POISONOUS FUNGI

B y

J O H N R A M S B O T T O MKeeper of Botany British Museum

(Natural History)

With Colour Plates

byROSE ELLENBY

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LONDON and NEW YORK1945

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POISONOUS FUNGIFor Mary (Fungi officio, 1939-1945)

Doubtless so soon as man learned by experience that fungicould serve as food he found also that some werepoisonous. It is not therefore surprising that the firstmention we have of fungi refers to this; when the poetEuripides (48o-4o6 B.C.) was at Icarus a woman with twogrown-up sons and a married daughter ate fungi gatheredfrom the fields and were 'destroyed by pitiless fate in oneday'. There are repeated references to poisoning in classicalwritings, and this may give the impression that fungi wereregarded as forbidden fruit. Indeed Pliny's query, `Whatgreat pleasure then can there be in partaking of a dish of sodoubtful a character as this?' has often been quoted insupport of this view: he was, however, warning againstSuillus (Boletus edulis) which was very convenientlyadapted for administering poisons, by which wholefamilies and guests had recently been removed. If fungihad not been commonly eaten, why the frequent warnings?Many rich Romans valued them so highly that theyemployed special collectors. Among these patrons wasCaesar Claudius poisoned by his wife Agrippina, who`offered unto him a mushroom empoisoned knowing thathe was most greedy of such meats'. He `descended intoheaven' and his stepson Nero called fungi `the food of thegods' in reference to Claudius's deifications, an irregularone at Colchester and the normal one at death. Themushroom was doubtless Amanita caesarea, muchprized on the Continent but absent from this country. Tomany the very word fungus suggests somethingmysterious, something morbid. Some of the earlyherbalists seeking a derivation for the word found it infunus (a funeral) and ago (to put in motion):

John Ray while doubting its correctness considered itappropriate. Amanita caesarea is one of the fewspecies that can be recognised with certainty from theold descriptions. It was comparatively easy to describeherbs, shrubs and trees clearly enough for them to berecognised; indeed many of the old names are still used.But toadstools are for the most part short-lived andirregular in occurrence and their distinguishingcharacters are not very easy to grasp. Consequently,instead of clear descriptions of those species which wereknown to be safe and those which are dangerous,various rules were given for distinguishing the twogroups. These rules were repeated by the herbalists andmany of them have a world-wide currency even today.The primary division into edible and poisonous speciesinfluenced the classification of fungi until comparativelyrecent times.

With the gradual recognition of the essential charactersfor distinguishing species a more exact knowledge of thegastronomic qualities of fungi was attained. As a resultwe know that all rule-of-thumb methods fordifferentiating between edible and poisonous species arewithout the slightest value and, further, despite popularbelief, the number of poisonous fungi is not legion but isvery small: the plates in this booklet have had to be ekedout with edible fungi! The title `Poisonous Fungi' istherefore somewhat misleading except in so far that allhave been described as such sometime or other. With therealisation that most fleshy fungi are non-poisonousthere is difficulty in defining the common termsmushroom and toadstool. So long as only the FieldMushroom with, at most, one or two of its near relativeswere regarded as edible, it was easy to define amushroom as an edible fungus and a toadstool as apoisonous one, as indeed is customary. If, however,edibility is the criterion we have in this countryhundreds of mushrooms and possibly a dozentoadstools, which completely reverses the picture.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary bothterms were originally applied indiscriminately to allumbrella

shaped fungi: the main definition of toadstool reads:`A fungus having a round disk-like top and a slenderstalk, a mushroom'. It would be well to return to thisoriginal use of toadstool and retain mushroom, so faras possible, in its usually accepted sense as a memberof the genus Psalliota, i.e. for the Field Mushroom,Horse Mushroom and their near relatives. The wordmushroom has a long history with numerous spellings:in the fifteenth century we find musseroun andmuscheron. It is presumably the old French moisseron(mousseron) derived from mousse, moss. The wordtoadstool has an even longer history, appearing astadstole and tode stole in the fourteenth century;todyshatte is an interesting variant. The derivation isthe obvious one: we have paddocstol (paddock-stool)in the fifteenth century which recalls the modernDutch paddestoel.

Although since the outbreak of war many people inthis country have reconsidered their opinions aboutedible fungi, the majority still believe that only theCultivated Mushroom is to be trusted. The Pauline`Whatsoever is sold in the shambles, that eat, askingno question' is religiously adopted. Two points,however, need passing attention though they arecommon to all foods. Fungi should be eaten fresh, foras they age they may undergo change of themselvesor, more likely, be acted upon by other organismsincluding moulds and bacteria and may be renderedharmful. The practice in many London shops ofexposing mushrooms for sale so long as they retaintheir shape should be forbidden.

The second point concerns personal idiosyncrasyor allergy. Just as some people cannot withoutdiscomfort partake of certain proteid-containing foodsuch as milk, butter, eggs, honey, tomatoes,strawberries, fish, so some are made ill by the smallestportion of a fungus which is perfectly harmless toothers. The idiosyncrasy varies: a particular speciesonly may cause trouble, or it may be many, or all.Occasionally a drop of mushroom ketchup has aneffect out of all proportion to the amount of fungusabsorbed. The phenomenon

is not more frequent with fungi than with severalcommon foods, but its manifestation usually createsmore alarm, particularly if perchance there is not thatpsychological sense of safety which purchase bestows.Fungi as a whole are somewhat indigestible andconsequently a certain discretion is advisable concerningthe time and the amount of the meal by those needing topay attention to such matters. There are, however, somespecies which are especially indigestible. Onenoteworthy example is the Yellow Staining Mushroom(Psalliota xanthoderma, Pl. I2). Some other speciesfigured are also very indigestible, though the gastro-intestinal effects they produce in some people may bedue to definite resinoid substances which act on themucous lining of the intestine. This is certainly so withEntoloma lividum (P1. 9) where the symptoms are verysevere and may be fatal.

Several species which cause purging were formerlyheld in high esteem. The most celebrated was `Agarick'(Polyporus officinalis) which was regarded as apanacea and is still on sale as White, or Purging Agaric.The other poisonous species may be classified as:

1. Those containing substances which after a longincubation period bring about the degeneration ofthe cells of the body: Amanita phalloides (Pl. 1),Amanita verna and Amanita virosa (Pl. 2) aredeadly. The rare Lepiota helveola (Pl. 6) belongsto this group but is much less dangerous.

