Planning with environmental objectives!

a guideNational Board of Housing,

Building and Planning in SwedenSwedish Environmental Protection Agency

“Sustainable development” is a concept that incorporates not just ecolo-gical but also social and economic aspects. But what do we actually meanby sustainable development? What does it imply in practice and how canwe know that we are really heading in the right direction?

Planning with environmental objectives!a guidedescribes the theory and illustrates practical examples which show howcomprehensive planning can help attain determined environmentalobjectives. The reasoning, examples and tools presented mainly concernthe ecological aspect of sustainable development.

It is a final report from an idea and method development project calledSAMS – Samhällsplanering med miljömål i Sverige (Environmental objecti-ves and indicators in spatial planning and strategic environmental assess-ment), run by the National Board of Housing, Building and Planningand the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency in collaboration withseveral municipalities and regional authorities.

Close collaboration between environmentalists and planners throughoutthe whole planning process has been a fundamental concept of the project.

“Planning with environmental objectives! A guide” has an addendum,“Planning with environmental objectives! A catalogue of ideas” givingconcrete examples illustrating how environmental objectives can beused in planning. It also contains tips on useful methods and tools. Morein-depth descriptions of the project’s case and theme studies are given inseparate publications.

National Board of Housing, Swedish EnvironmantalBuilding and Planning Protection Agency ISBN: 91-7147-650-4 ISBN: 91-620-5124-5

ISSN: 0282-7298

Planning with environm

ental objectives!a guid

e

Planning with environmental objectives!

a guideNational Board of Housing,

Buildning and Planning in Sweden

Swedish Environmental Protection Agency

© BOVERKET AND NATURVÅRDSVERKET 2000

THE BOOK CAN BE ORDERED FROM:

Boverket Naturvårdsverket(National Board of Housing, (Swedish EnvironmentalBuildning and Planning) Protection Agency)Publikationsservice KundtjänstBox 534, SE-371 23 Karlskrona SE-106 48 StockholmFax +46 455 819 27 Tel +46 8 698 12 00publikationsservice@boverket.se Fax +46 8 698 15 15www.boverket.se kundtjanst@environ.se

www.miljobokhandeln.comwww.environ.se

Boverket NaturvårdsverketISBN: 91-7147-650-4 ISBN: 91-620-5124-5

GRAPHIC DESIGN AND PRODUCTION: AB TypoformCOVER: Beatrice Lundberg

EDITION: 500 ex.PRINT: Lenanders Tryckeri AB, 2000

SEARCH WORDS:

Case studiesPhysical planningSustainable developmentIndicatorsEnvironmental objectivesNational environmental quality objectivesThe SAMS projectComprehensive planning

Foreword “Sustainable development” is a societal objective whichan increasing number of people world wide agree thatwe should strive towards. It is a broad concept incor-porating ecological, social and economic aspects. Butwhat do we actually mean - how can we make it tan-gible and how can we know that we are really headingin the right direction? This report, which we haveentitled “Planning with environmental objectives! Aguide”, has been defined to cover theoretical and prac-tical attempts to make the ecological, environmentalaspects of sustainable development in planning moretangible, primarily in the comprehensive planning ofmunicipalities.

“Planning with environmental objectives! A guide” is afinal report summarising an idea and method devel-opment project run over a three year period by theNational Board of Housing; Building and Planningand the Environmental Protection Agency in Swedenalong with several municipalities and regional author-ities. The project is entitled “Environmental objectivesand indicators in spatial planning and strategic environ-mental assessment (SAMS)” and was concluded inSeptember 2000. SAMS has been co-financed by theEU environmental fund LIFE and Sida (the SwedishInternational Development Cooperation Agency).Case studies have been carried out by the municipal-ities of Burlöv, Helsingborg, Trollhättan, Stockholm,Borlänge, Falun and Storuman as well as by the Officeof Regional Planning and Urban Transportation inStockholm with the support of the respective countyadministrative boards in the counties of Skåne, VästraGötaland, Stockholm, Dalarna and Västerbotten.Within the framework of SAMS, studies have alsobeen conducted in cooperation with the South Africanmunicipalities of Port Elizabeth and Kimberley.

A guiding principle when working with environmen-tal objectives in comprehensive planning is to strivefor close cooperation between environmental expertsand planners in the planning process. This interactionhas been a fundamental concept in the organisation ofthe project and in the approach to the work.Environmental experts and planners have workedtogether in all the sub-studies. Planners and environ-mental experts have also been represented in thesteering group which was formally responsible for theproject: including Lisbeth Fall and Jan Gunnarsonfrom The National Board of Housing, Building andPlanning (NBHBP) and Eva Smith and MarieLarsson from the Swedish Environmental ProtectionAgency (SEPA). This is also the case for the project

management - Katrin Ottosson from the EPA and YlvaRönning from the NBHBP, were both responsible forleading the project. Karin Slättberg (NBHBP) wasproject secretary as was, first, Helena von Knorringand, subsequently, Ulrik Westman from the SwedishEPA. Ulf Ranhagen from SWECO/LTU has acted asthe ‘senior consultant’ for the project. The NBHBP’s“Planning council” acted as a reference group. Many,many others have participated in the method devel-opment and we would like to express our sincerethanks to them all. A more comprehensive list of allthose involved in the project can be found at the endof this report.

This report summarises the common efforts of thosewho participated in SAMS. Ulf Ranhagen is the mainauthor but he presents the collective experience andconclusions from the project. As a complement to“Planning with Environmental Objectives! A guide”, areport entitled “Planning with Environmental Objec-tives! A catalogue of ideas” is also available with con-crete examples of how to work with environmentalobjectives in comprehensive planning with tips aboutmethods and tools that may be of use. The substudiesof the project are described in more detail in separatepublications. An overview of all the project reportscan be found at the end of this report.

Karlskrona and Stockholm

September 2000

National Board of Housing, Building and Planning inSweden The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency

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Summary

“A guide” summarises the general experiences andprinciple conclusions resulting from the SAMS proj-ect, Environmental objectives and indicators in spatialplanning and strategic environmental assessment, based oncase studies and thematic studies. The specific andpractical experiences gained from the individual cir-cumstances of each municipality is recorded in “A cat-alogue of ideas”.

Key issues in the project have been to:

• Integrate environmental issues into comprehen-sive planning.

• Formulate the role of comprehensive planning inthe work towards sustainable societal develop-ment, particularly from an environmental view-point.

• Enhance collaboration in the planning process,partly among the different areas of professionalcompetence within comprehensive planning andenvironmental protection and partly amongexperts, decision-makers and the general public.

The work shows that this not simply a question ofdeveloping a planning methodology alone. It is rathera matter of devising a complete set of tools for dealingwith sustainable development issues in comprehen-sive planning. Each case study has focused on someform of tool or method (such as ecological footprints,future images, strategic environmental assessment,geographical information systems) and can therebysupport the thematic and in-depth studies with prac-tical experience.

A guide contains four main sections:

The introducion provides an account of the most sig-nificant conclusions from the project:

• The national environmental quality objectivesprovide a point of departure for the formulationof local environmental objectives and indicators.

