Policing Continuity Change

8/12/2019 Policing Continuity Change

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Policing:ContinuityandChange

Introduction:Development

of

the

International

Police

Executive

Symposium

Theleadershipofanyorganizationmustfromtimetotimereflectonwhereithasbeenandwhereitisgoingifitis

toremainvital.The23rd

AnnualMeeting, titledGlobalIssuesinContemporaryPolicing, providedsuchan

opportunity. SinceitsfoundingbyDilipDasin1994,IPEShaschangedinregardtothenumberofmeeting

participants,theformatsandcompositionoftheprograms,andthecharacteristicsofthepresenters,butthegoals

andstructureofIPEShavenotchangeddramatically.Thefirstsymposium,heldinGeneva,Switzerlandin1994,

hadlessthan20participants,andtheywerealmostentirelyhighlevelpoliceandgovernmentofficials. Onlyafew

ofthoseattendingwereacademicsorwomen. Gradually,thetopicscoveredinthesymposiumsbroadenedand

thecharacteristicsoftheparticipantschangeddramatically,withacademics,women,andrankandfilepolice

officersparticipatinginthemeetings.

Duringthenext20years,thesymposia followed thesameformatintermsofstructure,butthecontentofthe

presentationsandbackgroundsoftheparticipantschangeddramatically.Thefirsttensymposiafocusedonasingle

theme. Thesethemesincludedcommunitypolicing,internationalcooperation,trafficpolicing,policingcrowds

andpublicdemonstrations,corruption,traffickingofwomenandchildren,terrorism,policeeducationandtraining

andpolicingwithoutborders. However,asnewandmorecomplextypesofcrimesuchascybercrime,financial

crime,andissuespertainingtowomenandminoritiesinpolicingemerged,thethemesofthesymposiatendedto

becomemorediversified. Forexample,someformsofcrimesuchastheft,murder,robbery,prostitution and

fraudweremattersforpoliceconcernforcenturies,butwhenothercrimessuchasthosecommittedonthe

internet,childpornography, andvariousformsoffinancialcrimesbecamewidespread,policeadministrators

realizedthatsomeoftheoldmethodsusedtoinvestigateand preventcrimewouldnolongersuffice. Whilethe

natureof

police

work

may

have

not

changed,

the

types

of

training

and

skills

needed

to

be

effective

changed

tremendously.Inaddition,therehasbeenagrowingrealizationthat,inourglobalsociety,theleadersofthe

componentsofthejusticesystemmustreachoutforhelpfromtheleadersofotherprivateandpublicagencies

andinstitutions. Whilethoseemployedinsuchagenciesmaynotbedirectlyconnectedtothejusticesystem,

thoseinvolvedinhighereducationwhoaretrainingpoliceinspecializedtopicareas,researcherswhoprovide

valuableinformationontheeffectivenessof policepractices,andeven socialserviceagenciespersonnelwho

workwithcrimevictimsandabusedwomenandchildren,canmakestrongcontributionstoeffectivepolicework.

The keynotespeeches,papers, androundtablepresentations oftheIPESmeeting2013inBudapestreflected

the issuesandchallengesofpolicingin ourcontemporaryglobalsociety.Morethan110persons,representing

40countries,participated. Thechangesinthecharacteristicsoftheattendeesarereflectedinthefactthathalfof

those

who

participated

were

academics,

and

approximately

one

fourth

of

the

participants

were

women

who

were

eitheracademicsorpoliceandotherjusticeagencypractitioners. Althoughthestructureofthesymposiumwas

similartotheothersymposia,andinvolved requiredattendanceatallsessionsandlong workinghours,the

topicscoveredincluded mostofthecurrentissues pertainingtopoliceworkandevenseveraltopicsspecifically

relatingtocorrectionsandthejudicialcomponentofthejusticesystem.

ThethemeoftheBudapestsymposiumwasGlobalIssuesinContemporaryPolicing. Theseveralsubthemes

addressedduringthemeeting,including cybercrime,corruption,terrorism,minorities,womeninpolicing,victims


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ofcrime,specializationinpolicing,andtheadministrationofpoliceagencies,allfocusedtosomedegreeonpolice

andacademicscollaborationinresearch,training,andprogramimplementation.

Corruption:ACriticalIssue

Hetzer(2012:218)notesthatthereisnorecognizedlegaldefinitionofcorruptionandthatcorruptionhasbeen

definedfrom

various

perspectives,

including

moral,

ethical,

political,

economic,

regulatory

and

criminological.

He

contendsthat,Inprinciple,corruptionisasituationinwhichapersonresponsibleforperformingcertainduties

pursuesimproperorunfairadvantagesforactionsoromissionsintheperformanceofthoseduties. Healso

believesthatcorruptionisamajorreasonforinsufficientdevelopmentofacountryandjeopardizesthe

foundationofanydemocraticcountry(217).Thekeynoteaddress,titledCorruption, deliveredby MartinKreutner,

DeanoftheInternationalAntiCorruptionAcademy,focusedonanticorruptioneffortstocombatcorruption

engagedinbyThe EuropeanPartnerAgainstCorruption (EPAC)andtheEuropeanContactPointNetwork Against

Corruption(EACN). Thesegroups,alongwithotherauthoritiesthroughoutEurope,cooperatetodevelopcommon

standardsforanticorruptionmeasures. EPAC/EACN(2012:8)developedtheframeworkfor anticorruption

agenciesintheCouncilofEurope,EuropeanUnionMemberStates,EuropeanAntiFraudOffice,Europoland

Eurojust toprovideaplatformforpractitionerstoexchangeexpertiseandinformation,assist eachother,and

cooperateacross

national

borders,

both

on

apractical

and

professional

level.