2. Those containing substances which paralyse thenervous system: Amanita muscaria (Pl. 4),Amanita pantherina (Pl. 5) and InocybePatouillardi (Pl. 11).

3. Those containing substances which destroy the redblood corpuscles: Gyromitra esculenta (Pl. 16).

For convenience of reference the details of symptoms aregiven with the descriptions of the several species.

Although all British toadstools known definitely to bepoisonous are described and illustrated it should not be

assumed that the remainder can be eaten with impunity,if not always with relish, for obviously large numbershave not been sampled, even excluding those havinginsufficient substance or too much tenacity to be ofculinary interest. Indeed there is evidence that a fewother species have caused illness, but sometimes thishas followed the consumption of uncooked specimensor there is some other factor of uncertainty. Thoughabroad some toadstools are eaten raw in salads it is nota practice to follow without proper consideration, forsome fungi which are perfectly safe when cooked arediscomforting when not.

If the descriptions and the accompanying plates arestudied, the poisonous species will be found to have nostructural or other character in common. Despite popularbelief to the contrary, there is only one practical way ofdistinguishing between edible and poisonous toadstools.This experimental method is sure, but the result may notprofit a man. Moreover it is unnecessary, for we have thedata from many unvolitional trials. Among those whothus contributed to our knowledge were many exaltedpersonages whose names are immortalised inmycological writings. Pope Clement VII and EmperorCharles VI are always included, though apparentlywithout warrant: the latter was so fond of fungi that heforbade their use in his States lest there should be ashortage.

As with other foods the only safe method to follow isto rely on the experience of one's predecessors. There aremany toadstools which are perfectly wholesome andreadily distinguished. Indiscriminate eating of others mayrender the consumer meet for repentance or beyond it.

An expression frequently used is that certaintoadstools `look poisonous'. This usually refers to colour,though sometimes it is shape or structure. Bright coloursare most often supposed to be danger signals, but allcolours except white, cream or pale yellow arousesuspicion. Colour, however, is of no significance of itselfin determining whether a fungus is poisonous or not: itsimportance lies in its being one of

the main characters which distinguish one species fromanother. Similarly with shape and structure. The FieldMushroom is presumably taken as the model by whichall other species are judged, so the more a fungus differsfrom this pattern the more likely is it thought to deviatefrom perfection as food. Moreover the doctrine ofsignatures still has its hold and a fungus with a fanciedresemblance to something unpleasant is assumed to beitself objectionable. Whatever the shape or structure of atoadstool, whatever it reminds one of, are not of theslightest value in determining whether it is wholesome.

Many fungi have characteristic smells which to anexperienced collector serve as an aid to identification.Smells are very difficult to define. People differ in theirsensitiveness and in their criteria of association. A scentmay be pleasing to one, intolerable to another, andundetected by a third apart from any difference in generalolfactory sensibility. We have no means of defining scentexcept by comparison, and as this is not usually madedirectly but from memory there may be considerablevariety in describing that of a given fungus.

There is a great range of odours among toadstools.That of the Field Mushroom is sufficiently marked to becharacterised for purposes of comparison as a mushroomsmell, the commonest met with. Many species have theodour of new meal; a few smell of rancid meal. Severalhave the sweet smell of anise. Many species have scentsresembling that of fruits; others suggest flowers -jasmine,hyacinth, musk; many smell of garlic; several have aradishy smell. And so on-fish, crab, goat-moth, coal-gas,ammonia, prussic acid, acetylene. Several species havethe offensive smell of bed-bugs and, less commonly,stronger terms than scent, smell and odour are called for,with occasional allusions not usually considered proper.

Most frequently a good sniff is needed to detect whatodour there is; sometimes, however, it is noticeableanywhere in the neighbourhood of the fungus;occasionally it is necessary

to bruise or cut a specimen for it to become manifest.Dried specimens often retain their special odour for manyyears. It might be thought that smell would give a clue toedibility, but unfortunately this is not so. None of theBritish poisonous species has an unpleasant smell and thedeadly poisonous species of Amanita are odourless.

It has been a common belief from earliest times that ifthe flesh of a fungus changes colour when cut or broken,it is poisonous. Some species of Boletus, e.g. Boletusluridus, almost instantly become a vivid blue whenbroken; other fungi become reddish, yellowish orblackish and the `milk' of some species of Lactariusgradually changes colour. None of these colour changesis of any significance in denoting the presence ofpoisonous substances. The bright blues are doubtlessdisconcerting when preparing a fungus for cooking butthey are not danger signals. The Field Mushroom (Psal-liota campestris) and the Horse Mushroom (Psalliotaarvensis) change colour slightly, the flesh of the firstbecoming slightly reddish, that of the second yellowish:other mushrooms show a stronger coloration, red inPsalliota haernorrhoidaria, yellow in the YellowStaining Mushroom (Psalliota xarithoderma, Pl. 12).

The change of colour is a chemical phenomenon.Certain substances, which because of their properties arecalled chromogens (e.g. boletol in Boletus spp.; tyrosinin Russula spp.), occur in the flesh together withoxydising exzymes (lactase, tyrosinase) which act uponthem in the presence of oxygen and moisture and as aresult the chromogens acquire a new, sometimes a vividcolour. On continued contact with air the flesh mayundergo a series of colour changes due to a gradualalteration in the chromogen.

The most widely current belief is that edible fungi`peel'. This relic of antiquity is relied on by many todistinguish the Field Mushroom from all other species.Whether the skin of the cap can be removed or notdepends upon a structural character. If the epidermis isformed of two different

kinds of tissue so that there are two distinct layers,the outer skin can be removed; if it is in one layer, it istoo closely applied to the underlying tissue to come awaywithout tearing. Members of the same genus may differin this respect: thus Russula emetica has a separablepellicle whereas Russula drimeia has not (Pl. 8).Whether or not a fungus will peel is a character of aspecies, but it gives no clue to edibility. The FieldMushroom peels, but so does the Death Cap. A failure torealise this led to two deaths at Ipswich last year (1944).