• Certain objectives in the intersection zonebetween environmental objectives, economicobjectives and social objectives have been iden-tified.

• There is considerable potential to develop a dia-logue around environmental objectives at an earlystage in comprehensive planning, beyond the formalrules of the Swedish Planning and Building Act.

• Divisions between the different parties involvedexist, but integration of the various processesand professional cultures can contribute to over-coming them.

• The potential for meeting environmental objec-tives can be utilised in a better way in comprehensive planning, by, for instance,analysing different physical structures.

• The methods used have the potential to liftcomprehensive planning and contribute to theintegration of environmental issues.

• Visions, scenarios and future images are a sourceof inspiration for comprehensive planning andenvironmental protection.

• The methodology for strategic environmentalassessment should be distinguished from proj-ect-based environmental impact assessment.

• Geographical information systems provide newscope for integrating environmental objectivesinto comprehensive planning, but competenceand data capture have to be improved.

• The opportunities and limitations of using indi-cators in comprehensive planning have beenclarified.

• Environmental objectives and indicators in theplanning context meet with international interest.

• It is stimulating to work with environmental objec-tives and indicators in comprehensive planning!

Part one takes up the role of comprehensive planningin the work towards sustainable societal development.Different physical structures are discussed:

• Building and transport structures

• Green structures

• Water supply

• Town-country eco-cycle

The case studies indicate the potential for creativedevelopment of new and informal ways of incorporat-ing a broad spectrum of views, for instance, on envi-ronmental issues at an early stage. Different culturesin different parts of the municipal organisation have tobe encouraged to interact.

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Part two reviews the various methods and tools forconducting comprehensive planning with environ-mental issues at the centre. After an overview of thetoolbox presented in more detail in Catalogue of ideas,there is a more in-depth presentation of the basicmethods used to make objectives more tangible andto handle information and values in the planningprocess:

• Visions, scenarios and future images, backcastingas an alternative to forecasting.

• Strategic environmental assessment whichshould be “integrated with integrity” into com-prehensive planning.

• Geographical information systems as a necessity for handling large amounts of site-determined data and providing the opportunityto visualise opinions, proposals and effects.

• Indicators where the concept of planning indica-tors and field indicators are linked, respectively,to backcasting and to feedback (follow-up).

Important criteria for planning indicators if they are tobe effective planning tools are

• The future criterion - should be able to be iden-tified reasonably easily from plan alternativesshowing ideas or assumptions about future phys-ical structures.

• The spatial criterion - should be able to beexpressed in spatial terms and related to a futureimage.

• Directional criterion - should be able to show thechanges involved in a plan alternative in relationto the present and preferably also in a historicalperspective. Past, present and future conditionsshould be expressed using the same measure-ments.

• Objective criterion - the properties of the plansuch as expressed by the indicator should berelated to environmental objectives or otherobjectives in a credible way

Part three outlines the theoretical planning back-ground to the SAMS project as a combination of ideasfrom different schools of planning such as, strategic,communicative and generative planning theory. Theneed for further research and practical development isbelieved to exist in the following issues:

• The interaction between national, regional andlocal environmental objectives.

• Planning and environmental dialogues and coop-eration between different types of groupsinvolved.

• The role of the physical structure in relation toother instruments.

• Further development in practical application ofexisting advances in method, ideas and use oftools.

• Strategic impact assessments.

• Indicators in geographical information systems.

• Indicator systems for comparison betweenmunicipalities and regions.

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Contents

Foreword 3Summary 4

SAMS – Planning with environ- mental objectives 8

Background 11The results – conclusions 11

Part 1Sustainable development and comprehensive planning 16

Sustainable development and environmental objectives 16Environmental objectives deeply rooted in the concept of sustainable development 18

Sustainable development andenvironmental objectives – points of departure and results 20

How can comprehensive planning contribute to sustainable development? 29

Environmental objectives and physical structures 29

Building areas and the infrastructure 31

The role of comprehensive planning in achieving environmental objectives 43

Part 2Methods and tools for comprehensive planning with the environment at the centre 52The toolbox 52

Visions, scenarios and future images - a source of inspiration 55

SEA – Strategic Environmental Assessment, a method for integrating environmental aspects into comprehensiveplanning at an early stage 60

GIS – Geographical Information Systems 67

Indicators – a multi-faceted tool but with some pitfalls 72

Part 3SAMS – Background and realisationA development project in the intersection

zone between theory and practice 82

Some planning theories 83Reference framework for development of methods 85

The SAMS project in brief 88

Sub-studies 88Organisation 89Financing 92SAMS Reports 93

SAMS – Planning with environmental objectives

The aim of the SAMS project has been to developmethods for integrating environmental objectivesinto planning with an emphasis on municipal compre-hensive planning. The project has illustrated howcomprehensive planning can contribute to theachievement of established environmental objectivesand the formulation of local targets for sustainablesocial development from an environmental viewpointby means of case studies and concrete examples. Thefundamental concept of maintaining ongoing cooper-ation between environmental experts and plannersthroughout the planning process has shaped thework organisation and approach at central, regionaland local levels.

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Case studies in municipalities and regions:

SAMS has conducted eight case studies aroundSweden. A common feature of all of these is thatmethod development has been linked with planningwork in progress. The municipalities involved and thekey issues they addressed are as follows:

• Burlöv: A sound living environment throughreduced environmental impact of transport andtraffic.

• Helsingborg: Improved conditions for bicycle-rid-ers and public transport in order to counter theenvironmental impact of private motoring.

• Trollhättan: Local adaptation of the nationalenvironmental objective A good urban environment.

• Stockholm: Biological diversity in the NationalUrban Park.

• Stockholm: Assessment of environmental impactthrough more in-depth comprehensive planning.

• Falun+Borlänge: Environmental objectivesadapted to comprehensive planning and indicatorsfor agriculture and forestry.

• Storuman: Scenarios for sustainable developmentin a very sparsely populated municipality.

The regional planning level was represented by:

• Office of Regional Planning and UrbanTransportation i Stockholm: Strategic environ-mental assessment in regional planning.

Within the framework of SAMS, studies have alsobeen conducted in cooperation with planners andenvironmentalists in two South African municipali-ties, Port Elizabeth and Kimberley.

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Three themes in SAMSAs a complement to the case studies, issues of partic-ular importance have been studies in three thematicstudies:

Environmental objectives and physical structures

This thematic study considers how environmentalobjectives and indicators can be used in comprehen-sive planning focussing especially on how differentphysical structures satisfy the objectives.

In connection with this thematic study, two in-depthinvestigations were carried out. The first consideredstrategies for regional water supply and the secondconsidered the connection between town and countryfocussing on environmentally friendly energy supply.

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) This thematic study considers the use of environ-mental objectives and indicators, related to SEA,involved in planning, primarily municipal compre-hensive planning and regional physical planning.

Geographical information systems (GIS)This thematic study considers how GIS can be used asan analytic tool to improve the presentation and han-dling of planning-adapted environmental objectivesand indicators in comprehensive planning.