Referring

to

asurvey

completed

bythe InternationalAntiCorruptionAcademy(IACA), Kreutner(2013)notedthattheperceptionamongthe

majorityofthecitizensisthatcorruptionhasincreasedduringrecentyearsand theworst offendersare political

officials,thepolice,corporateandbusinessleadersandotherpublicofficials. Inreferencetothoseorganizations

investigatingcorruption,Kreutner(2013) notedthat,inordertobesuccessful,theseagenciesmusthave

independencethatisfreefromanypoliticalinterference,adequateresources, personnelwiththeexpertiseto

carryouttheinvestigativeactivities,transparenciesinthestructureandmechanismsusedinthecorruption

investigationsandtheabilitytocooperatewiththemediaandthecivilsociety. (Kreutner,2013).Mills,(2012)and

DobovsekandMastnak (2012)emphasize theimportanceof theexistenceofafreemassmediacommunications

networkthatisnotpoliticallyoreconomically attachedinthenationalandinternationeffortstocombat

corruption. Mills(2012)notesthat,incountriesinwhichthegovernmentiseithercorruptorweak,themeasures

usedto

silence

the

investigations

of

reporters

can

be

threats

of

physical

violence

and

even

death.

Mills

(2012:207)

contendsthat, Onvirtuallyeverycontinent,journalistswhoreportoncorruptionandorganizedcrimeface

obstacles.AcrossAsia,Africa,andLatinAmerica,afavoredtoolusedtosilencereportersunveilingcorruptionis

theuseofantiquatedcriminaldefamationlaws. DobovsekandMastnak,(2012) notethatinsomecountries,

particularlythoseinastateofeconomicdevelopment, boththeeconomicsectorandthepoliticalsectormay

becomedependentonorganizedcrime,resultinginwidespreadcorruptioninthosecountries. Needlesstosay,

investigativereportingoncorruption,whichisverysimilarinthemethodsandproceduresfollowedasthoseused

incriminalinvestigations, mustbefreefrompoliticalandeconomicinfluenceifitistobesuccessful. They

contendthatsuchinvestigationsbythemediaarenotlikelytohavemuchsuccessincountriesthatarenot

democratic. Researchoncitizensperceivedcorruptionamongthepolicerevealedthatthereseemedtobea

directcorrelationbetweenthe stabilityofthegovernmentandtheeconomicsystemandtheamountof

corruption.Forexample,itwasfoundthat,inmanyoftheEasternEuropeancountriesthatadoptedademocratic

formofgovernmentafterbeingseparatedfromtheSovietUnion,theamountofcorruptionactuallyincreased

untiltheirgovernmentsandeconomicsystemshadachancetostabilize.(SeeDasandMarenin,2000: Policingin

NewDemocracies.) Thisfindingseemstobeconfirmedinthecomparativestudy oftheperceptionofcorruption

amongthepolice bythecitizensof Austria,Kazakhstan,andSerbia. (Edelbacher, SimonovicandNurgaliyev,

2013). InAustria,acountrywithastablegovernmentandeconomy,thepeopletendedtotrustthepoliceand

believedthatcorruptpoliceofficerswouldbeadequatelydisciplinedbytheirsuperiors,whileinSerbiaand


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Kazakhstan,twocountriesthathavedemocraticgovernmentsandeconomiesthatarestilldeveloping,thetrustof

policeandthebeliefthatpolicewhoengagedincorruptionandotherformsofdeviancywouldbeadequately

disciplinedbytheirsuperiorswasmuchlower.

LobnikarandMesko(2013)contendthatcorruptpoliceofficersaremade,notborn.Inordertounderstand

corruptionoralackofcorruptionamongthepolice,itisnecessarytounderstandthecultureofthecountry,the

politicalsystem,andtheorganizationalstructureofthepoliceagency. InastudybyLobnikerandMesko,police

officersweregivenaquestionnaireinwhichtheywereaskedtoevaluatetheseriousnessofactsengagedinby

policethatappearedtobedeviant. Inaddition,theywereaskedtorecommendtheformofdisciplinethatshould

beusedforofficerswhohadbeencaughtengaginginaspecificdeviantact.Onthebasisoftheirfindings,the

authorsconcludedthatajustdisciplinarypolicyatalllevelsmustbefollowedtoenhancetheintegrityofthe

policeorganization. Almosthalfoftheofficersbelievedthedisciplinegiventosuperiorofficerswastoolowand

theofficersinthestudyreportedthatinsomecasesnoactionatallwastakentodisciplinethehigherranking

officerswhoengagedindeviantbehavior. Theresearcherssuggestedthatopeningupthedisciplinarypoliciesto

thepublicmaybeonewaytohelpbuildtrustinthepolicebythecitizenry.

Otherpresentations(Shikwambana,2013;HaefaeleandHesselink,2013;Albrecht,2013;andStory Whyte.2013)

reaffirmedthe

findings

of

much

of

the

prior

research

completed

on

police

corruption

and

deviance

that

corruptionwithinthepolicedepartmentsexistsbecausetheyfunctionwithinacultureinwhichcorruptionisthe

norm,thecodeofsilenceadheredtobypoliceofficersprohibitsthenoncorruptofficersfromexposingthe

devianceoftheirfellowofficers,andtheleadershipwithin thepoliceorganizationissoweakorcorrupt,thateven

iftheofficerswhoarecorruptareexposed,exceptinextremecases, thepunishment willnot likely besevere

enoughtodeterthecorruptofficer.(Shikwambana(2013)andHaefaeleandHesselink(2013)notethatcriminal

behaviorbythepoliceagainstwomeninSouthAfricawhoareunderpolice supervision,whilewidespread,often

goesunnoticedandtheoffendersarerarelypunished. Inasurveyofsuchwomen,thelargemajorityclaimedto

haveeitherwitnessedorpersonallyexperiencedwhileincustodysuch policebrutalityaswomenbeingraped,

inapprokpriatelytouchedorbeaten,swornatbythepolice,orofferedbribesbythepoliceinexchangeforsexual

favors. Theirmainreasonfornotbringingthedeviantbehaviortotheattentionoftheauthoritieswasthefearof

beingvictimized

in

the

future.

