and the

engagement of government officials, community leaders, health professionals and teachers. In

Mozambique, schools are directly involved in communication activities, and in Bangladesh birth

registration task forces include, among others, religious and social leaders, education, health and family

planning staff and rural development officers. Generating demand for birth registration should be

complemented by promoting the “supply” of the service by raising awareness of the issue with

government, emphasizing the importance of birth registration to local registrars and other public officials

and building their capacity to provide this service.

7.2. Recommendation no. 2: legislative environment

Passing relevant legislation or reforming outdated laws to establish a permanent and compulsory

system of civil registration is an essential step to promoting birth registration. Governments should

commit to ensuring that birth registration and the first copy of the birth certificate are provided free of

charge to parents or carers.

In countries where penalties for late registration apply, interventions should also focus on policy reform

to emphasize incentives and encourage demand for birth registration and birth certificates. Sanctions for

late registration, while encouraging parents to meet their obligation to register their child “immediately

after birth”(17), can discriminate against the poorest citizens and those living far from registration

facilities and may ultimately serve as a disincentive to registration once the permitted period has expired.

Governments should also ensure that national legislation enables all children within their

jurisdiction to be registered and receive a birth certificate. This means not only making legal

provision for registration of children of asylum seekers, refugees and undocumented workers, but also

eliminating discriminatory legislation that prevents women registering a birth without the approval or

presence of the child’s father. Other reform measures might include reducing the number of documents

required to register a child (without compromising accuracy and veracity); simplifying the registration

16 There are seven key elements to the protective environment: government commitment and capacity; legislation and enforcement; attitudes, customs and practices; open discussion; promoting children’s life skills, knowledge and participation; building the capacity of families and communities; and monitoring, reporting and oversight mechanisms. 17 As required by Article 7 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child.

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procedure; and accommodating cultural child-naming practices. Legislative change must be

complemented by the provision of sufficient resources to ensure an effective registration service.

7.3. Recommendation no. 3: administrative coordination

An effective administrative structure is essential for the delivery of birth registration services “on the

ground”. This entails ensuring coordination between relevant government ministries and

institutions at all levels. There are two basic models for birth registration delivery: centralised and

decentralised systems. These terms refer respectively to systems where registration data are collected by

a branch of central government and held by a central authority and to systems which are managed by sub-

national authorities (eg state or provincial government). It is sometimes assumed that the terms

“centralised” and “decentralised” refer to the geographic outreach of civil registry facilities, however a

centralised system with a well-distributed network of civil registries may have better outreach than a

decentralised system where registries only exist in provincial capitals. Decentralised systems do have an

advantage in promoting accountability and participation in the context of devolution of decision-making

powers and responsibility to sub-national levels of government. Decentralization should not, however, be

seen by central government as an opportunity to avoid providing the necessary support for civil

registration, since a decentralised system can only function satisfactorily if it receives sufficient funds and

adequate resources to build the capacity of staff. Furthermore, a structure of national coordination

facilitates the identification of neglected regions and vulnerable groups and creates opportunities for

narrowing disparities and giving priority to areas in most need. The country files of the United Nations

Statistics Division show that the greatest progress on birth registration is generally made in those

countries where the national government has been closely and consistently involved in registration

projects (UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2002, p.17).

7.4. Recommendation no. 4: outreach

As a fundamental human right, birth registration must be made available to the entire population,

including those living in remote and hard to reach areas. This involves creating the necessary

infrastructure to reach the whole country. Whether a national registry system is centralized or

decentralized, it is essential that its delivery points – the local registry offices – cover the national

territory as completely as possible. Mobile registration services have also proven effective in this respect,

including the provision of motorcycles for civil registrars. In Chile, civil registration on islands off the

southern coast is carried out by a special marine unit (UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2002, p.19).

UNICEF multivariate analysis of birth registration across a total of some 64 countries for which

household survey data are available suggests that in areas where there are significant disparities in birth

registration rates, programmatic interventions should target rural children living in poverty and their

families (UNICEF, Strategic Information Section, Division of Policy and Planning, 2005, p.24).