A more in-depth survey has been conducted withinthis thematic study into the use of GIS-based maps asa tool for improving the discussions and consultationsin comprehensive planning.

The results from the SAMS project are given inthe summary reports “Planning with environ-mental objectives! A guide” and “Planning withenvironmental objectives! A catalogue of ideas”as well as in the final report from each case, the-matic and in-depth study respectively. In addi-tion, a few more examples of dealing with sus-tainability issues in municipal comprehensiveplanning have been analysed in a special sub-study and the results from a number of expert’sreports have been published. References can befound on the final pages of “A guide”.

Main aims and incentivesof the SAMS project

The aim of the project has been to develop methodsto integrate environmental issues into planning - par-ticularly in municipal comprehensive planning. Theaim is also to clearly identify the ways in which com-prehensive planning can be an important instrumentin the work to achieve environmental objectives andfor strengthening the dialogue between the differentparties involved in planning. We hope that the meth-ods and instruments developed and tested will beable to function as aids in the comprehensive plan-ning work of the municipalities.

There are at least three important incentives for work-ing with the issue of environmental objectives and indi-cators for comprehensive planning in practical planningwork as well as in research and development (R&D):

1. Firstly, there is expertise, often substantialand comprehensive, within the various envi-ronmental sectors. However, this expertiseis not easily accessible as a basis for com-prehensive planning.

Expertise and experience are often based onindividual aspects and are formulated in dissimi-lar, specialised ways to distinguish different envi-ronmental factors. Interesting results from basicresearch does not reach the practical planners

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Figure 1. It is ‘difficult to see the wood for the trees.’ This is also the case when expert knowledge isto be used as the basis for planning. Photo: P O Eriksson, Naturfotograferna.

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because the results are not formulated in anappropriate way. For these reasons, it is neces-sary to translate the environmental objectivesinto a language which renders the objectivesmanageable and usable in comprehensive plan-ning. One tool tested was various types of indica-tors which are usable in comprehensive plan-ning.

2. Secondly, there is no sound, practicalmethodology for integrating environmentalissues into strategic comprehensive plan-ning.

The legislated requirements for assessing envi-ronmental impact in advance have applied pri-marily to individual projects both in Sweden andabroad. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)at project level involves the segmentation of thewhole, in other words the collective cumulativeaffect cannot be analysed (B Sadler & RVerheem 1996 and Asplund & Rydevik 1996).We are now progressing from a development ofthe Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)project towards analysis of environmental impactat levels where more strategic decisions can betaken, known as SEA - Strategic EnvironmentalAssessment (B Sadler & R Verheem 1996). Inorder to improve the potential for comprehensiveplanning to make full use of various environmentalobjectives, it is important to link the developmentof indicators to the further development of theSEA concept.

3. Thirdly, it is difficult to handle largeamounts of information in comprehensiveplanning and to visualise the information ineasily accessible graphics.

Different types of manual methods for establishinganalyses of conditions and alternatives continue todominate. These can be flexible and practical (forexample, outline methods for quickly generatingseveral alternatives) but they can easily becomevery time consuming and lack precision especiallyif they are also intended to illustrate geographicalstatistical information. Advanced computer toolssuch as GIS have become increasingly widely usedin order to make comprehensive planning moreefficient. GIS is a computer-based tool for collect-ing, storing, processing, analysing and presentinggeographical data from one or more databases. It isa matter of urgency to develop GIS tools to enableenvironmental issues to be more easily integratedat every stage of the planning process.

BackgroundThe National Board of Housing, Building andPlanning and the Swedish Environmental ProtectionAgency in co-operation with several Swedish munici-palities and county administrative boards along withtwo South African municipalities have run a projectaimed at developing methods to better integrate envi-ronmental issues in comprehensive planning. Thisproject, Environmental objectives and indicators in spa-tial planning and strategic environmental assessment(SAMS) was jointly financed by EU’s environmentalfund, LIFE, and Sida (the Swedish InternationalDevelopment Cooperation Agency). The project ranfor three years between October 1997 and September2000.

The background to the work lies in an earlier govern-ment directive involving the National Board ofHousing, Building and Planning and the Swedish EPA.The agencies were asked to both develop methods thatwould contribute to the achievement of national envi-ronmental objectives, and to devise indicators for fol-lowing up these objectives. The groundwork for theinitiation of such a methodology was devised (Ranha-gen 1997a). It is based on the idea that environmentalobjectives can be formulated in such a way as to renderthem manageable in comprehensive planning alongwith the development of indicators illustrating whetherthe planning or the actual developments are heading inthe right direction in relation to these objectives. Theconcept was conceptual and had to be tested anddeveloped further in practical planning work. Thiswork is of international interest.

Results – conclusionsThe following conclusions have been drawn on thebasis of the material collated - in the form of casestudies, thematic studies, in-depth studies and experts’reports.

The national environmental quality objectivesprovide a point of departure for the formulationof local environmental objectives and indicators.

Case and thematic studies and the collation of exam-ples illustrate a rich sample-card of the ways in whichenvironmental objectives can be formulated andtreated in comprehensive planning. Even though notall municipalities have based their work specificallyon the national objectives, these objectives have stillprovided guidelines when municipalities have beendeveloping local environmental objectives.

Some case studies illustrate how a number of envi-ronmental objectives can be used in a broad sense andhow indicators can be formulated from them. Othercase studies provide examples of how a national envi-ronmental objective can act as a basis for furtherdevelopmental work where objectives and indicatorsare made more precise.

Several environmental issues should be highlighted atregional level in order to be examined comprehensive-ly. This is the case regarding the issues concerning theinteraction between town and country. A lack of back-ground material for planning at regional level as well asfor ecosystems, the boundaries of which differ fromthose of the municipalities, also reduces the conditionsfor positive treatment in comprehensive planning.

It has been possible to identify certain objectivesrelevant to comprehensive planning in the inter-section zone between environmental objectives,financial objectives and social objectives.

The focus on environmental objectives can inhibitthe integration of social and economic objectives.When environmental objectives are integrated withsocial and economic objectives, the scope for examin-ing conflicts and interaction between these fields isincreased. The difficulty in clearly identifying con-flicts between objectives often lies in the differentobjectives being formulated in terms of differentframes of reference and with different methods ofmeasurement.

The work of the SAMS project has primarily focussedon environmental issues although in the broader casestudies, which consider many environmental aspectsin general terms, the reasoning has been to establishlinks to social and economic objectives and aspects.

Some relevant objectives in the intersection zonebetween social, financial and ecological objectiveswere identifiable in Kungälv, Sala and Vallentuna, allmunicipalities dealt with in the report Comprehensiveplanning for sustainable development.

Considerable potential for developing dialoguesaround environmental objectives in the planningexists at an early stage in the comprehensiveplanning process, beyond the formal rules of thePlanning and Building Act.

These contribute to the formulation of local objectivesand indicators in an interplay between the backgroundplanning material, future images and impact assessments.