While

emphasizing

that

South

African

Police

in

general

are

not

corrupt,

the

researchersobservedthattraditionalvaluesoftheSouthAfricanculture,inwhichagenderbasedviolenceexists,

aswellasthegeneraldisrespectforlawandorderofmanypoliceofficers,poortrainingofthepolice,andin

generalnegligentpolicemanagementareallreasonswhyitwilltakesometimebeforethesituationwillchange.

WhenSouthAfricagaineditsindependence,therewasaneedforaquickturnoverinpolicepersonnel.Many

policeofficerswithseriouscriminalrecordswerehired,nepotismwasprevalent,andthestandardsforentrance

and thepayreceivedbythenewrecruitswerelow.Therehasbeenagradualimprovementinthemethodsused

toscreennewrecruitsaswellasinthetrainingandsalariesofficersreceive.However,thetransformationofthe

policeisstillinastateoftransition.

Eterno(2013),usingseveralresearchmethodologies,including surveys,secondarydataanalysis,andcasestudies,

concludedthat

the

drastic

decrease

in

Index

crimes

in

New

York,

as

reported

by

the

New

York

Police

Department,

whileattributedtotheeffectivenessoftheCOMPASTATorganizationalmodel, inactualitycanpartiallybe

explainedbythemanipulation ofthereportsoffelonycrimesbypoliceadministrators. Basedonseveralsources

ofdatagatheredfromthoseoutsidetheNYPD,EternocontentedthatthepressuretoshowthatCOMPSTATis

effectiveledtoakindofconditioningamongpoliceofficerstoreportmanyfelonycrimesasmisdemeanor

crimes. Thiswidespreadpracticeleadstoadrasticreductionoffelonycrimesreported.Thisprolongeddecrease

inseriouscrimescanjustifyadministrativedecisions,suchasreducingthenumberofpoliceofficersontheforce.

However,EternopointedoutthatresearchstatisticsfortheperiodduringwhichCOMPSTATwasimplemented


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revealsthat, whilethenumberofsuspectsstopped bythepoliceinNewYorkincreasedsignificantlyduringthis

timeperiod,thenumberoffelonycrimesreporteddeclinedsignificantlyduringthissameperiod,thusaddingmore

evidenceofamanipulationofcrimestatistics. Theresearcheralsosurveyedretiredpoliceadministrators

(Captainsandabove),comparingthosewhoretiredbeforeCOMPSTAT withthosewhoretiredafterCOMPSTAT

wasimplemented. Forthosewhowereawareofthemanipulationpractices,itwasfoundthatlessthan1/3ofthe

officers

claimed

they

felt

pressured

to

make

numbers

look

better,

changed

words

to

downgrade

the

report,

or

did

nottakereportswhentheyshouldhave,whilemorethanhalfofthosewhoretiredafterCOMPSTATwas

implementedclaimedthattheywerepressuredtochangewordstomadethenumberslookbetterordowngraded

theoffense,andalmosthalfclaimedtheydidnottakereportswhentheyshouldhave.(Eterno,2013)Finally,more

thanoftheretiredofficersreportedthatthesepracticeswereunethical. Inconclusion,Eternobelievedthat,

withmorecooperationbetweenthepoliceadministrationandoutsideresearchers,withresearchershavingaccess

topolicedata,thedisclosureofinformationtothepublicwilleventually createanatmosphereinwhichthepublic

willbecomelessdistrustfulofthepolice.

PoliceEducation,TrainingandLeadership

Severalspeakersaddressedtheneedforaninternationalfocusinthetrainingofpoliceofficersand

administrators.Cordner

and

Shain

(2011,

281)

note

that,

Police

education

and

training

expanded

all

around

theworldduringthetwentiethcenturyandwereseenasthecornerstonesofpoliceprofessionalismand

modernization. Inthe21stcentury, thoseresponsibleforpoliceeducationandtrainingmustrecognizetheneed

tochangethenatureofpolicetraining inordertorespondtothe challenges presentedtothepoliceinaglobal

society. CordnerandShain(2011:28182)notethatpolicetrainersflyaroundtheworldtodelivertheir

courses.OrganizationslikeInterpol,Europol,theU.S.InternationalCriminalInvestigativeTrainingAssistance

Program(ICITAP)andtheInternationalAssociationofChiefsofPolice(IACP)playagrowingroleintheprovision

oftraining,andtrainingcontentfocusesmoreandmoreonglobalissuessuchasinternationalcrime.

Boda(2013)notedthatpolicinginthefuturemustbridgethegapbetweendomesticpolicingandinternational

policing.HenotedthatWemustlearnfromeachotherregardinghowtousethemostadvancedequipment

andtraining

and

legal

standards

to

fight

all

forms

of

international

crime

and

corruption.

In

Hungary,

internationalspecializedcrimeandcorruptionpreventionunitswerecreated.(Keynoteaddress)

TheInternationalLaw Enforcement Academy(ILEA),locatedinBudapest.andthreeotheracademieslocatedin

othercountrieswerestarted underaU.S.StateDepartmentinitiativeinthelate20th

century. Inaprogram

modeledaftertheFBITrainingCenterinQuantico,policeofficersfromvariouscountriescomplete sevenweeks

of basictraining.Therearealso30to35specializedcoursesofferedduringtheyearconsistingoftwoweeks

duration. Variouscooperativeinternationaltrainingacademieshavebeenestablishedinmanypartsofthe

world.Forexample,theMiddle EuropeanPoliceAcademywascreatedinthe late1990s.Lawenforcement

leadersfromvariousmiddleEuropeancountriesengageinatwotothreemonthstrainingcourseandafter

returningto theirnativecountry,theselawenforcementleaderspassontheinformationgainedtootherpolice

officersin

their

agencies.