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7.5. Recommendation no. 5: adequate materials

In certain cases, even where infrastructure for registration exists, registration efforts are hampered by a

lack of materials.

Provision should be made to ensure that a shortage of basic materials (registration forms, pens,

stamps etc) does not compromise the child’s right to registration and to receive a birth certificate.

In India, for example, the Office of the Registrar General is committed to distributing birth certificates to

children, many of whom were registered at birth but did not, through lack of information or shortage of

forms, receive birth certificates. Simple, low-cost initiatives can further enhance the value of a birth

certificate to a child and his or her parents, including plastic lamination of certificates to protect them

from damage, or printing early childhood care information on the reverse side of the certificate, a strategy

employed in Uganda.

7.6. Recommendation no. 6: training and capacity building

The accuracy and consistency of birth registration records are crucial. As a consequence, civil

registration activities should only be assigned to trained individuals. In countries where civil

registrars are lacking, adequate training courses should be provided as part of the registration strategy (as

is currently the case in Mozambique’s registration initiative). In other situations, civil registration may

not be given its due importance, and this can translate into inadequate support for registrars and staff and,

often, low levels of motivation. For systems to work efficiently, local registrars should receive ongoing

training and guidance on registration laws and procedures, periodic refresher courses and access to

detailed guidelines to help them resolve any registration problems. A national coordination mechanism

can help to provide this kind of support and information.

7.7. Recommendation no. 7: sustainable and permanent registration systems

Birth registration campaigns carried out in conjunction with national governments can yield impressive

results as regards the number of children reached, the reduction of registration “backlog” and an increase

in public awareness of the importance of this measure. Campaigns of limited duration should,

however, be complemented by concerted efforts to establish a sustainable and permanent system of

civil registration (as in the cases of Bangladesh and Mozambique discussed above). Thus, for example,

a birth registration campaign in Angola that succeeded in reaching 3 million children between 2001 and

2002 was followed up by the decision of the Angolan Government in 2005 to adopt a free birth

registration policy for all newborns and children below five years of age, and to support registration in

hospitals at the time of birth (UNICEF(a), 2006).

7.8. Recommendation no. 8: integrated approaches

There is considerable potential to mainstream birth registration with other governmental activities

and ongoing service delivery programmes. This both extends the reach of birth registration services and

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reduces the unit cost of registration. Specific points of intervention can include immunization campaigns,

maternal and child health monitoring, food distribution and services for early child development,

including distribution of vitamin A supplements.

Linking birth registration with tangible benefits such as immunization helps make the advantages of

registration more visible to a population who may not fully understand its significance. High levels of

birth registration are often associated with high levels of hospital births in a given country since birth

facilities offer a point of contact between state institutions and new parents. Moreover the network of

health centres in some countries is more developed than that of registration offices and health centres

often have the transport necessary to reach isolated areas. At the same time, it is preferable that health

services are not burdened with the task of record keeping or issuing birth certificates. Rather, the health

centre should pass registration records to the local registration office. In the case of mobile health and

vaccination services, a local registrar can accompany the health team. In countries where babies are

generally delivered at home, traditional birth attendants can be trained to provide this link to registration

authorities (informing rather than carrying out registration). School enrolment offers an another

important opportunity to register children who have not been registered at birth however, in keeping with

the requirements of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Articles 2 and 28), access to education

must not be contingent upon possession of a birth certificate.