Different forms of round table discussions concerningenvironmental objectives, future images and environ-mental impact assessments can provide new impulses

in the work to develop comprehensive planning meth-ods and environmental programmes, for example,where politicians, planners, environmentalists and othergroups of experts work together.

The result of this early dialogue needs to be introducedinto the on-going comprehensive planning work of themunicipalities. It is difficult, however, to create suffi-cient continuity in the processes initiated and to involvethe public in them. Many people do not have the timeto participate on a regular basis in different planningprocesses. It is important that efforts are invested inmaking these processes as interesting as possible inorder for the public to feel sufficiently engaged toremain involved throughout the entire process.

Divisions between the different parties involveddo exist but the integration of the variousprocesses and professional cultures can con-tribute to bridging this divide.

Different groups have different languages and framesof reference: in the first instance planners and envi-ronmentalists but also representatives of social admin-istrations, theoreticians and field workers, politicians,experts and the general public. The effort to achieveconsensus may sometimes mean that a rhetoric isused which actually conceals rather than unites thedifferent approaches.

In the SAMS project, planners and environmentalists,along with researchers and field workers have workedtogether during all phases of the developmental workfrom a point of departure based on a common frame ofreference. This has lead to such differences beingovercome so that new applications have evolved.

Municipalities with completely different conditionsregarding size, situation and resources have had theopportunity to exchange experience and expertise.This has functioned as a stimulating comparison incomprehensive planning with an environmental onus.

The potential for satisfying environmental objec-tives can be better realised in comprehensive plan-ning by analysing different physical structures.

The link between physical-spatial structures and envi-ronmental objectives is both complex and multi-faceted. Empirical surveys from different types oflocalities illustrate, however, that the density of thebuilt environment is of greatest significance concerningtransportation and energy consumption.

Simulations of consequences of the future structuresindicate that a multi-core structure has environmentaladvantages in relation to a single-core or a scatteredstructure at least in large urban areas. In a regional per-

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spective, decentralised concentration, as it is referredto, provides better conditions for lower energy con-sumption than patterns where a single large town dom-inates. There are also studies which indicate that struc-tures where housing, workplaces and service functionsare integrated and served by good public communica-tions are favourable from the point of view of energyconsumption and a favourable social environment.

At the same time, we can conclude that extreme inte-gration can lead to health risks through too muchexposure to noise and air pollution.

The re-use of land and premises which were previous-ly used for industrial purposes in new functions such ashousing, culture and leisure activities, also provide ameans of reducing transportation as well as promotingmeasures for reducing soil contamination. It hasbecome increasingly important in comprehensive plan-ning to decrease the fragmentation of green structuresthat building on virgin land can imply.

The methods used have the potential to ‘boost’comprehensive planning and contribute to theintegration of environmental issues.

There is no single method which is generally applica-ble in all planning situations. It is rather a case ofselecting the tools and methods on the basis of thelocal comprehensive planning and environmentalconditions. There are methods and tools which havebeen developed on a more theoretical plane andwhich have therefore never been used before in prac-tical planning. The task and scope of these tools aredescribed in A catalogue of ideas.

The application of a cyclical and dynamic method ofworking involving the interplay between objectives,planning material, future images and impact assess-ments has proved fruitful. It enables long term, sig-nificant environmental issues relevant to planning tobe identified at an early stage since future images arealready employed in the first round of planning.

Visions, scenarios and future images have pro-vided a source of inspiration for comprehensiveplanning and environmental work.

Work to devise visions, scenarios and images has beenshown to stimulate and extend local discussions andplace them in a long-term time perspective. The twofuture images Trailblazer and Pathfinder from “Swedenin the Year 2021” and “Sweden in the year 2009” – twoproposed visions - can inspired the creation of localvisions and future images. By highlighting the differ-ent paths for development for the regions and munic-ipalities, significant key issues and environmentalissues have been more easily brought into focus. At

the same time as it is rather demanding to work withlong term scenarios and future images, there is alsogreat pedagogical value in presenting alternative pos-sibilities for future development.

SEA - methodology for Strategic EnvironmentalAssessment should be distinguished from project-based Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).

SEA can contribute to identifying strategic choices ofdirection, conflicts between objectives and allows easi-er comparison of alternatives on the basis of prioritisedenvironmental objectives and indicators.

SEA has proved it can encapsulate environmentalimpact in a long-term perspective with considerablebreadth but with less depth in each issue. The applica-tion of this methodology in the case studies has provid-ed more secure foundations as far as choosing anapproach for the integration of environmental assess-ments with integrity into the planning process. Themethodology has also contributed to ideas as to howthe SEA process should be formed and how the differ-ent parties involved should be included in this process.

Geographical Information Systems provide newopportunities for integrating environmentalobjectives into comprehensive planning but com-petence and data capture have to be improved.

GIS has considerable potential for interactive planning.It can provide a more forceful tool in reinforcing com-prehensive planning not least in terms of environmen-tal issues. The consequences of various plan alterna-tives with regard to accessibility, fragmentation, barriereffects and other indicators can be made more apparentin a way which is not possible with manual methods.

Complex relationships can be illustrated using peda-gogical map illustrations.

A large number of indicators can be handled with arelatively small amount of effort and updating can bemade more cost effective. At the same time, we canconclude that access to input data (including attributedata) for comprehensive planning and environmentalwork is often insufficient. Considerable investment,not least financial investment, will be needed to cre-ate information structures which can function in theinteraction between the planning side and the envi-ronmental side. Even pedagogical aspects in the pres-entation of images, text and speech need to be devel-oped for GIS to be useful in supporting a public dia-logue in the planning work.

The potential and limitations of the use of indica-tors in comprehensive planning have been mademore apparent.

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There is a degree of uncertainty concerning the use-fulness of developing and using measurable quantita-tive indicators in a planning context. On the otherhand, there seems to be considerable agreement thatit is valuable to use indicators for environmental fol-low-up and monitoring.

The doubt expressed in the use of indicators as a toolin planning may be due to the fact that comprehen-sive planning is an activity directed towards creatingdialogues in processes where a broad spectrum ofissues are discussed in a future perspective whichshould channel into a political decision. Theseprocesses are mainly directed towards qualitativeinformation and it is seldom worthwhile to quantifyanything other than a limited initial selection of fac-tors. A checklist of both quantitative and qualitativeindicators can be used to provide support in compre-hensive planning.

Figure 2. Our experience shows that using environmental objec-tives and indicators in comprehensive planning works well bothin Sweden….. Photo: Peter Ahlén resp Kjell-Arne Larsson.

Planning indicators are able to:

• stimulate a dialogue on environmental objectivesand physical structures in the comprehensiveplanning,

• function as an alarm by signalling environmentalproblems which may be affected by the compre-hensive planning. One example is indicators for-mulated with the aid of ecological footprints,

• sharpen the comparison between alternativeswith the aid of SEA and,

• facilitate the follow-up of the impact of environ-mental objectives in comprehensive planning.

Plan indicators used in the wrong way can mean, how-ever, that:

• real complexity is replaced by deceptive simpli-fication,

Figure 3…….and in other countries,despite different conditions. Photo:Katrin Ottosson.