(Kratcoski,

2007:18).

ModelsforPoliceOrganization

Whilethecurrenttrendinpoliceeducationandtrainingistoprepareofficerstosolvepolicingproblemsthat

haveinternationalsocietalimplications,thesimplefactremainsthatthevastmajorityofpoliceofficers

throughouttheworldservetheirlocalcommunities. Somepoliceofficersmayworkinajurisdictionthatcovers

afewsquaremileswithafewhundredpeoplebeingserved,whileinotherjurisdictionsthousandsofofficers

coverhundredsofsquaremileswithmillionsofpeoplebeingserved. Nevertheless,thefocusisstillon


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domesticpolicematters.Withtheselargedifferencesinthecommunitiesserved,perhapsthereisnotone

organizationalmodelthatcanbeadaptedtobestservetheneedsofallcommunities. Often,theorganizational

modelfollowedbyaspecificpolicedepartmentisnottheresultofcarefulplanningandresearchonwhatworks.

Rather,themissionandgoalsofaparticularpolicedepartmentareoftendeterminedbypolitical,socialand

economicfactorsinthecommunity.Incertaincountriesthroughouttheworld,themissionofthepoliceisto

protect

the

state,

while

in

other

countries

the

mission

of

the

police

is

to

serve

and

protect

the

citizens

of

the

community.Themissionandgoalsofthepolicechangeasaresultofchangesinpoliticalthought,changesinthe

lawsandchangingsentimentsofthepublic. Asmissionsandgoalschange,thetypeofleadership,

organizationalstructure,recruitmentandtrainingofpersonnelandoperatingprocedureswillchangetoreflect

thenewgoalsoftheorganization. Forexample,intheUnitedStatesthemissionsandgoalsoflargecitypolice

organizationshavechangedseveraltimes. Aslargecitiesbegantoestablishpolicedepartmentsinthemid19th

century,thehiringofpoliceofficerswaspredominatelybasedonpoliticalpatronage.Therewerefew

requirementsregardingeducationandtraining,andcorruptionatalllevelswaswidespread. Howevertherewas

anemphasisonservicetothecommunityand,sincethepatrolofficerswerenormallyassignedtoworkinthe

neighborhoodsinwhichtheylived,thecommunicationbetweenofficersandresidentswasgenerallypositive.

Thenegativereactiontothepoliticalcorruptionandpatronagebythepressandseveralreformgroupsresulted

inthe

police

reform

movement

of

the

first

part

of

the

20

th

century.

Those

backing

police

reform

attempted

to

removethepatronageandestablishpoliceorganizationsthathadstandardsforemploymentbasedon

educationandtraining.Thenewformallystructuredprofessionalpolicedepartmentswereorientatedmoreto

crimecontrol thanservice. (SeeKratcoskiandKempf,l995,PoliceReform,EncyclopediaofPoliceScience.Ed.2,

GarlandPublishing:60914).Inthe1960sand70s, thecivilrightsmovement,protestsagainsttheVietnamWar

andotherfactorscreateda demandforatypeofpolicingthatwouldbemoreresponsivetotheneedsofthe

citizenry. Thisresultedinchangesinthemissionsandgoalsaswellaschangesintheorganizationalstructures

ofpolicedepartments.Thissocallednewapproachtopolicing,popularizedbyacademics,waslabeled

communitypolicingandgenerallycalledforadecentralizationof the structure, lessspecialization,more

decisionmakingpowerforthe streetofficersandmoreinteractionandcommunicationswiththecitizenry

(Kratcoski,l995;Mastrofski,1992;Trojanowicz,1990).

Atthepresenttime,political,economic,socialandeventechnologicalfactorscontinuetoinfluencethewaythe

leadershipofpoliceorganizationsrespondstothedemandsforstrictcrimecontrolandthedemandsforthe

policetobemoreresponsivetotheneedsofthecommunity. However,regardlessofthedifferencesinbeliefs

onwhatshouldbethemissionandgoalsofpoliceorganizations,theyallagreethatpoliceshouldhavehigh

standardsforrecruitmentandthatthecandidatesshouldbeeducatedandwelltrainedandbefreefrom

politicalandcriminalinfluences.TheCOMPSTATmodelwasfirstappliedinNewYorkCityandrapidlydeveloped

inmanyothercitiesthroughouttheUnitedStates. Ittriestocombinethecriticalelementsfoundinthe

traditional, centralized,bureaucraticpoliceorganizationalmodelwiththecriticalelementsofthedecentralized

communitypolicingmodel.Itisamultifacetedapproachtoreducingcrime,maximizingtheeffectivenessof

personnelandresourceswhilealsoaddressingqualityoflifematters. InNewYorkCity,adecentralized

management

model

has

been

adopted.

High

level

police

executives

from

the

central

headquarters

meet

with

localprecinctcommanderstodiscussproblemsanddevelopstrategiestotrytosolvetheseproblems. The

precinctcommandershavetheauthoritytomakedecisionsonhowtoaddresstheproblemsexistinginthe

precinctstheycommand(Wikipedia,accessedFe.11,2014).

Itshouldbenotedthatanyonepoliceorganizationalandmanagementmodelisnotinherentlysuperiorto

another. Toooften,inanattempttoimplementamodelthat appearstobeeffectiveinanothercity, police

departmentmayattempttoputinplaceamodel thatiseithernot comparabletothe cultureandtraditionsof


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disasters,includingearthquakes,floodsandtsunamis, andmanmadedisasters,suchasnuclearpowerplant

breakdownsandthecollapseofthefinancialsystemofacountry.