7.9. Recommendation no. 9: emergency and armed conflict

Special attention should be given to birth registration in times of humanitarian emergency or

armed conflict. UNICEF affirms that “[t]he ‘invisibility’ of non-registered children increases their

vulnerability and the risk that violations of their rights will go unnoticed. Providing children with birth

registration during and after conflict is, therefore, a matter of urgent priority” (UNICEF Innocenti

Research Centre, forthcoming). Registration and possession of a birth certificate can also significantly

facilitate family tracing and return in cases where children are displaced or separated from caregivers and

can help in cases where asylum is sought. The negotiation of peace agreements represents an important

opportunity to include explicit reference to establishing or re-establishing a civil registration system. This

charges transitional authorities and post-conflict governmental administrations with the task and holds

them accountable for the implementation process. In a post-conflict situation, birth registration can

contribute to restoring a sense of unity and citizenship. A full set of recommendations regarding conflict

and post-conflict situations are included in the forthcoming UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre

publication entitled Birth Registration and Armed Conflict.

7.10. Recommendation no. 10: international support

Given that the root causes of non-registration are often economic and political, birth registration should

be regarded by the international community as a core development issue and international

organizations may consider re-orienting their technical cooperation programmes to include support for the

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establishment of efficient civil registration systems. The establishment of sustainable registration systems

requires a significant and long-term commitment to support national efforts.

At the same time, birth registration should be prioritized at the regional level to build political

commitment and encourage regional cooperation. This is the case, for example, with the Asian Birth

Registration Committee, a network of civil registrars from the region working together with

representatives from Plan International and UNICEF to promote birth registration across the region.

8. Conclusion

Birth registration represents an investment in children that allows them to realize their potential and to

develop as full and productive citizens of every nation. It is also a crucial measure to secure the

recognition of every person before the law, to safeguard the protection of his or her individual rights, and

to ensure that any violation of these rights does not go unnoticed. At the same time, in cases where a

child has not been registered or does not possess a birth certificate, this fact should not be used to limit the

enjoyment of his or her human rights in any way.

Birth registration is also integral to good governance. It is a key step in establishing an individual’s

nationality and, beyond this, in contributing to his or her sense of citizenship and, hence, to the coherence

of civil society. Moreover, for governments it is a source of credible data covering all sections of a

national population and, as such can facilitate realistic development planning.

In today’s world, with massive population movements, organized child trafficking, the global crisis of

children orphaned by HIV/AIDS, and the impact of armed conflict on children, birth registration is more

necessary than ever and should be viewed as an integral part of international efforts to tackle poverty and

provide basic social services of quality to each and every child.

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Appendix I

Resolutions, reports, statements and documents relevant to birth registration issued by the European

Parliament, the European Commission and the European Council

Compiled by UNCEF, Brussels Office

I. European Parliament - Parliamentary resolutions, Parliamentary questions or reports on the issue 1. Reports 1) Session document FINAL A6-0368/2006 (24.10.2006) Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs Own-initiative REPORT Report with a proposal for a European Parliament recommendation to the Council on fighting trafficking in human beings – an integrated approach and proposals for an action plan OPINION OF THE COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS for the Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs on fighting trafficking in human beings – an integrated approach and proposals for an action plan (2006/2078(INI)) Prevention and reducing demand EU action in relation to third countries 16. The Council and the Commission should develop human rights and children’s rights based prevention programmes based on close consultation and cooperation with countries of origin, transit and destination, addressing in particular factors related to poverty and social �angladesh�tion that facilitate child trafficking, such as failure to secure birth registration or a lack of access to basic education;

http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+REPORT+A6-2006-0368+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN&language=EN

2) Session document FINAL A6-0400/2005 (14.12.2005) Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality Own-initiative REPORT on strategies to prevent the trafficking of women and children who are vulnerable to sexual exploitation MOTION FOR A EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT RESOLUTION on strategies to prevent the trafficking of women and children who are vulnerable to sexual exploitation 53. Urges the Commission to ensure that Country and Regional Strategy Papers stress the need for ensuring birth registration in third countries;

http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+REPORT+A6-2005-0400+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN&language=EN

Text adopted by Parliament http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P6-TA-2006-0005+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN

3) Session document FINAL A6-0185/2005 (15.6.2005) Committee on Development Own-initiative REPORT The exploitation of children in developing countries, with a special focus on child labour DRAFT EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT RESOLUTION on the exploitation of children in developing countries, with a special focus on child labour (2005/2004(INI))