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• quantifiable measurements replace more rele-vant qualitative factors,

• hasty conclusions are made concerning causesand effects along with consequences, and

• indicators become norms instead of tools.

It is stimulating to work with environmentalobjectives and indicators in comprehensive planning!

By working systematically with environmental objec-tives and indicators with the help of a broad spectrumof tools, methods and processes, the forms and waysof working with comprehensive planning can berenewed. The case studies show considerable interestand impressive creativity from many different partiesinvolved in developing comprehensive planning andtransforming it into a more potent instrument in thework towards sustainable developmen.

Environmental objectives and indicators in compre-hensive planning provoke international interest.

It is relevant to work with environmental objectivesand indicators in comprehensive planning in mostcountries regardless of the planning system employed.Experience from studies in South Africa and discus-sions at the international seminars held within theframework of SAMS illustrate that the questionsposed concerning environmental objectives and indi-cators in comprehensive planning are able to be devel-oped and this has provoked interest in many coun-tries. It was also observed in the case studies inKimberley and Port Elizabeth that the working meth-ods can be easily adapted to other planning environ-ments than those in Sweden. In Kimberley above all,the work on environmental objectives and indicatorsprogressed considerably. An attempt was made thereto work along the same lines with social and economicobjectives.

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Part 1Sustainable development and comprehensive planning

Sustainable development and environmental objectives

The concept of sustainable development gainedinternational currency from the Brundtland Commis-sion report “Our Common Future”. The reportdefines sustainable development as “developmentthat meets the needs of the present without compro-mising the ability of future generations to meet theirown needs” (known as the future principle). TheCommission also maintained “that the basic needs ofthe world’s poor should be given highest priority” andthat “the level of technology and social organisationimpose limitations on the capacity of the environmentto satisfy current and coming needs”.

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These formulations have since been developed and in1991 the World Conservation Union, The UNProgramme for the Environment and the World WideFund for Nature launched the following definition:“Sustainable development involves improving qualityof life at the same time as living within the frameworkof the surrounding ecosystem’s capacity for bearingthe load.”

The definition has gained increasing weight andimpact not least after the UN Conference on theEnvironment and Development in Rio in 1992 whenAgenda 21 was launched along with the Habitat IIConference in Istanbul in 1996. Since then an ecolog-ical, an economic and a social dimension have beendeveloped. This means that the preservation ofresources and people’s right to participation and influ-ence are closely linked and mutually dependent. Asystem perspective on sustainable developmentimplies interaction between ecological, social andeconomic objectives within the framework for thelaws of nature. In the SAMS project we have chosento highlight the physical-spatial dimension as a frame-

work around different activities and operations, seefigure 4.

Figure 4 actually expresses an ideal situation in whichthe various objectives can be balanced in relation toeach other in, for example, a planning situation. One ofthe cornerstones of the Brundtland report is also theidea that economic growth can be compatible with thesolution of environmental problems (Emmelin 2000).Economic growth is in fact seen as a necessity if long-term resource and environmental problems are to besolved in a manner compatible with global justice. It isa popular claim that the Brundtland report and theconcept of durable development have eroded theantagonism between economics and ecology. Fromthis perspective, sustainable development is seen as aunified concept, as are the three sub-concepts.

Nevertheless, sustainability is not an unequivocal sci-entific or absolute concept. It can instead be seen as abalancing of different interests within more or lesswell defined frameworks. Potential remains for powerstruggles and negotiation concerning different consid-

Figure 4. Sustainable development is achieved through the interaction of ecological, social and economicaspects within a physical-spatial framework. The overlap between the circles represents objectives incorporat-ing all four dimensions. The achievement of environmental objectives alone, or economic or social objectivesin isolation, may mean setting aside other objectives. Examples of this dilemma are presented in the text.

economic social

ecological

physical-spatial aspects

erations between ecological, economic and socialdemands. There are many examples of conflicts andantagonism between the different areas of sustainabili-ty, as there are also between the different sub-areas.

The gradual development of nature conservation legis-lation requires, for example, that certain conservationincentives or resource-efficiency may dominate at theexpense of the economic and social opportunities of theindividual or group. A conflict with antagonistic over-tones can be illustrated by reference to the discussionabout repealing shoreline protection to increase thecompetitive force of regions by promoting more tourismfor instance, or by creating attractive housing environ-ments for sought-after contractors within the new econ-omy. We could also point out the debate underway inmany mountain regions concerning the potential forcombining the favourable, in both economic and socialterms, development of tourism within the framework ofecological and environmental sustainability.

Ecological sustainability is often seen as difficult tocombine with social/economic development, at leastin the short-term perspective. Due to the environ-mental objectives receiving so much attention overrecent years, the discussion about how these shouldbe balanced with social and economic objectives hasbeen neglected. In order to obtain a holistic perspec-tive, we need to find a common language or frame ofreference which could facilitate reasoning around con-flicts and synergy effects between the objectives.Perhaps indicators could provide a tool to enable us tobridge the gap between planners, environmentalists,sociologists and economists?

It is important to be aware of this problem when focus-ing more deeply in a project on one single area of sus-tainability. Even though the SAMS project has beenweighted towards the ecology sphere, other areas wereconsidered and connections were made to them.Within the Office of Regional Planning and UrbanTransportation case study in the Stockholm region,attempts were made, for example, to identify both con-flicts and synergy effects between ecological, econom-ic and social aspects.

Professor Olof Eriksson shows how ecological sustain-ability can provide the key to both welfare and justicein his book “Converting the World”. He argues thatcompanies with their capitalistic strategies can makemoney in a greener way. Consumer demands for envi-ronmentally friendly goods have put pressure on com-panies and the “green” market is expected to grow.One industry in the process of being “ecologised” isthe car industry. Efforts are being made to producecars with lower fuel consumption as well as varioushybrid cars which combine petrol and electric

engines. Perhaps the most remarkable event is theinvestment in a completely new power source for cars,the fuel cell. This produces electricity from hydrogengas, for example, in a chemical process where the onlyresidual product is steam. Within comprehensiveplanning, this type of technical breakthrough must beplaced in relation to social, economic, ecological andphysical-spatial factors.

Environmental objectives deeply rooted in the conceptof sustainable development

In the Swedish Environmental Code’s portal section(MB1:1) it states that “the directives in this code aimto promote sustainable development which meansthat present and coming generations are ensured ahealthy and sound environment. Such development isbased on the insight that nature has a preservationvalue and that man’s right to modify and exploitnature is associated with a responsibility to manage itwell.”

According to the ideas voiced when drafting the legis-lation, the environmental objectives should lead theway for what the concept “sustainable” represents interms of ecological development. In the GovernmentBill 1997/98:145, it stipulates for example that “Theenvironmental objectives established by Parliamentlead the way in the application of the code concerningassessments of what sustainable developmentimplies. Such environmental objectives can refer toenvironmental quality and can then be seen as ren-dering the objectives of the environmental code moreprecise to a certain extent.”