Lepardetal.(2013)notedthattheinvestigationsofserialmurderarethemostdifficulttoconductandrequirethe

officerstohavespecializedtrainingandskillsforvariousreasons. Theabsenceofbodies,murdersites,physical

evidence,andareliablechronologymakeitdifficulttodetermineifamissingpersonreportshouldevenrequirea

murderinvestigation. Generally,ifamissingpersoninvestigationbythepoliceisstarted,itwillcontinueasa

missingpersoninvestigationEvenafterrecognizingthepossibilityofaserialmurderbeingresponsibleinthe

missingpersoncase(Lepardetal.,2013).

Policedecisionsfordeterminingiftherewillbeaninvestigationforamissingpersonandthestrategiesfor

investigationswilldiffer,dependingonanumberoffactors. Iftherearenobodiesandnoreportsonmissing

persons,noinvestigationiscompleted. Thereisconsiderableevidencethatalargenumberofmissingpersons,

andpossiblyvictimsofserialkillersareneverrecordedandinvestigated(Lepardetal.(2013). Amissingperson

investigationisstartedwhenthereisareport filedwiththepolice,butifapersonordeadbodyisnotfound.the

casecontinuesasamissingpersoninvestigation. However,ifanumberofmissingpersonreportsarefiledand

thereappearstobesomecommoncharacteristicsassociatedwiththedisappearancesofthepersons,the

investigationtends

to

shift

toward

acase

of

aserial

murderer

and

ifdead

bodies

are

located,

the

focus

and

strategiesoftheinvestigationshiftentirelytoamurdercase(Lepard,etal.,2013).

MassMurderers

Thecharacteristicsofmassmurdersituationsarequitedifferentthanserialkillingsituationandgenerallycallfor

anentirelydifferentresponse. Corzine,L.(2013.Slide1)indicatesthat,whilethereareseveraldifferent

definitionsofmassmurder,itinvolvesthekillingofseveralpeoplebyoneormoreoffendersduringashorttime

span, generallywithinafewhoursorless,withinonelocationorwithina shortdistancefromtheoriginal

murders. Shegoesontoexplainthatthetermsspreemurderandbifurcatedmassmurderareoftenusedto

designate those massmurder eventsthathappenedatmorethanonelocation(Corzine,L.(2013 Slide6).

Corzine,

J.

2013)

indicated

that,

while

most

sensational

mass

murder

incidents

are

well

covered

by

the

mass

media,withthecharacteristicsofthemurder/sandvictimsrecordedbythemediaaswellasthecriminaljustice

investigationagencies,numerouscasesofmassmurdermay receivelittleattention.TheNationalIncidentBased

ReportingSystemdevelopedbytheU.S.FederalBureauofInvestigation,whilehaving limitations(lessthan1/3of

theU.S.isincluded,codingerrorsandmissinginformation),neverthelessisthemostcomprehensiveandreliable

sourceofinformationonmassmurders. Thedatacollectedinthisreportingsystemincludesinformationonthe

incident,includingweaponsused,locations,and generallyoneisabletodetermineifavictimoffender

relationshipexistedpriortothemassmurderincident(Corzine,J.,2013,Slide7). MichaelWildssummarizedthe

statisticsandresearchcompletedonmassmurdersintheUSA. Henotedthatthemostlikelylocationsformass

murdertooccurarestores,malls,restaurants,government,andhousesofworship,with50%ofthemassmurders

incidentsbeingatworkplacesorschools. Also,from1982tothepresenttherewerealmostasmanywoundedas

killed(Wilds,

2013,

Slide

3).

Wuestewald

(2013)

referred

to

typologies

developed

by

Fox

and

Levin

and

Holmes

toillustratethetypesofmassmurdersandthepossiblemotivationstheymayhavetokill. Shenotedthatthe

motivationforthosewhokillatschoolcouldfitintoanumberofcategories,includingfrustration,socialisolation,

lossofanintimatefriend,revenge,power,loyaltytoaleader,profit,terrorism,sexualfactors,andexecution(Slide

25). Inaddition,manystudentsdonotseemtofitintoanyoftheprofilesmentionedaboveandtheirmotivations

areunexplained(Slide27).


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Psychologists,behavioralscientists,andcriminaljusticeinvestigatorseffortstopredictthelikelihoodofamass

murderincidenthavegenerallynotbeensuccessful. Perhapsthemostattentionhasbeengiventoschool

shootingsresultinginmassmurder. Generally,theinformationontheincidents pertainingtomotive,sourceof

theweaponused,andoffender/svictim/srelationshipiscollectedafterthefactandevenherethemotiveisoften

difficulttoascertain,sincetheoffenderiseitherkilledbythepoliceordiesfromaselfinflictedwound. Several

typologies

of

mass

murderers

include

those

who

have

a

specific

target

and

those

whose

killing

is

random,

those

whokillforrevenge,andthosewhomaybementallyill. Eveninthosecasesinwhichitappearsthereisnospecific

target,perhapsthevictimsmayhavejustbeeninthewayofthemurdererwhohadoneormorespecifictargetsin

mind. Inthecoveragebythemassmediaaswellasinthelawenforcementinvestigationsconductedbythepolice,

thecharacteristicsofthosevictimswhowereinjuredduringtheincidentgenerallydonotreceiveagreatdealof

attention.Forexample,intheschoolshootingsthatoccurredintheU.S.between20102013inwhichtwoormore

peoplewerekilledtherewerealsovictimsinjured(shot,stabbed,beaten)inalmost60%oftheincidents.(Listof

SchoolShootingsintheUnitedStates,Takenfrominternet,Feb10,2014Http://enwikipedia.org).Insummary,

considerablymoreresearchisneededbeforecriminaljusticeagenciescansaywithconfidencethattheycan

predictandpreventmassmurder.