Almost equally current is the similarly antique beliefthat a poisonous fungus is revealed in cooking if a silverspoon is turned black, though probably it is rarely tried.Silver is blackened by sulphides but presumably is notaffected by any fungus, certainly not by Amanitaphalloides. It is difficult to account for the origin of thisbelief. Possibly it is connected with the idea of manyancient authors that fungi have a natural affinity forpoisonous substances and readily absorb them:specimens which grew near serpent's holes, rusty nails,rotten rags, or even on trees bearing noxious fruits, wererendered harmful through imbibing deleterioussubstances and vapours. A poisonous fungus whencooked apparently released these and they were attractedto the silver and discoloured it. Indeed in southern Italy,where the harmful effect of neighbouring metals on afungus is still believed in, it is customary to put a piece ofmetal in the water in which fungi are cooked with thenotion that any poisonous substance attaches itself to themetal. Somewhat similar in kind are the tests whichreplace the silver spoon with onion, parsley or othervegetable; and similar in value.

Connected with these ideas is the one which considersfungi harmful, if they grow in highly manured ground,regardless of the fact that manure is the normal habitat ofthe form of the Field Mushroom which gave rise to thecultivated races. Several other edible fungi favour a richsubstratum.

The taste of some fungi is intensely acrid, that ofothers very bitter, whereas that of the majority is mild.Taste, like colour and smell, is a specific character.Indeed in the large genus Russula, some classificationsmake taste a primary division. Though it is unwise to eatan acrid species uncooked, taste is no real guide to safety.None of the really dangerous fungi has a sharp taste.

No reliance should be placed on the fact that a species isnibbled by some animal or other. Rabbits, for example,are not usually affected by Amanita phalloides, simplybecause their stomach contents are able to neutralise thepoison. Slugs have so different a mode of foodassimilation from ours that it is absurd to rely on them asindicators: they thrive on the deadly poisonous species ofAmanita.

All other tests are similarly useless, such as that ediblefungi grow in fields and not in woods, in grass and not onor under trees, occur early in the season and so on. Toknow whether a species is edible or poisonous it isnecessary to be able to recognise it and to learn itsreputation. No rule-of-thumb method is safe. Indeed byevery one of the usual tests the deadly poisonousAmanita phalloides, Amanita verna and Amanita virosawould be considered perfectly safe, whereas the FieldMushroom would give rise to doubts.

From earliest times there have been suggestions forrendering all toadstools safe to eat. Pliny says that`vinegar being a nature diametrically opposed to themneutralises their dangerous qualities'. Later salt andalcohol were among the reasonable suggestions forneutralising the poison in fungi; the mixturesrecommended for curing poisoning and the mithridatesfor immunising against poisoning were often so strangeand complex that a knowledge of their constituents wouldbe sufficient to empty a normal stomach.

In 1851 F. Gerard, a naturalist attached to the Jardindes Plantes, Paris, published the results of experimentsshowing that Amanita phalloides and other poisonousfungi can be rendered innocuous by cutting them up andmacerating them

in water with added vinegar and salt for two hours, thenthoroughly washing, and boiling in water. At that time thefear of poisoning was so great that only the CultivatedMushroom was allowed in Paris markets. Gerard'smethod had many advocates and for a time wasmentioned in the Instructions to French Army Officers. Itis believed that he was finally the victim of hisexperiments.

Fabre in an essay included in The Life of a Fly relatesthat he had never heard of even a mild case of mushroompoisoning in the thirty years he had lived at Serignan,though the people gathered a little of everything to add totheir modest alimentary resources. The custom in thedistrict is to blanch the toadstools by bringing them to theboil in water with a little salt in it; afterwards a fewrinsings in cold water and then cooking according totaste. Though he praises the method, the only harmfulspecies Fabre mentions as having tried is Amanitapantherina. Blanching with or without the addition ofvinegar has long been practised by country people inmany parts of the world. According to Fabre fungi whichhave been blanched become much more digestible, thereis no loss of succulence and hardly any of flavour. Theprecaution is unnecessary if only species known to beedible are cooked, and these are usually far moreabundant than poisonous ones.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIESThe average size of each fungus is given in inches at the

beginning of the description

PLATES I TO 5

AMANITA

The genus Amanita includes the three deadly speciesAmanita phalloides (Pl. 1) Amanita verna andAmanita virosa (Pl. 2), and the two poisonous speciesAmanita muscaria (Pl. 4) and Amanita pantherina(Pl. 5). Not all members of the genus are harmful,howeverAmanita rubesceris is a well-known ediblespecies. The name Amanita is the Greek Amanitai (au avitai),thought to be derived from Mount Amanon in Cilicia.Apparently it was the name for the Field Mushroom whichgrows abundantly in Greece and is still called Amanites(auavitns) or more popularly Manitari (uavitapi). When thename was first used in a generic sense, it was applied toseveral edible species including the Field Mushroom, but ithas had its present significance for well over a century. Themain characters of the genus are white spores, white gillswhich are more or less free with shorter intermediate ones,a ring on the stem and a volva or wrapper whichcompletely encloses the young fungus. The behaviour ofthe volva depends on its structure. Where it is composedmainly of thin-branched hyphae with few rather elongatedthickwalled cells it holds together and splits to allow thepassage through it of the cap as growth proceeds. Theremains of the volva are left as a cup at the base of thestem, as shown in fig. I and in Plates I & 2. Thoughoccasionally in dry weather parts of the volva may adhereto the cap, usually this is free from all trace of it. When,however, the volva is composed of few hyphae and manythick-walled spherical cells it has not sufficient tenacity tohold together as the cap is pressed against it by theelongating stem and breaks into wart-like portions whichremain on the cap, as shown in fig. 2 and in Plates 4 & 5.An intermediate condition occurs in Amanita mappa (Pl. 3)where portions of the volva remain on the cap as irregularpatches.

Fig. 1. Amanita phalloides.a, early stage with volvaunbroken.b, fully open with volva as acup at the base of the stem.

The base of the stem is always swollen. In species with afriable volva there is an ornamentation at the base of thestem which varies according to the amount of adhesion inthe early stages of growth and the proportion of thick-walled cells (see fig. 3).In the young stage a membranous veil encloses the younggills. As the cap expands the membrane is torn from theedge of the cap and remains as a ring attached to the stem;it frequently shows striations on its upper surface whichare impressions left by the developing gills.