In April 1999, Parliament passed a decision to estab-lish general objectives for environmental work up to2020, known as the generation objectives. This meansthat we should be able to hand over to the next gen-eration a society in which the main environmentalproblems in Sweden have been solved. In connectionwith this decision, 15 new environmental qualityobjectives and a new distribution of responsibility atcentral and regional levels were adopted on the basisof the Government Bill 1997/98:145. The environ-mental quality objectives should serve as guidingprinciples in comprehensive planning and the appli-cation of the Environmental Code. They also providea point of departure for the formation of sector objec-tives and environmental management systems whichevolve within different parts of society.

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By means of the cooperation within the SAMS projectbetween the Swedish EPA and the NBHBP, a dia-logue aimed at a more modulated view has developedregarding how objectives should be formulated andinterpreted in concrete planning situations in the dif-ferent types of municipalities throughout the country.During the first year of the SAMS project, the formal-ly accepted 15 national environmental quality objec-tives did not exist. Since the work on objectives hadstarted long before the proposal was adopted byParliament, the SAMS sub-studies had already beenbased on the national objectives - in interaction withregional and local objectives.

The county administrative boards have overallresponsibility for adapting the national environmentalobjectives to their own regional circumstances. Themunicipalities have overall responsibility for localadaptation to both national and regional objectives.Certain target areas such as biological diversity andcultural environments often have such a genuine localassociation that it is difficult to formulate precisely innational objectives. In some cases, it may be easier tostipulate objectives which concern risks, emissions,air quality and noise pollution at national level. It isimportant to conduct a living and critical debatearound both the hazards and potential of too rigorouscontrol of details via objectives and standards.

Figure 5. The 15 national environmentalquality objectives should provide a pointof departure for regional and local adap-tation, appropriate for the comprehensiveplanning conducted by municipalities.

1. Clean air

2. High-quality groundwater

3.Sustainable lakes andwatercourses

4. Flourishing wetlands

5. A balanced marine environmentwith sustainable coastal areasand archipelagos

6. No eutrophication

7. Natural acidification only

10. A magnificent mountain landscape

11. A good urban environment

12. A non-toxic environment

13. A safe radiation environment

14. A protective ozone layer

15. Limited influence on climate

8. Sustainable forests

9. A varied agricultural landscape

Sustainable developmentand environmental objectives

in the case studies - pointsof departure and results

The case studies indicate a rich sample-card of the waysin which the 15 national environmental objectives canfunction as points of departure for a local discussion andformulation of environmental objectives in comprehen-sive planning with both breadth and depth. A roughattempt to show the weight with which the variousobjectives have been handled in the different studies isillustrated in Figure 6. The role played by the environ-mental objectives in the case studies has been com-mented on below. A more concrete illustration of these

is provided in Part 2 of A catalogue of ideas. Indicators canbe seen as a tool, for example, for following up envi-ronmental objectives and are dealt with in a separatechapter page 72.

In the case study from the Stockholm Region (Officeof Regional Planning and Urban Transportation), thenational and regional environmental objectives havebeen the general background for demarcating the envi-ronmental assessment, in other words, selecting strategicissues and indicators on the basis of the region’s envi-ronmental value and problems. Ten strategic issues arerelated to four areas regarding the environment inregional planning, see A catalogue of ideas. Within theframework for the SEA work, three priority aspects havebeen identified relevant to planning at regional level:

• Preserve and develop the green structure of theregion

• Reduce transportation in the area and increaseit’s energy-efficiency.

• Reduce energy consumption and render theenergy system environmentally sound.

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Stockholm(National Urban Park)

Stockholm (SEA)

Storuman

Trollhättan

clean

air

case studies

high quality gro

undwater

susta

inable la

kes and w

aterco

urses

flouris

hing wetla

nds

no eutrophica

tion

natural

acidific

ation only

susta

inable fo

rests

a vari

ed agric

ultural

landsc

ape

a mag

nificent m

ountain la

ndscap

e

a good urb

an enviro

nment

a non-to

xic enviro

nment

a safe

radiat

ion environment

a pro

tective ozo

ne layer

limite

d influ

ence on cl

imate

certain amount of emphasis

considerable emphasis

Burlöv

Falun/Borlänge

Helsingborg

Office of Regional Planningand Urban Transportation

a bala

nced m

arine enviro

nment

with

susta

inable co

astal

areas

and ar

chipelag

os

national environmental objectives (regional and local)

Figure 6. Rough overview of the focus placed on the variousenvironmental objectives within the case studies. The figure isbased on the national environmental objectives but in local adap-tations, these have been developed further and in greater depth.

The environmental objectives are also an importantpoint of departure for evaluating the environmentaleffects which may arise through the plan. They havealso been valuable in testing environmental policy inreality. The approach to this test is not to take theobjectives for granted but to maintain a lively discus-sion about how relevant, significant and applicablethe regional and local objectives are for conditions inthe Stockholm region. In the SEA work, other impor-tant social and economic aspects as well as goals werehighlighted as well as how these can interact or comeinto conflict with the environmental objectives.

In the Stockholm SEA case study, the nationalenvironmental objectives have not been used directlyas a point of departure. The comprehensive plan isbased on a general aim of sustainable developmentfrom an economic, social and ecological point of view.The urban planning strategy formu-lated departs from the principlethat Stockholm needs a plan toincorporate growth at the sametime as it should preserve anddevelop the qualities of the cityin the form of green structuresand characteristic traits. Atthe local level, there areenvironmental objectivesformulated in theStockholm environ-mental programme,Miljö 2000.

Figure 7. Map of the Stockholm region.Map: Office of Regional Planning andUrban Transportation (RTK).

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The basis of this environmental programme is theadoption of a holistic approach to environmentalissues in order to create long-term sustainable devel-opment in Stockholm.

In one of the sub-studies which focuses on the area ofKungsholmen and which was conducted within theframework of the case study, eight of the fifteen nation-al objectives have been identified as relevant in a cityenvironment. The objectives are divided into nine sub-areas which are related to the national environmentalobjectives in the case study. The local environmentalobjectives regarding acidification, eutrophication andground-level ozone are accorded considerable weight inthe review since they link up with the three nationalenvironmental objectives.

At the seminar on environmental assessment at arealevel held within the framework for the case study,attention was brought to the extensive degree of

Figure 8. Aerial photo of Kungsholmen. Photo: Metria

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uncertainty about what sustainable city developmentactually involves and what objectives are most press-ing. It is also difficult to demarcate and evaluate tar-gets in relation to each other. How, for instance,should noise reduction be ranked against a reductionin energy consumption? A broader perspective isneeded on the physical-spatial environment - ecology,economics and social issues have to be considered inthe same context.

In the Stockholm case study of biological diversityin the National Urban Park, it is emphasised that thewealth of biological diversity in the city is under threatby factors including acidification, eutrophication andcontamination of the groundwater, soil and sea/lake sed-iment. The expansion of the city has also affected bio-logical diversity over the years as areas of unspoilt landwithin the city have been considerably reduced and thenatural and cultural landscape has been fragmented.