PreventionofMassMurderinSchoolsandPublicPlaces

Aspreviouslynotedinthispaper,thevastmajorityofmassmurderersthatoccurredintheUnitedStates,

happenedintheworkplaces,shoppingmalls, governmentbuildings,placesofworshipandinschools. The

preventionstrategiesfollowedbyeachofthesetypesofinstitutionshasvarieddependingonthe typeof

institution.Thesecurityinspecifictypesofgovernmentbuildings,suchascourthouses, placesthathousecity,

stateorfederalworkershavebeenenhancedconsiderable.Generally,theestablishmentofnewsecuritymeasures

inprivateestablishmentssuchasofficebuildings,placesofworshipandshoppingcentershasbeenpiecemeal

dependingonthe suchfactorsasthesizeoftheestablishment, potentialforamassmurderersituationto

developandtheabilitytopayforthenewsecurityprograms.Ontheotherhand,theadministrations ofschools

throughoutthe

United

States

has

have

instituted

many

new

school

security

measures

to

against

school

violence

andparticularlyschoolshootings.

Inastudy ofschoolsecurityprograms(Kratcoski,Edelbacher,Graff,2010) inwhichtheschoolsecurityinthe

UnitedStateswascomparedwiththatofAustriaitwasfoundthattheschoolsecuritymeasuresadaptedinthe

U.S.variedconsiderably.However,thestrategiesandprogramsadoptedtendedtoinclude:

Zerotolerancepolicies; Cooperativeplanningdevelopedbyadministrators,teachingstaff,thelocalpoliceandcommunity

residents;

Enhancementofexistingcommunicationssystems;

Improvements

in

physical

security

measures,

including

lighting,

installing

video

cameras,

locking

entrancedoorsduringschoolhours,requiringstaffandstudentstowearidentificationtagsandinsome

casesusingmetaldetectorscreens;

Enhancingsecurityatspecialeventssuchassportingeventsandmusicalconcerts; Coordinatingintelligencegatheringandattemptingtoidentify thoseyouthwhomaybeahighriskfor

becomingviolence;

Providingspecialtrainingforthestaffandstudentsforhowtorespondtobombthreats,schoolshootingsandnaturaldisastersthatmightoccuronschoolgrounds;and


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Havingpoliceofficers(StudentResourceOfficers)intheschoolsonaregularschedule.(204)InAustria,thethreatofviolenceandmassmurderintheschoolsisminimalcomparedtomanyoftheschoolsin

theUnitedStates.However,thegrowingconcernhasresultedinthemembersofthenationalgovernmentto

acknowledgethataproblemexistedandtheytookactionintheformofnewlegislationthatprovisedfora

nationwidestrategyfocusedonpreventionofschoolviolence.Thislegislationconsistedof:

Providinginformationtothepubliconcausesogschoolviolence; Networkingandcooperatingwithteachers,parents,schoolofficials,medicalstaff,thepoliceand

academicresearchers;

Institutingpreventionandinterventionprogramsintheschoolsthatincludedthepublic,parents,teachers;and

Completingsystematicdocumentationandevaluationofthegeneralstrategyplanandprovidingfeedback. (210211)

PoliceResponsetoCatastrophes,includingTerrorismandNaturalDisasters

Researchcompleted

by

Minoru

Yokoyama

(2013)

revealed

that

Japan

had

put

in

place

acomprehensive

plan

for

responding to crisis situations.Thefollowingstepsweretakensoonaftertheearthquakeandtsunamieoccurred

inJapaninMarch,2011.thecommandsystemprescribedundertheBasicLawonDisasterCountermeasureswas

immediatelyputintooperation.Theactionstakenincluded:

1.Theumbrellaplanofthenationalgovernmentauthorizedtheresponsefromanumberofpoliceagencies tothe

disasterarea.Inaddition,thePrimeMinisterandotherhighlevelgovernmentofficialsbecamedirectlyinvolvedin

rescueefforts;

2.ThePrimeMinisterusedthemassmediatoappealtothepublictoremaincalmandnottopanic;

3.Theprivatesectorengagedinanumberofreliefactivities.Forexample,theInterpreffectualEmergencyRescue

Unitwas

employed.

In

addition,

volunteers

served

as

firefighters,

emergency

vehicle

drivers,

assisted

the

police

by

patrollingevacuatedareas,providedmedicalandfoodsuppliestothoseaffectedbytheearthquakeandtsunami.

4.Theriotsquadwasdispatchedtothedamagedareastomaintainpublicorder;

5.Thepoliceandotherrescueunitsestablishedgoodcommunications withthemassmediaagenciestotheextent

thatthesecommunicationnetworkswereveryhelpfulinrescueandreliefactivities;

6.Thepolice,medicalteamsandfirefightersunitscoordinatedtheireffortstoassurethatfood,clothing,water,

electricpowerandmedicalsupplieswerebroughttothoseinneedasquicklyaspossible;

7.PowerunitsfromotherpartsofJapannothitbytheearthquakewerebroughtintoassistthepolicestationedin

themost

hard

hit

areas;

and

8;Datawasimmediatelycollected,analyzedandtheinformationwasfeedbacktothoseagenciesthatcouldfind

theinformationhelpfulintherescueefforts.(210)

Theroleofthemassmediawasdiscussedintermsofhowitofteninhibitsorinterfereswiththeeffortsofthe

specializedsafetyunitstocontrolthedisastersituationaswellashowthemassmediaoftenmakespositive


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contributionstoanunderstandingofthecausesformanmadedisasters,asincaseswhereinvestigative

reportersuncoverextensivecorruptioningovernmentthatthreatensthesecurityofthatnation.

Minorities,WomeninPolicingandVictimsofCrime

AmajorthemethatdevelopedduringtheIPESconferenceinBudapest,Hungaryfocusedonminorities,womenin

policing,and

assisting

victims

of

crime.