PLATE 1

AMANITA PHALLOIDES DEATH CAPAverage width of cap 3½”, Average height of stem 4½”Average width of stem 5/8th”.

Fig. 2. Amanita muscaria.a, early stage with volvaunbroken.b, fully open with volvatorn into warts on the cupand rings of concentricscales at the base of thestem.

This deadly fungus is common in woods andadjoining pastures in late summer and early autumn. Inits youngest stages it looks much like an egg half buriedin the soil, until the outer membrane tears and the capgradually emerges. The cap is fleshy and hemisphericalat first, then finally flattens, varying in colour, usually anolivaceous green or yellowish green with a darker centrebut occasionally brownish, yellow, or rarely evenwhitish; the skin is satiny when dry and somewhat viscidin wet weather; the surface is finely streaked withradiating dark fibrils. The gills are crowded and white,often with a greenish or yellowish reflection. The stem iswhitish often with a tinge of green, solid at first, oftenbecoming hollow, with a well-marked large white orgreenish ring;

Plate 1 - Amanita phalloides

it is somewhat narrowed upwards with a striate apex andits bulbous base is surrounded by a large white oryellowish persistent volva, often greenish or yellowishwithin, which is free for half its length and has a laxmargin. The flesh is white but shows a tinge of thecolour of the cap below the readily separable skin. It ispractically tasteless and without smell until it begins todecay, when it is fetid.

The differences in colour of the cap seem to dependupon conditions of growth. In dry weather the thin outerlayer of the stem breaks into squamules showing thewhite flesh below, giving a wellmarked marbledappearance. The ring remains attached to the cap for along time; it often dries rapidly and sticks to the stem asa brownish skin.

Amanita phalloides is responsible for over go percent of the recorded deaths by fungus poisoning.Moreover more than So per cent of the cases ofpoisoning are fatal; the percentage has been put so highas go. The symptoms usually follow the same course. Nodiscomfort is felt for ten to twelve hours, an almostdiagnostic sign. Then there are sudden and intenseabdominal pains with vomiting, diarrhoea and extremethirst. Usually there is quiescence after two days, butthis is the most dangerous period. The various symptomsrecur in a more intense form and usually the nervoussystem is gradually paralysed, the liver degenerates,there is delirium, collapse and death. Other symptoms,no more pleasant, also occur and several distinct clinicalforms have been recognised. If very little of the fungushas been eaten the symptoms may abate after two orthree days; a surprisingly small amount, however, willcause illness and even death. Where there is recovery itis slow and there is prolonged convalescence.

Owing to the long incubation period ordinary simplemeasures for ridding the stomach of its contents areobviously not sufficient to remedy the harm alreadydone.

Fig. 3. Base of stem.

From left to right: Amanita phalloides,Amanita mappa, Amanita muscaria,

Amanita pantherina

B

The Institut Pasteur has produced an antiphalloidianserum which has given good results when injected soonafter the meal, either hypodermically or intravenously in adose of at least 40 c.c. No ill effects follow injection.Serum is produced by immunising sheep.

Based on a century-old French treatment intravenousinjections of glucose (20-25 per cent) are now given inGermany, and good results are reported. The poisoningcarries in its train a shortage of sugar in the blood(hypoglycaemia), probably by its effect on the liver.

A similar recent French treatment is to administercommon salt solution either orally or intravenously in 20c.c. doses of 20 per cent strength. Various physiologicalhypotheses have been put forward to account for thereported success of this treatment.

A treatment of a different kind consists in feeding apatient with the whole stomachs of three rabbits choppedup with the brains of seven, the assumption being that theessential poison contains two distinct portions, a toxin(hepatic) which causes degeneracy of liver and kidneysand irritates the intestine, and a toxin (neuro) which actsupon the central nervous system, bringing aboutprogressive paralysis. The rabbit, like some other animals,is immune to small portions of the fungus, so its stomachcontents must contain some substance capable ofneutralising the hepatic toxin; the central nervous systemof the rabbit is not affected, so it is assumed that the braincontains some antidote to the neuro-toxin. It has been saidin favour of the treatment that seven rabbits are morereadily procurable than serum and that these need noteven be lost to the table.

Much research has been carried out to discover thepoisonous principle. The first substance to be isolated wasphallin, a glucoside which attacks the red corpuscles ofthe blood. It was assumed that this was the active poison,but it is readily destroyed by heat and by digestive juices.Moreover the symptoms of Amanita phalloidespoisoning are not those of haemolysis. Two othersubstances have been isolated: Amanita-toxin (Amanitin)with a complicated and undefined chemical structure,which resists the action of heat, of drying and of thedigestive juices, and phalloidin, a polypeptide, which isquickly active though destroyed by heat. Death througheating the fungus is apparently due to the heat-resistantAmanitatoxin which in experimental animals produces themajority of the lesions described in human post-mortems.

PLATE 2

AMANITA VERNA FOOLS' MUSHROOMAverage width of cap 3", height of stem 5", width ofstem 3/8th.

AMANITA VIROSUS DESTROYING ANGELAverage width of cap 5", height of sterm 7½"width of stem 5/8th"

Amanita verna and Amanita virosa are both closelyallied to Amanita phalloides and are often regarded asvarieties or sub-species. They are just as poisonous andprobably more dangerous because, being white, they aremore readily mistaken for Mushrooms, from which theyare clearly distinguished by the persistently white gillsand the membranous volva at the base of the stem,though this may be left in the ground if the specimen isgathered carelessly. Both are rare in this country.

Amanita verna closely resembles Amanita phalloidesbut is usually entirely white, though the centre of the capmay be slightly tinted ochraceous. The stem is fairly longand slender and the volva is usually more sheathing. Itgrows in woods, especially beech, in summer and earlyautumn: in spite of the specific epithet it rarely appears inspring. J. Bauhin called it Fungus stultorum-the fungusof fools, presumably because in its young stage it wasmistaken for Amanita caesarea.

In Amanita virosa the cap is at first conical, oftensomewhat asymmetrical, and when expanded is alwaysrather umbonate. The slender stem is floccosely scalywith an incomplete silky ring which is usually lower onone side and often remains attached to the edge of thecap. The volva is lax and wide. It occurs in damp woodsin summer and autumn.