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10. Calls on the Council and the Commission to incorporate official birth registration in development cooperation policy as a fundamental right and an instrumental means of protecting children’s rights; 11. Urges the Commission to address the subject of official birth registration in all its future communications in the context of development policy and to propose guidelines to promote the dissemination of that practice; 13. Calls on the Commission to promote a technical support strategy for those States in which the problem of the lack of official birth registration is widespread;

http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+REPORT+A6-2005-0185+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN&language=EN

2. Texts Adopted 1) European Parliament resolution on strategies to prevent the trafficking of women and children who are vulnerable to sexual exploitation (2004/2216(INI)) P6_TA(2006)0005 Combating the trafficking of women and children 55. Urges the Commission to ensure that Country and Regional Strategy Papers stress the need for ensuring birth registration in third countries;

http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P6-TA-2006-0005+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN&language=EN

2) European Parliament resolution on the exploitation of children in developing countries, with a special focus on child labour (2005/2004(INI)) P6_TA(2005)0272 Exploitation and child labour in developing countries 10. Calls on the Council and the Commission to incorporate official birth registration in development cooperation policy as a fundamental right and an instrumental means of protecting children’s rights; 11. Urges the Commission to address the subject of official birth registration in all its future communications in the context of development policy and to propose guidelines to promote the dissemination of that practice; 13. Calls on the Commission to promote a technical support strategy for those States in which the problem of the lack of official birth registration is widespread;

http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+TA+P6-TA-2005-0272+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN&language=EN

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II. European Commission - reports, policy statements etc. covering the issue 1. Guidelines 1) EU Guidelines on Children and Armed Conflict

1. In the past decade alone, armed conflicts are estimated to have claimed the lives of over two million children and physically maimed six million more. Conflict deprives children of

parents, care-givers, basic social services, health care and education. There are some twenty million displaced and refugee children, while others are held hostage, abducted or trafficked. Systems of birth registration and juvenile justice systems collapse. At any given time, there are estimated to be at least 300,000 child soldiers participating in conflicts.

http://ec.europa.eu/�angl/external_relations/human_rights/child/caafguidelines.pdf

2. Communication 1) Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council (Oct 2005) COM(2005) 514 final Fighting trafficking in human beings – an integrated approach and proposals for an action plan The Commission should ensure that Country and Regional Strategy Papers, wherever relevant and possible, strengthen strategies to address factors facilitating child trafficking such as the failure to secure birth registration or the lack of access to basic education.[lxiv]

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52005DC0514:EN:NOT

3. Report of the Experts Group 1) Report of the Experts Group on Trafficking in Human Beings (Dec 2004) Directorate-General Justice, Freedom and Security, European Commission 81. EU development co-operation programmes should explicitly address the root causes of trafficking in children. Elements of such programmes should be: … - improvement of the system for birth registration;

http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/doc_centre/crime/trafficking/doc/part_1_en.pdf

4. Statements 1) European Union Delegation of the European Commission to Malaysia Statement by H.E. Thierry Rommel, Ambassador, Head of the European Commission Delegation to Malaysia Statement by H.E. Thierry Rommel, Ambassador, Head of the European Commission Delegation to Malaysia at the ERA FNS Conference : “Statelessness : An Obstacle to Economic Empowerment” (March 2006) Compulsory birth registration is essential to provide for a legal identity and nationality. Lack of legal identification lead to unequal employment opportunities or any kind of employment at all, related socio-economic hardship, violation of human rights that include access to basic education, health care freedom of movement, access to political processes, amongst others…

http://www.delmys.cec.eu.int/en/speeches/ERA%20March%202006%20Conference%20KL.doc