The

keynote

address

on

Policing

Multicultural

Problems

and

the

presentationsthat focusedonpoliceminoritygrouprelations madeusmoreawareofhowofficersculture,

additutes values,andpersonalexperiencescanaffecttheirperceptionsofpeoplefromothercultures,victimsof

crimeandraces andhowthecultureandvaluesofminoritygroupscanaffecthowthepoliceareperceivedby

them. Thisisatopicareathatclearlydemonstratedthecontributionsoftheacademics.Thefindingsfrom

researchandacademicsassistanceinthetrainingofthepoliceonhumanrelationstopicshavehadasignificant

effectinchangingthewaythepolicerespondtovictimsofcrime,particularlyviolentcrimesagainstwomenand

children,andevenhaveledtopolicedevelopingspecializedunitstoworkwiththesevictims. Theimportanceof

collaborationandcooperationofthepolicewithserviceagenciessuchasvictimservices,batteredwomenshelters,

andchildrenservicesagenciesisreadilyacknowledgedbymostpoliceadministrators.

Taylor,Cowan,

Doyle

and

Lea

(2013)

revealed

that

those

police

administrators

responsible

for

the

planning

and

implementationofspecializedpolicetrainingpertainingtosexualviolenceoftencommitoneormoreerrorsbynot

takingintoaccount how theresponsetosexualviolencemaybedrivenbytheresourcesavailable, the

organizationalstructureandinparticularthe culture,valuesandattitudesoftheofficers.Theauthorsnotethat

theresearchonpolicetraining,sexcrimeinvestigationsandthemanagementof proceduresforresponding tosex

crimesisoftenadhoc,notbasedonpolicyandinconsistent(slide9).Inaddition, regardless ofthespecialized

trainingtheyreceivedonsexcrimesandvictimsofsexcrimes,theparticularresponsetothecrimeismoreoften

basedontheirattitudesthanonpoliciesandofficialprocedures.(slide10).Theauthorsrecommendsomeformof

systematicassessmentbeusedintherecruitmentandselectionofpoliceofficers.Whilemanydepartmentsmay

usesomeformof assessment of policeofficerattitudes,itisgenerallynotanintegral partoftheselection

decisionaswellasanon goingprocessfollowedinthesupervisionandmanagementofpoliceofficers.The

authorsacknowledge

that

police

administrators

and

prosecutors

are

generally

becoming

more

aware

of

the

researchcompletedontheimportanceofattitudesinthedecisionmakingofthepolice,andmanypolice

organizations,includingtheVictoriaPoliceinAustraliaareusingtheseresearchfindingstoimproveonthe

selectionsandtrainingofofficers.

SeveralofthepresentersattheIPESconferenceinBudapest(2013)reflectedonthelowproportionofwomen

andminoritiesin policeforcesthroughouttheworld.Thereasonsfortheimbalanceintheratioofmenand

womeninthepoliceforcesarestillnotcompletelyunderstood.

Perrott(2013)suggestedthatthequestionisstillopenregardingtheextentminoritiesandwomenaretreated

fairlyandequallyintherecruitmentofpoliceintotheCanadianPoliceforces.Thegoalsofrecruitingminoritiesand

womenresultingfromtheCivilRightsMovementofthe1960sand desiretoimprovepoliceservicesandenhance

relationships(slide2) appearsnottohavebeemmetsincewomenandvisibleminoritiesarestill

underrepresentedinmostpolicedepartmentsinCanada(slide56).Inaddition,moreresearchisneededto

determineifminoritiesandwomenarebeinggivenequaltreatmentinregardtoassignments,promotionsand

relationships withinthepoliceorganizations. Heconcludedthatmanyquestionsrelatedtoworkplace

harassment,tensionwiththeorganizationsanddiscriminatorypracticeswiththepublicneedtoreceivemore

attentionandareareasinwhichthepoliceandtheacademicscancollaborateinresearch.


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Somepolicedepartments whohaverecognizedthismatteras beingaproblem,haveadoptedmanagement

strategiesdevelopedforbusinesscorporationsforrecruitingwomenandminoritiesintopolicework.

Linn(2013)illustratedhow newinitiativesonthenational,stateandlocallevels resultedinsomeverypositives

programstoassistvictimsofsextraffickinginBrooklyn,NewYork. Shenotedthatalthoughthefederalandstate

lawsonsexualtraffickingaresomewhatdifferentinterminologyandscope,theyareneverthelesscompatable in

thattheessenceofthelawsinvolvementtherecruitment,harboring,transportation,provisionorobtaininga

personforthepurposeofacommercialsexact.Thecommercialsexactcanbeinducedbyforce,fraudorcoercion,

orinthecaseofminors,thepersonhasnotattained18yearsofage.(TraffickingVictims ProtectionAct,22,USC&

7102;CFR&214.11(2).Inthepast,themajorinitiativesbyfederal,stateandlocalgovernmentshavefocusedon

thepreventionorcurtailingofsexcrimesthroughlegislation,interagencytaskforcesandspecializedtrainingfor

thepolice. However,thefocushasgraduallychangedasaresultoffederalinitiativessuchastheTrafficking

VictimsProtectionReauthorizationActof2013andvariousstateandlocalinitiativesdesignedtoprotectandassist

victimsofsexcrimes. TheTraffickingVictimsProtectionAct,renewedcriticalfederalantitraffickingprograms,

providedresourcesforhumantraffickingvictims,grantsnewtoolsfortheprosecutionofhumantraffickersand

enhancedtheopportunitiestoformpartnershipstocurtailhumantraffickingwiththosecountriesinwhichhuman

traffickingismostprelevant.(slide6). Locally,thecityofNewYork(Linn2013)hasinstitutednewinitiativesto

combatsexcrimesandtoassistvictimsofhumantraffickingforthepurposeofengaginginsexcrimes. The2013

SafeHarborLaw provided heresourcesfortheofficeofthedistrictattorney ofKingsColony,Brooklyn

toinitiateapublicinformationcampaignonpreventinghumantrafficking; providefor specialtrainingforlawsenforcementofficers; provideforreliefservicestovictimsofhumantrafficking,and providedtheresourcestoenablethepolicetorigidlyenforcethelawsforthosewhoengageinhuman

trafficking,especiallyifthevictimisundertheageof18.(slide8).