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The case study on biological diversity in the NationalUrban Park is based on the environmental qualityobjective A good urban environment which concerns theway in which biological diversity in cities, urban areasand other building areas should be preserved anddeveloped. The case study states that it is partlyunclear how this target should be achieved in practice.Biological diversity is a complex issue with stronglocal associations. This means that a considerableresponsibility for development is placed on themunicipalities based on more detailed research.

One conclusion made from the work is that a detailed,comprehensive biotope map makes it easier to renderthe global and national environmental objectives more

Figure 9. Aerial photo of the National Urban Park in Stockholm. Photo: Klaus Lukkonen, Bildmedia.

tangible on the local level. It has been possible topresent the objectives as measure-oriented require-ments relevant for every specific area and adapted tothe conditions in the surrounding landscape. Thelocal environmental objectives have to be based onknowledge about the distribution of biotopes andecosystems in the city as a whole and should be relat-ed to the historical utilisation of the land. Ecologicalzones within the landscape along with dispersionzones and buffer zones encircling the core areas of themunicipality should also be incorporated into con-crete environmental objectives for comprehensiveplanning. These often include building areas in a sen-sitive interaction with natural areas

In the Trollhättan case study, the objective A goodurban environment has been selected as the point ofdeparture for illustrating the way in which a nationalenvironmental objective with extensive relevance tocomprehensive planning can be broken down andadapted at the local level. The work was conducted as apilot project in preparation for the municipality’s workon the further 14 environmental quality objectives. Themain issue is finding a good working method suitablefor identifying and establishing local environmentalobjectives on the basis of Trollhättan’s conditions andambitions. The local adaptation of the environmentalobjective has been of greater importance than the linkto the comprehensive planning. An important aspect ofthe work has been the attempt to involve as many inter-

ested parties as possible. This has led to the proposal tocomplement the adaptation of the national environ-mental objective with the following passage:

“All the citizens/inhabitants of the municipality shouldbe provided with the opportunity to participate in thedevelopment and construction of the community.”

A proposal for an environmental objective hierarchyhas been formulated to clarify the structure and makeit easier to understand and make use of the objectives.The problem encountered in Trollhättan was difficul-ty in dealing with the great number of long and short-term objectives and targets and the different forms ofindicators. A well-considered structure for objectives isneeded to make the work more easily surmountable.

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Figure 10. Aerial photo of Trollhättan. Photo: Metria

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Figure 11. Aerial photosof Falun (upper pic-ture) and Borlänge.Photo: Metria

The point of departure for the Falun and Borlängejoint case study is that sustainable development hasto be compatible with well-functioning ecosystems.Permits and production capacity in agriculture andforestry are therefore central. It is a question of thesustainable supply of food products, forestry raw mate-rials and bio-energy. Production and environmentalobjectives have been established for both agriculturalland and forest land. The case study has primarilydealt with environmental objectives. Agricultural andforestry issues have been dominated by other partiesup to now. As the municipalities become moreinvolved in order to develop their territory in a waywhich leads towards the achievement of the environ-mental objectives, the question then arises concerningthe municipality’s role in relation to the other parties.A new perspective on the role of comprehensive plan-ning has evolved which is described in the case study.

The environmental objective A varied agriculturallandscape was discussed before the Swedish Board ofAgriculture submitted its ten targets to the Govern-ment but some of them are well reflected in the direc-tion discussed in the working group and in the localenvironmental objectives for biological diversity andfor agricultural land formulated in the municipal envi-ronmental programmes.

In the work concerning the forest landscape and its use,the study concludes that, besides the environmentalquality objective Sustainable forests, seven of the othernational have a bearing on the forest landscape. On thebasis of these eight objectives, targets have been select-ed which are relevant for the forest landscape inFalun/Borlänge. The content in the environmental pro-

grammes of the two municipalities often tallies well withthe content of the national environmental objectivesadopted by Parliament. At the same time, the municipal-ities do not see a formulation of local environmentalobjectives merely as a breakdown of the national objec-tives on the basis of the geographical size of the munici-pality. Local objectives should also be based on localenvironmental conditions and political ambitions.

The case study in Helsingborg is based on the gen-eral objectives formulated in the town’s comprehen-sive plan (CP-97) and from the work on an environ-mentally sound transport system. For resource rea-sons, an area in the north-east of the town was chosenconsisting of around 10 per cent of the population.The study has mainly concentrated on illustrating thescope for developing sustainability through measuresin interaction between building areas and infrastruc-ture (see chapter 3). The work has been conducted ina dialogue between the physical planners, transporttechnicians and environmentalists.

A fundamental question concerns how increasinglyenvironmentally sound travel could contribute to sat-isfying the environmental quality objectives A goodurban environment, Limited influence on climate and Cleanair. The objectives No eutrophication and Natural acid-ification only have also been included since air pollu-tion has a cumulative effect on these objectives. Thetargets used for a SEA of the proposed future images

Figure 12. Aerial photo of Helsingborg. Photo: Metria

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forge a link with the national objectives but not com-pletely. The targets focused on include noise, over-crowding, the commuters’ experience, the preserva-tion and development of green structures, increasedenvironmental awareness of all parties in the planningprocess and a reduction in energy consumption. Hereare the results of the case study:

• Planning indicators which will contribute to pro-moting interest in the use of public transport,accessibility to and from change points and evenwithin these points.

• Planning indicators to promote bicycle riding pri-marily via cut-through routes, ease of orientation,barriers and connected networks.

These indicators can be used as tools in compre-hensive planning but with the realisation that fac-tors of various kinds in the world around us willhave greater significance in the achievement ofresults.

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Burlöv’s case study is based on the environmentalproblems associated with the location of the munici-pality; it lies at a large road, rail and supply routeintersection. Transport will undoubtedly increase as aresult of the opening of the Öresund Bridge. This sit-uation has resulted in the study having a broadapproach based on the long-term objective of creatinga sound living environment for the inhabitants of themunicipality. The case study involves the ecologicalfactors in interaction with economic and social factors(public health work).

An important basis of the work was the municipalEnvironmental Programme 2000, which is under devel-

opment as part of Agenda 21. The programme is con-tinually revised and will be approved by theMunicipal Assembly in the autumn of 2000. It isbased on the national and regional environmentalobjectives but provides details of locally relevant tar-gets which are presented in a list of concrete meas-ures. The municipality sees the creation of a platformon which objectives at all levels can interact as astrength in environmental work.

Of the fifteen objectives, objectives 1: Clean air, 4: Flourishing wetlands, 9: A varied agricultural landscapeand 11: A good urban environment, are of particularimportance.

Figure 13. Aerial photo of Burlöv. Photo: Metria

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Storuman’s case study is not specifically based on theenvironmental objectives but has been formed with theemphasis on issues felt to be of interest for the survivalof the municipality and for sustainable development.Against the background of the serious situation in whichthe municipality finds itself in common with the greaterpart of the inland areas of Norrland (the northernregions) after the exodus of significant numbers of itspopulation, the study focuses on the potential and prob-lems of sparsely populated areas. It thereby coversissues and objectives which are not illustrated in thestudies of more urban-oriented municipalities.