Plate 2 - Amanita verna (a) Amanita virosa (b)

PLATE 3

AMANITA MAPPA FALSE DEATH CAPAverage width of cap 3", height of stem 3¾",

width of stem ½"

This species is often confused with Amanita phalloides.The cap, however, is usually lemon-yellow or white,with no trace of green, is without dark radiating fibrilsand normally retains irregular patches of the volva: thefancied resemblance of these patches to a map accountsfor the specific epithet. The chief difference is in thebulbous base of the stem, which is truncate with a shortthick margin often showing the projecting torn edge ofthe enclosing white, yellow or brownish volva, separatedfrom the rest of the stem by a distinct groove. The cap isfleshy, hemispherical then spread out, shiny in dryweather with white or yellow patches which becomeochre or brownish. The gills are white, often with ayellowish edge, crowded and narrow. The stem isslender, solid then hollow, white or tinted yellow, andstriate above the white membranous ring. The flesh iswhite but is often yellowish below the separable skin ofthe cap. It has a smell resembling that of raw potatoesand an insipid then disagreeable taste. It grows in woods,especially beech, in summer and autumn.

Until recently Amanita mappa was generally thoughtto be very poisonous. It is now known to be harmless,though worthless because of its offensive flavour.

Plate 3 - Amanita mappa

PLATE 4

AMANITA MUSCARIA FLY AGARICAverage width of cap 7”, height of stern 10”, widthof stem 1”This beautiful fungus is well known, for not only is

it conspicuous and common in woodlands in autumn,but it often figures in nursery pictures, as tabledecorations, in films such as Fantasiaand serves as a model for children's toys. The cap isscarlet or orange-red, slightly viscid, shiny and dottedwith thick white or yellowish wart-like patches whichare often arranged more or less concentrically; roundishwhen young, it expands until it is flat with a striate edge.The crowded gills are white or tinted with yellow, thick,with a minutely toothed edge. The stem is white ortinted yellow, stuffed then hollow, often scaly, striateabove the ring, nearly cylindrical except for the bulbousbase which is encircled by several more or less distinctzones of white or yellowish squamules: the ring is whiteor edged with yellow. The flesh is white except underthe separable skin of the cap where it is orange-yellow.The taste is pleasant and there is no appreciable smell. Itgrows mostly under birches but also occurs under pines.When conditions are damp the cap may slip through t hevolva without tearing it and is then without spots.The specific epithet muscaria refers to the fact firstmentioned by Albertus Magnus, in the 13th century, thatthe fungus broken up in milk kills flies. In countrydistricts on the Continent the method is still used, thoughin Poland and Czechoslovakia sugar solution replacesmilk, or sugar is sprinkled on the cap. In Rumania thefungus is frequently placed on window-sills to discourageflies from entering. It was formerly employed in thiscountry and in Sweden for getting rid of bugs, whichaccounts for the name Bug Agaric which is occasionallymet with.

Amongst the Koryak tribes of north-cast Siberia thefungus is eaten to produce a state of excessive emotion onoccasions which seem to warrant it. For over two centuriesit has been known that to prolong the festivities use ismade of the fact that the stimulant is eliminated by thekidneys. According to Scandinavian tradition the Vikingsate Amanita muscaria to go berserk. It figures in homoeo-pathy as Agaricus or Aga formerly as one of theantipsorics.

Though popularly regarded as the most poisonoustoadstool, Amanita muscaria never causes death in healthypeople. Usually one to three hours or so after a meal thereis a period of delirium and hallucinations, sometimesaccompanied by intestinal disturbances. After a few hoursthis is followed by intense stupor and an awakening tocomplete forgetfulness.

The poison resides principally in the skin of the cap, butthere is good evidence of considerable variation in theamount present. The fungus is eaten in some regionsapparently without ill effect; but the price in the barrenSteppes, three or four reindeer for a single specimen,suggests considerable potency.

The first poison to be isolated was muscarine (myco-muscarine) which is present in small amounts. It has well-marked effects but they are not those characteristic ofpoisoning by Amanita muscaria. Later another alkaloidwas isolated which, because its effects on the centralnervous system are similar to those produced by atropine,is usually called mycetoatropine (muscaridine) though itsprecise chemical constitution is not known. A thirdalkaloid, choline, occurs in fairly large amounts and isprobably responsible for the gastrointestinal symptomswhich sometimes occur.

Plate 4 - Amanita muscaria

PLATE 5

AMANITA PANTHERINA FALSE BLUSHERAverage width of cap 4”, height of stem 5”, width ofstem ½”

This species is liable to be confused with the edibleAmanita rubescens, but the flesh and gills do notredden, the cap is always some shade of brown withnumerous small white warts and the base of the stem issurrounded by circular remnants of the volva.

The cap is convex then spread out, fleshy, brownishgrey, brown or yellowish brown and darker in thecentre; it is a little viscid when damp and shiny whendry and has a striate edge. The gills are white andcrowded. The stem is white, stuffed then hollow, oftennarrower and striate above, and the bulbous base issurrounded by a membranous border with one or morescaly bracelets above it which are the remains of thevolva; the ring is attached obliquely about the middle ofthe stem and is thin and often fugaceous. The flesh iswhite with a slight smell of radish and a mild taste. Itgrows in woods, heaths and pastures in summer andautumn.

Amanita pantherina is poisonous. The symptoms aresimilar to those produced by Amanita muscaria but areapparently more serious.

Plate 5 - Amanita pantheri

PLATE 6

LEPIOTA HELVEOLA POISONOUS LEPIOTAAverage width of cap 1¼", height of stem 1½", width ofstem ¼"

LEPIOTA CRISTATA CRESTED LEPIOTAAverage width of cap 1½” height of stem 5½” width ofstem 3/16 th” There are a number of small species ofLepiota which are brownish with an admixture of pink.All are rare in this country, and there is still uncertaintyabout their specific differences. As, however, one or moreof them cause symptoms resembling mild Amanitaphalloides poisoning, an inclusive description is given.Lepiota helveola has a rounded then flattened cap,sometimes with a slight central prominence, at firstcovered with an ochre-brown cuticle which becomesflushed with pink or lilac-colour especially in dampweather and tears, except on the disk, into numerousscales showing a white or pinkish surface between. Thegills are white, then cream-colour, crowded and have afimbriate edge. The stem is cylindrical, hollow,concolorous with the cap and covered with silky fibrils;the ring is in the form of an annular bracelet. The flesh iswhite, often becoming slightly pinkish when cut, with apleasant smell and a sourish taste. It grows amongst grassin autumn.