TheresearchcompletedbyBarrow(2013)focusedontheextent,ifanyurbanminorityyouthperceived

themselvesasbeingvictimsofpolicepracticesinsuchareasasbeingharassed,discourteouslytreated,verbally

abused,not

provided

with

assistance

when

needed

and

being

the

victim

of

excessive

force.

(3)

Using

aqualitative

researchdesign,thatisfacetofaceinterviewstheresearcherfoundthattheyouthinterviewedhadbothpositive

andnegativeattitudestowardthepolice.Forexample,severalyouthindicatedthatthepolicewereresponsivein

timeofneedandhelpedthecommunity,butthattheyalsowitnessednegativeattitudesanddisrespect fromthe

police.Itwasalsomentionedthattheresponsetimetoacallforservicewasoftenveryslowandsomeyouth

complained of beingconstantlystoppedandsearchedbythepolice.Theseyouthindicatedthattheywere

constantly afraidofdoinganythingwrongandthattheydressedinclothingthatwouldattractpoliceattention.

Eventhoughtheywouldhavepreferredotherstylesofclothing.(1112).Sheconcluded thattheyouthwelcomed

morepolicepresenceintheneighborhoodbecausetheywereneededtomaintainsocialcontrol,but

recommendedthatthepolicebecomemoreproactiveandfairintheiradministrationoflawenforcement(21).

Anothersubthemeofthesymposiumpertainedtoterrorism.Thekeynoteaddressonthissubject,titledIssueson

CrimeandTerrorism,wasdevotedtothemethodsusedtocombatterroristorganizations.Thiswasfollowedby

speakerswhodemonstratedmodelsforidentifyingthoseindividualsandgroupswhowerevulnerabletoaccepting

violentextremismasamethodtoaddressrealorperceivedtransgressionsagainstthem. Itwasnotedthatall

countrieshavesomeinternal(domestic)terroristorganizationsandleftandrightwingextremistgroupswhose

solepurposeistocauseconfusionorfearandtoconvincethepublicthatthegovernmentcannotprotectthe


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citizensandguaranteetheirsecurity. Someinternalandexternalterroristorganizationsdonotadheretoany

politicalideology,andthesearethemostdifficulttodealwith,intermsofdeterminingtheirmotivationsand

predicting theirbehavior. InthepresentationontheHungarianorganizationdevelopedtocombatbothinternal

andexternalterrorism,itwasemphasizedthatmaintainingcommunicationsandinformationexchangesfromlaw

enforcementagenciesthroughouttheworldiscriticalincombattingterroristorganizations. Thedevelopmentof

international

laws

and

legal

agreements

must

be

a

high

priority

for

all

countries

that

have

concerns

about

internationalterroristorganizationsthatusetheircountryasabaseofoperationsorasapassthroughcountry.

ThesubthemeofCybercrimeandGlobalSecuritywasintroducedbytheHeadofGOVCERT,theorganization

establishedinHungarytoprovideinternetsecurity,inhisaddresstitledCyberSecurity. Thiswasfollowedby

severalpresentationsrelatingtotypesofcybercrimes,thedifficultyincontrollingtheeffectsofcybercrimeon

worldwidesecurity,andnarrowertopics,includingtheactivitiesofhotelgamingestablishments. Itwasconcluded

thatthetechniquesusedtocombatcybercrimeareconstantlyimproving,butcybercrimeorganizationsareso

entwinedwithlegitimatebusinesses,organizedcrime,andterroristorganizations,andarebecomingso

sophisticatedintheirtechniquesthatitisverydifficulttoestablishappropriatecontrolmechanisms.

Usingthesocialnetworktoidentifypotentialterroristindividualsandgroupscanbeausefultool,asdemonstrated

inthe

presentation

that

described

the

rational

choice

model

for

the

prevention

of

terrorism.

The

issues

related

to

violationofprivacyandthepotentialforprofilinginnocentindividualswerealsodiscussed.

Anothersubthemeestablishedwascorruption. Inthekeynotespeech,titledCorruption,and inseveral

presentations,thepervasivenessofcorruption,whereitismostlikelytooccur,andmodelstoreduceandcontrol

corruption,werepresented. Itwasnotedthatcorruptionpermeatesallfacetsofsociety,business,government,

andpublicserviceagencies.

AspecialfeatureoftheBudapest2013Symposiumwastheroundtablepresentationsoninterviewsofpolice,

judges,andcorrectionsleaders. Apositivepointregardingtheseroundtablesessionsisthattheytendedtoshow

howthecomponentsofthejusticesystemareinterrelatedandthat,regardlessofthepositionoftheperson

interviewed,

whether

a

police

chief,

judge,

or

corrections

administrator,

they

must

cooperate

with

each

other.

Theseinterviewsrepresentanethnographicorcasestudyapproachtoresearch. Itwasconcludedbythe

roundtablediscussantsthatthereisvalueinknowinghowleadersinjusticeoccupationsprogressed throughout

theircareers. Theindepthinformationobtainedintheinterviewspertainingtotheirmotivationsforenteringthe

field,theirmajorchallengesandsetbacks,aswellasthecurrentproblemstheyface,cannotbeobtainedby

readingabookoncareersincriminaljustice. Therewassomediscussionabouttheusefulnessofthematerialin

theinterviewbooks,particularlyforstudents,andtheneedformorestructure,aswellastheneedforasummary

chapterthattiesalloftheinterviewspresentedinthebooktogether.

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Policing Continuity Change

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Transcript of Policing Continuity Change