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5. News 1) The European Commission(EC) signs an agreement with UNICEF Bangladesh to fund a project supporting the empowerment of adolescent girls The European Commission (EC) signs an agreement with UNICEF Bangladesh to fund a project supporting the empowerment of adolescent girls. The EC will contribute nearly 6 million euros, 76% of the total project cost. The project will be implemented by UNICEF (December 2005)

http://www.unicef.org/�angladesh/media_1081.htm

III. European Council - documents, statements, etc. 1. Working Document 1) Annual Report 2006 on the European Community’s Development Policy and the Implementation of External Assistance in 2005 Commission Staff Working Document – Annex to the Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament = Annual Report 2006 on the European Community’s Development Policy and the Implementation of External Assistance in 2005 3.9. Equality between men and women 3.9.1. Global events … For example, in Bangladesh, three projects adopted in 2005 have a direct and positive impact on gender equality: support for non-formal primary education, a project for the empowerment of adolescent girls, and a birth registration project. Birth registration can have a significant impact on gender equality. As a legal age verification document, this will be a key tool in combating the early marriage of adolescent girls and other forms of abuses, such as sexual exploitation.

http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/06/st10/st10875-ad01.en06.pdf

IV. Others - documents, statements, etc. Council of Europe 1. Meeting Report 1) Council of Europe – European Committee on Legal Co-operation (CDCJ) European Committee on Legal Co-operation (CDCJ) 80th meeting Abridged Meeting Report (Apr 2005) Article 11 – Information to persons concerned 46. In the light of the previous article it should be stressed that States should provide sufficient information on the right of all children born on their territory to be registered at birth since the absence of birth registration can have significant repercussions for unregistered children including that of statelessness (see the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child).

http://www.coe.int/t/e/legal_affairs/legal_co-operation/steering_committees/cdcj/documents/2005/CDCJ_200512e%20Final%20abridged%20report.pdf

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2. Report 1) Council of Europe – European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia Breaking the Barriers – Romani Women and Access to Public Health Care (2003) B. Legal standards 1. Principles of non-discrimination and equality … these Covenants articulate other rights and freedoms that relate directly or indirectly to access to healthcare. These include the rights to food, housing, education, access to information, a child’s right to birth registration and nationality, the right to take part in the conduct of public affairs, freedom from cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, freedom to choose one’s residence, and others.