Lepiota cristata has the cap at first campanulate andcovered with a brownish or reddish brown cuticle; later,as the cap becomes convex, the cuticle breaks up exceptin the centre, where there i usually a boss, and shows asconcentric circles of small scales looking as if they wereencrusted in a white satiny surface. The gills are white orwhitish, crowded, thin and attached to a sort of collarettewhich separates them from the stem. The slender hollowstem is white and silky and often tinged with pink oryellow, especially towards the base, from which whitebranching mycelial fibres spread in the soil; the ring ismembranous, white and fugaceous. The flesh is white, thetaste unpleasant and the smell strong and disagreeable. Itgrows from spring to autumn in grassy places.

Because of the disagreeable smell and unpleasanttaste Lepiota cristata is usually considered suspect. It isnot poisonous

Plate 6 - Lepiota helveola (a) Lepiota cristata (b)

PLATE 7

LACTARIUS TORMINOSUS WOOLLY MILK CAP

Average width of cap 6, height of stem z, width of stem 1In this species the milk is white and has a very acrid

taste. The cap is convex at first with the stronglyinrolled margin hiding the gills and covered with awhitish woolly felt; later, on expansion, it becomesdepressed in the middle; it is viscid when moist and isusually rosy pink or pale orange-red, though it may bealmost white, with darker concentric zones and a palermargin. The gill: are thin, decurrent and yellowish pink.The stem is coloured like the cap but paler andsometimes has small superficial pits; it is firn andbrittle and finally becomes hollow. The flesh is pinkish.I occurs in summer and autumn in woods and on heaths,frequently under birches.

Lactarius torminosus is not really poisonous, though,like all acrid species of Lactarius, it acts as an irritantwhen eaten raw-torminosus means griping. Cookingdestroys the acrid principle. It is the favourite toadstoolin Finland, where it is boiled in water, eaten at once orsalted down. It is eaten also in neighbouring countries. InNorway it is strongly roasted and added to coffee.

Plate 7 - Lactarius torminosus

PLATE 8

RUSSULA EMETICA SICKENERAverage width of cap 4”, height of stein 3”, width ofstem 1”RUSSULA FRAGILIS FRAGILE RUSSULAAverage width of cap 2 ¾” , height of stein 2”, width ofstem 3/8”RUSSULA FELLEA BITTER RUSSULAAverage width of cap 4, height of stein 22, width of stein¾”

RUSSULA DRIMEIA PUNGENT RUSSULAAverage width of cap 4”, height of stein 3”, width ofstem ¾”

The genus Russula much resembles Lactarius but nomilk is exuded when the brittle flesh is broken. Many ofthe species are brightly coloured. Most have a mild tasteand are edible. Others have an acrid taste and areusually considered poisonous; though whatever irritantsubstance they may contain is dispersed in cooking,they are best avoided.

Russula emetica has a cap convex then flattened ordepressed, punk then a shiny bright red, but readilylosing colour and fading to pink, yellow or white: theedge is at first smooth but later becomes furrowed; theskin is easily removed. The gills are shining white,more or less free and somewhat crowded. The stem isrigid and white or tinted pink. The flesh is firm andwhite, pink under the skin of the cap. The taste is veryacrid after a few seconds and persistent; the smell ispleasant. It occurs in woods in summer and autumn,different forms being associated with beeches andconifers.

Russula fragilis much resembles Russula emetica, butthough the cap is typically bright red there is a muchwider range of colour. It is usually smaller and the caphas a striate edge. The stem is spongy then hollow, andvery fragile. The flesh is not pink under the skin of thecap. The taste is immediately very acrid and is not sodurable: the smell is pleasant. It occurs in woods insummer and autumn. The commonest form has a red cap.Some colour forms have been given varietal names.

Russula fellea is entirely pale ochraceous. The cap isconvex then flattened, viscid, the centre darker, the marginthin and striate. The gills are adnate, thin and somewhatcrowded, and are white at first and exude watery drops.The stem is cylindrical, white, then the colour of the capbut paler. The flesh is firm, whitish then pale ochraceous.The taste is very acrid and bitter, the smell pleasant. Itgrows in beech woods in late summer and autumn.

Russula drimeia has a bright purple or brown-violetcap, darker in the middle, and decoloured by rain; it isconvex with an incurved margin then flat or depressed, alittle viscid. The gills are adnate and somewhat crowded,citron-yellow then sulphur-yellow. The stem is solid andfirm, concolorous with the cap but paler. The flesh iscompact, yellowish then white, purplish under the skin.The taste is very acrid and the smell pleasant. It grows inconiferous woods in autumn.

There is a variety (Queletii) which has white gills.

Plate 8 - Russula fragilis (a) Russula fellea (c)

Russula emetica (b) Russula drimeia (d)

PLATE 9

ENTOLOMA LIVIDUM LEADEN ENTOLOMAAverage width of cap 5, height of stem 3, width ofstem L

The genus Entoloma has pink spores and, typically,sinuate gills. The cap in Entoloma lividum is tawny orgreyish, often turning white here and there: it is hard andcompact, roundish and regular at first with a thin, mealy,strongly inrolled edge, and then flattened, except for thecentral fleshy disk, with the edge becoming irregularlyraised; the skin is finely silky. The gills are yellowishthen pink, often with a yellow edge. The stem is shiningwhite, and firm, somewhat swollen above or below; theapex is mealy and there are fine striations on its surface.The white fragile flesh has first at agreeable smell andtaste of meal, but the pleasantness is not lasting it growsin grassy places in autumn, especially in deciduouswoods.

It often causes violent sickness and diarrhoea, andoccasional death It is known about Dijon as 'le grandempoisonneur de la Cote d'Or'.

Plate 9 - Entoloma lividum

PLATE 10

HEBELOMA CRUSTULINIFORME

CRUSTLIKE HEBELOMAAverage width of cap 4¼ ”, height of stem 2¼” ,

width of stem 1”VOLVARIA GLOIOCEPHAL

A STICKY VOLVARIAAverage width of cap 4½ ” , height of stem 7”, width ofstem ½”

The genus Hebeloma has brown spores and,typically, sinuate gills. Hebeloma crustuliniforme hasthe cap convex, then spread out with often a flattenedcentral boss and a thin undulating edge; it is paleyellow, brown or reddish, darker in the centre, and atfirst viscid. The gills are white then clay-coloured, andfinally date-brown, crowded and with an uneven edge:in wet weather, or after heavy dew, drops of liquid areexuded from the gill edges and show as spots ondrying. The whitish stem is short, stuffed then hollowand often thickened at the base; the apex has whitesquamules which become coloured brownish whencovered with the falling spores. The flesh is white andfirm and has the smell and taste of radish. Oftengrowing in rings in grassy places in woods in autumn,it suggests a row of rolls coming from a baker's oven-hence crustulinif orme.

Hebeloma crustulin iforme is very indigestible, andthe persistent taste of radish after cooking makes itobjectionable.

The genus Volvaria has pink spores, free gills and amembranous volva.

In Volvaria gloiocephala the cap is first campanulateand finally spread out but with a central prominence; itis glutinous, and is entirely smoky grey, or white withthe disk greyish, and has a striate edge. The gills arecrowded, white and then salmon-pink. The stem iswhite, later often grey or tawny, at first mealy, cylindricalbut usually narrowed above and swollen at the base andsurrounded by the white or grey persistent volva. Theflesh is soft and white with an unpleasant taste and smell.It grows in grass usually on heaps of rubbish, straw ormanure in summer and autumn; occasionally on thatchedroofs and on vegetable remains in sand dunes.

Formerly this species was regarded as deadlypoisonous. It is harmless and is much eaten in Portugaland Algeria.

Plate 10 - Hebeloma crustuliniforme (a)

Volvaria gloiocephala (b)

PLATE 11

INOCYBE PATOUILLARDI

RED STAINING INOCYBEAverage width of cap 2”, height of stem 3½”, widthof stern ½”

INOCYBE GEOPHYLLA EARTHY INOCYBE Average width of cap ¾”, height of stem 2”, width of stem ½”

In the genus Inocybe the surface of the cap is usuallycovered with radiating fibrils or is somewhat scaly: thespores are dull brown. Most species are small, some arepoisonous and none is known to be edible.

Inocybe Patouillardi is at first wholly creamy white,then becomes pinky yellow and finally more or lesscompletely vermilion or brownish red: in the youngstage it immediately stains red on handling as in thedrawings which were of specimens bruised in the post.The cap is fleshy, conical, campanulate at first with aninrolled margin, covered with silky fibrils; later itflattens out but retains an acute boss in the centre, andthe margin may become lobed and torn. The gills arealmost free, crowded, whitish pink then rusty brown orolivaceous with a white floccose edge, becomingblotched with red. The stem is rather stout, solid,slightly swollen at the base, mealy at the top. The fleshis firm and white and reddens slightly, particularly inthe stem. The smell is rather strong and fruity and thetaste is mild. It occurs in summer in deciduous woods,especially beech. There are several species of Inocybewhich redden on touching and it is very difficult todistinguish between them except on microscopiccharacters.

Inocybe Patouillardi has caused occasional deaths.There was a fatality in Surrey in 1937: others whopartook of the fungus in a more reasonable manner hadgiddiness then profuse sweats and vomiting. Somesoldiers who ate what was probably this fungus in 1925had the same symptoms though not all suffered ill effects.The poisoning is of the Amanita muscaria type.

In Inocybe geophylla the silky fibrillose cap is conicalwith an inrolled margin then spread out with a centralboss; it is of varied colour, white, yellowish, fawn,reddish, lilac or blue, often with the centre a differentcolour. The gills are crowded, usually free, at firstwhitish and finally pale ochraceous. The stem is whitish,or a paler colour than the cap, solid and firm, satiny, witha mealy apex and slightly thickened base. The flesh iswhite, the smell earthy and the taste insipid. It occurs inwoods from late summer to winter.

The lilac-coloured specimens are var. lilacina. Thecolour is lost after a day or so in darkness but is regainedwith exposure to light. Inocybe geophylla is often said tobe poisonous but there is no definite information about it.

Plate 11 - Inocybe Patouillardi (a)

Inocybe geophylla (b)

PLATE 12

PSALLIOTA XANTHODERMA

YELLOW STAINING MUSHROOM

Average width of cap 3½”, height of stem 4”,width of stem ¾”

This is a true mushroom: it has purple-brown spores,free gills and a rung on the stem.The skin instantly becomes bright yellow where touchedor rubbed, and the flesh at the base of the stem shows thesame colour when cut or broken: the yellow changesgradually to brown. The cap is at first bell-shaped butflattened in the middle, becoming convex and finallyspread out; it is usually pure white with a silky sheen.The gills are crowded, at first white then, after a time,pinkish and finally purple-brown. The stem is long,cylindrical, flexuous, and swollen into a well-markedbulbous base; it is white and silky, at first floccosewithin, then hollow, with a thin, membranous white ring.The flesh generally is white, the taste strong, the smellusually unpleasant. It grows, often in circles, in pastures,hedgerows and woodlands in summer and autumn.Though not poisonous it is very indigestible and causesillness in some people.

Varieties occur which have the cap more or lessscaly.

The Horse Mushroom (Psalliota arvensis) often haspatches of yellow on the cap and stem but the colour ispermanent and much duller than in Psalliotaxanthoderma.

Plate 12 - Psalliota xanthoderma

PLATE 13

BOLETUS SATANAS DEVIL'S BOLETUSAverage width of cap 6”, height of stem 3”, widthof stem 3”

This most handsome Boletus has a dirty white orgreyish cap often with a tinge of olive, smooth and softto the touch, at first hemispherical with the thin inrolledmargin reaching the stem, then more flattened. Thetubes are yellow or greenish yellow, short and almostfree from the stem; the pores are rather small androunded, at first yellow, then bright crimson thoughsometimes remaining yellow at the margin. The shortswollen stem is usually yellow above and below, andbright red in the middle; it is covered with a closenetwork of bright red veins which become laxer andpaler below. The flesh is white or yellowish white andreddens in the stem and cap when exposed to the air andthen slowly becomes bluish green. The taste is mild andthe smell slight. It occurs in late summer in woods,heaths and pastures on chalky soil.