http://eumc.europa.eu/eumc/material/pub/ROMA/rapport-en.pdf

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Appendix II

Level of registration among children aged 0-59 months for selected countries

Country Survey Year Survey Type Per cent Registered

Albania 2000 MICS 98.8

Angola 2000 MICS 29.4

Armenia 2000 DHS 96.6

Azerbaijan 2000 MICS 96.8

Bangladesh 2003 MICS 7.2

Benin 2001 DHS 69.7

Bolivia 2000 MICS 81.6

Bosnia & Herzegovina 2000 MICS 98.4

Botswana 2000 MICS 58

Brazil 2002 IBGE 75.6

Burundi 2000 MICS 74.9

Cambodia 2000 DHS 22

Cameroon 2000 MICS 79.1

Central African Republic 2000 MICS 72.5

Chad 2000 MICS 24.9

Colombia 2001 DHS 91.4

Comoros 2000 MICS 83.4

Congo DR 2000 MICS 34.1

Côte d'Ivoire 2000 MICS 71.8

Cuba 2001 ONE 100

Dominican Republic 2000 MICS 74.6

Equatorial Guinea 2000 MICS 32.3

Gabon 2000 MICS 89.4

Gambia The 2000 MICS 32.2

Georgia 1999 MICS 94.6

Ghana 2004 DBDR 21

Guinea-Bissau 2000 MICS 42.1

Country Survey Year Survey Type Per cent Registered

Guyana 2000 MICS 96.5

Haiti 2000 DHS 69.7

India 2000 MICS 34.7

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Indonesia 2002 DHS 55.1

Iraq 2000 MICS 98.1

Jamaica 1999 JSLC 96

Kenya 2003 DHS 48

Korea DPR 2000 MICS 98.9

Lao PDR 2000 MICS 59.1

Lesotho 2004 DHS 26.3

Madagascar 2003-04 DHS 74.8

Maldives 2000 MICS 73

Mali 2001 DHS 48

Mauritania 2000 DHS 55.2

Moldova 2000 MICS 97.9

Mongolia 2000 MICS 97.6

Morocco 2000 SND 85.4

Myanmar 2003 MICS 64.9

Namibia 2000 DHS 70.5

Nepal 2000 MICS 34

Nicaragua 2001 DHS 81.4

Niger 2000 MICS 45.5

Nigeria 1999 MICS 29.8

OPT 2000 MICS 99.5

Peru 2000 DHS 92.5

Philippines 2000 MICS 82.8

Rwanda 2000 MICS 65.2

Sao Tome & Principe 2000 MICS 69.7

Senegal 2000 MICS 61.6

Sierra Leone 2000 MICS 46.4

Sudan 2000 MICS 63.8

Suriname 2000 MICS 94.9

Country Survey Year Survey Type Per cent Registered

Swaziland 2000 MICS 53.2

Tajikistan 2000 MICS 74.6

Tanzania 2004-05 DHS 7.1

Timor Leste 2002 MICS 22.3

Togo 2000 MICS 82.1

Trinidad & Tobago 2000 MICS 94.9

Uganda 2000 DHS 4.2

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Uzbekistan 2000 MICS 99.5

Venezuela 2000 MICS 91.8

Vietnam 2000 MICS 72.2

Zambia 2000 MICS 9.6

Zimbabwe 1999 DHS 42

Survey type:

DBDR - Department of Birth and Death Registration DHS - Demographic and Health Survey IBGE - Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estadisticas JSLC - Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions MICS - Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey ONE - Oficina Nacional de Estadisticas SND - Statistiques des naissances et des décès

Source: “UNICEF Statistics. Birth Registration”, last update May 2006 http://www.childinfo.org/areas/birthregistration/countrydata.php?cat=0

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Bibiography European Union, “EU Guidelines on Children and Armed Conflict”, 8 December 2003 Larsson Bellander, E., “Birth Registration and Armed Conflict”, paper presented at the Expert Consultation on Birth Registration and Armed Conflict, 2-3 July 2003, Florence, Italy Schemm,Paul, “Egypt May Soon Permit Women to Confer Citizenship”, Global Policy Forum, Women's eNews, November 3, 2003, www.globalpolicy.org/nations/sovereign/citizen/2003/1103egyptwomen.htm UNICEF(a), “Birth Registration. Child Protection Information Sheet”, UNICEF, New York, May 2006, www.unicef.org/protection/files/Birth_Registration.pdf UNICEF(b), “Statistics. Birth Registration”, www.childinfo.org/areas/birthregistration/countrydata.php?cat=0, last update May 2006 UNICEF(c), The State of the World’s Children 2007, UNICEF, New York, 2006 UNICEF(d), document 19.03.04/2006/6040, Annex 1, “Protection of Children from Violence, Abuse and exploitation in Zimbabwe”, 2006 UNICEF, “UNICEF chief applauds Afghan birth registration effort”, UNICEF press release, 6 October 2003 UNICEF Bangladesh, “Progress Report. Birth Registration Project in Bangladesh. For the Commission of the European Communities”, UNICEF, Dhaka, December 2006 UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Birth Registration and Armed Conflict, UNICEF, Florence, forthcoming UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Birth Registration. Right from the start, Innocenti Digest no. 9, UNICEF, Florence, 2002 UNICEF, Strategic Information Section, Division of Policy and Planning, The “Rights” Start to Life: A statistical analysis of birth registration, UNICEF, New York, 2005 United Nations High Commission for Refugees, Refugee Children – Guidelines on Protection and Care, UNHCR, Geneva, 1994 United Nations High Commission for Refugees, Statistical Yearbook 2004. Trends in Displacement, Protection and Solutions, UNHCR, Geneva, 2006

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