All parts of the fungus turn blue when rubbed.

Boletus Satanas was so called because when firstdescribed over a century ago it had caused sickness anddiarrhoea in several who ate it, or merely tasted it, andeven by emanations given off from specimens that werebeing examined. Though it may be that there aredifferences in the toxicity of this species, its powers ofevil have been much overrated. It is probably veryindigestible and may contain some irritant substance. Itis eaten in Czechoslovakia and in parts of Italy, but thereis general agreement that it should not be eaten raw.

Plate 13 - Boletus Satanas

PLATE 14

BOLETUS LURIDUS LURID BOLETUS Average width of cap 4”, height of stem 4”, widthof stem 1¾

BOLETUS ERYTHROPUS

DOTTED STEM BOLETUS Average width of cap 3”, height o f stem 3”, width

of stem 1 ½Boletus luridus is frequently mistaken for Boletus

Satanas, but the cap is some shade of brown and neverwhitish, and the pores are orange-red or red-brown.

The cap varies in colour with weather conditions andage from olive-brown when young to umber, reddishbrown, or buff; it is fleshy, thick, hemispherical thenconvex and finely velvety. The tubes are yellow,becoming blue or green when old; they are free andshorter at the margin and near the stem so that there is acircular depression; the small rounded pores are yellowwhen young, changing to red-brown or orange-red andturn blackish blue when bruised. The stem is short andswollen at first but becomes elongated and more or lesscylindrical; it is yellow at the summit, washed with redelsewhere, browning at the base, and ornamented with abloodred network. The flesh is thick and soft, yellowexcept for a reddish zone under the tubes and at the baseof the stem; when broken it rapidly becomes blue after amomentary violet-red stage, and, later, yellowish green.The taste is mild and the smell feeble. It grows in woodsfrom summer to late autumn, and in heaths and pastures.

Boletus erythropus is very similar to Boletus luridus,but its stem is covered with reddish dots, the flesh isclear yellow under the tubes, and the cap is usuallydarker brown and finely tomentose. It grows usually inconiferous woods.

Both species are edible. The rapid change of colourwhen the flesh is broken is doubtless responsible for thewidespread belief that they are very poisonous. Theflesh becomes yellow during cooking.

Plate 14 - Boletus luridus (a)

Boletus erythropus (b)

PLATE 15

BOLETUS FELLEUS BITTER BOLETUSAverage width of cap 4”, height of stern 4”, widthof stem 1¾”

When young, and the tubes still white, this species issometimes confused with Boletus edulis. The network onthe stem is, however,

more marked, and the taste is so bitter as to have beendescribed as unforgettable. Mature specimens aredistinguished at once by the pink tubes and pores. Thecap is pale yellowish, honey - or chestnutcolour,hemispherical then flattened, and slightly pubescent. Thetubes are adnate and, like the angular pores, first whitethen pink. The cylindric stem is a little paler than the capand is covered with a network which is very fine andwhitish at the apex and widens below towards theswollen base, becoming chestnut-brown and finallyblackish. The white flesh becomes pinkish when cut. Itgrows in woods, especially on calcareous soil, in summerand autumn. Though not poisonous its intensely bittertaste renders it inedible; a single specimen will ruin ameal.

Plate 15 - Boletus felleus

PLATE 16

CLAVARIA FORMOSA HANDSOME CLAVARIAHeight 5”, width 6 ”

GYROMITRA ESCULENTA GYROMITRAAverage width of cap 5”, height of stem 2”, width ofsterm 2”Many species of Clavaria are club-shaped growing

singly (fairy clubs), or tufted at the base. Other speciesare branched (coral fungi); one of the most handsome ofthese is Clavaria formosa, a very rare fungus in thiscountry, occurring in woods, especially under beech, insummer and autumn, usually forming rings.

The base of the fungus is short and stout, white at firstthen a pinkish buff. Above this there is repeatedbranching which shows little sign of regularity; thebranches are elongated and erect, roundish or flattened,and clearly grooved, orange- or salmon-pink, thenochraceous with divided blunt yellow or pinkish yellowtips. The flesh is white and very fragile with a slightlyacrid taste and a pleasant smell.

Clavaria formosa is usually regarded as edible but itoften causes purging.

Gyromitra is an Ascomycete closely related to theMorels (Morchella). The cap of Gyromitra esculenta isfawn then dark chestnutbrown, and characteristicallybrain-like owing to the surface being irregularly foldedand grooved and turned in on to the stem, to which it isjoined here and there. The stem is whitish, smooth,flattened, grooved, sometimes branched above. Both capand stem show irregular cavities when sectioned. Theflesh is white, waxy and very brittle with a pleasant tasteand smell. It grows in coniferous woods throughout thespring, often appearing under the snow, particularly inburnt or open places; also in the flat wet `slacks' of sanddunes.

Gyromitra esculenta is perfectly safe when cooked ordried but has caused serious accidents and even deathwhen eaten raw. The poisoning is usually attributed tohelvellic acid which acts on the red blood-corpuscles, andthe symptoms recorded for earlier cases support this view.However, numerous poisonings, particularly in Germany,have shown that the action is not simple haemolysis, butits true nature still remains in doubt. Large quantities ofthe raw fungus are exported annually from Polandprincipally to Germany. The factory workers suffer fromeye trouble either from the spores of the fungus or fromirritation by poison on the fingers.

Plate 16 - Clavaria formosa (a) Gyromitra esculenta (b)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The standard work on the larger fungi is Carleton Rea,British Basidiomycetae, Cambridge, 1922. Anintroductory book with some coloured plates is E. W.Swanton, Fungi and how to know them, Methuen, 2nd ed.1923. The only full treatment of poisoning is in J.Ramsbottom, A Handbook of the Larger British Fungi,British Museum (Natural History), 1923 [Photofacsimile,1944]. Edible and Poisonous Fungi, Ministry ofAgriculture and Fisheries, Bulletin No. 23. 4th ed.(reprinted 1939) has coloured plates. J. Ramsbottom,Fungi, Benns' Sixpenny Library, 1929, is an introductionto Mycology, and Mushrooms and Toadstools, Collins,1946, with kodachrome photographs is a general account.