The objectives have gradual crystallised from locallybased work with scenarios and future images. A

Figure 14. Aerial photo of Storuman. Photo: Metria

unique feature for Storuman is the objective A mag-nificent mountain landscape. The objectives Clean air, Agood urban environment, A non-toxic environment andLimited influence on climate have also been illustratedfrom the point of view of this municipality withincreased tourism at the same time as the permanentpopulation diminishes. Objectives and key issuesconsidered just as important have included the devel-opment of small scale commerce in the form offorestry and agriculture, arts and crafts, multi-profes-sions and tourism along with development and the“export” of the municipality’s extensive assets ofrenewable energy in the form of hydro power, forestby-products and the potential for wind power.

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In this chapter, we will be examining the significance ofthe physical structure in the work towards sustainabledevelopment on the basis of some of the studies con-ducted within the framework of the SAMS project. Thisleads us to a discussion of the role of comprehensiveplanning in contributing to sustainable developmentwith the focus on the comprehensive plan as a planninginstrument. Finally, we will be discussing the role of theprocesses of comprehensive planning, change and deci-sion-making in environmental planning which havebeen attracting more and more attention.

Environmental objectivesand physical structures

In the conceptual paper (Ranhagen 1996), an attemptwas made to explain the complexity in the interactionof objectives and the means of achieving sustainabledevelopment. The significance of the density of an

urban development and its structure, the re-use ofland and buildings, the localisation of activities, theinfrastructure and the green and water structures insatisfying the overall objectives for environmental pol-icy are discussed in particular detail, see figure 15. Thefollowing objectives were illuminated: the preserva-tion of the health of the inhabitants, the preservationof biological diversity, the promotion of conservationin the use of natural resources and the protection ofnatural and cultural landscape features. The attemptto illustrate the complexity involved in the problemsarising around the issues in the paper may appear offputting but can also be seen as a challenge.

The physical structure is a necessary but insufficientbase in the work of achieving sustainability. Othermeans such as politics, economics, law, organisation,technical solutions, life patterns and social relationshipsare decisive in the potential for actually achieving theobjectives in practice. A contemporary example, at thetime of writing, of this debate concerns the issue ofwhether transport problems should be solved by build-

How can comprehensive planning contribute to sustainable development?

building area structure

green structure

land and buildings

infrastructure

businessstructure

agriculture and forestryparks and cultural environmentnatural environmentrecreational environment

workplaceshousingculturesocial serviceseducation/R & Dcommercial service

traffic and transport systemsupply system

waste recovery

Figure 15. The conceptual essay which preced-ed the SAMS project attempts to illustrate thecomplexity of the interaction between objectivesand means in planning. Here we can see themost important group of methods and toolsdealt with in comprehensive planning.

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ing new road links or with the help of economicinstruments. In an article in the national newspaperSvenska Dagbladet on 20 June 2000, four transportresearchers claim that a sound solution to transportproblems in cities is to introduce traffic jam tariffs,free cash cards and tax exchange mechanisms ratherthan building new roads. In order to get rid of trafficjams, every tenth motorists would have to choose toleave the car at home in the rush hour period and usepublic transport to get to work.

It is also important to work to improve the interactionbetween comprehensive planning and other instrumentsin order to achieve environmental objectives. This basicthesis provides the point of departure for an approach tothe physical structure in the following argument.

The link between the physical structure and sustain-ability has been pointed out by the Expert Group forUrban Environments at the European Commission inthe publication “Sustainable cities in Europe” inwhich they express the following:

“Consideration of the load bearing capacity of the envi-ronment in comprehensive planning demands that amaximum exploitation level is established for what alocal environment (town, city, region) can tolerate adinfinitum, at the same time as both the critical and con-stant natural capital as well as the capital generated bypeople in the environment is preserved.”

political

organisational

social

technical

economic

building areastructure

greenstructure

re-use ofland and buildings

infrastructure

businessstructure

spatialinstruments

legal

Figure 16. The physical-spatial tools and methods arecombined with a series of otherinstruments for the long-termimprovement of the environ-ment.

Nevertheless, sustainable urban development is notjust a question of how robustly a physical structure canbe designed. It is also a question of planning and themanagement of buildt-up areas, land and the infra-structure in a way which increases the conservation ofresources and reduces the pressure on the environ-ment. Furthermore, initiative and the processes ofchange are also involved in creating the conditions forurban life and culture which is permitted to developwithin the framework of the ecosystems’ load capacitywhen a just division of resources is observed in termsof time and space (Falkheden & Malbert 2000).

The consideration of physical structures and sustain-ability in the conceptual paper (Ranhagen 1996) hasbeen developed further with a focus on large urbanareas in the publication “Sustainable structures”(Ranhagen & Trobeck 1999), concentrating on medi-um-sized towns and small building areas in(Falkheden et al 2000) and in a summary in the the-matic report “Environment-oriented comprehensiveplanning”.

Physical-spatial structures can be perceived as support-ing structures which create the conditions, to a greateror lesser extent, for the frameworks around variousactivities and operations. To speak of structures for sus-tainable development provides a clearer indication thatthe task relates to a ramification of the change process.

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Building areas and infrastructure

Regional levelSweden, in common with many other countries inEurope and the rest of the world, is characterised by anaccelerating urbanisation mainly to the big cities butalso to university towns. At the same time, we can con-clude that the majority of Sweden’s population, around60 per cent, live in what can be described as small andmedium-sized urban areas of between 200 to 100,000inhabitants (1995). Despite the sparse distribution ofthe building area locations throughout the country,access to extended and faster communications has cre-ated an increasingly large region of everyday activitiesrelated to housing, employment and service. Theregional level has therefore gained greater significancein the discussion concerning sustainable development.

In the National Board of Housing, Building andPlanning proposal for a collective spatial developmen-tal perspective at national level known as Sweden in theyear 2009, a vision was launched at national level forbuilding patterns and the structure of building areas inSweden described as an archipelago consisting of 24relatively densely populated regional islands. Each ofthese islands had a differentiated labour market, well-equipped service centres, institutions for higher educa-tion and good communications with the outside world.

The pearl necklace network of medium-sized andsmall towns and urban areas outlined would cover 80per cent of the country’s population. It is assumed inthe study that the development potential for theselocations would be improved. It may also be positivein the perspective of sustainable development sinceenergy consumption for travel in these locations isclaimed to be 20 per cent lower than in large cities.These locations have the conditions to be able to sat-isfy requirements for a good living environment with,for example, proximity to the countryside and goodrecreational areas, lucidity etc. It is not, however,obvious that greater convenience in terms of distancesequates with better conditions for positive develop-ment in smaller and medium-sized towns. On thecontrary, the more extensive range of employmentopportunities, entertainment and culture of the largercities may result in improved communications causingthese locations to be drained at a faster rate.

There is a certain degree of disagreement amongresearchers about the way in which a centralised ver-sus a decentralised building area structure at regional

level would influence the conditions for sustainabledevelopment especially in terms of mobility and ener-gy consumption in transportation. A study of 15Swedish commuter regions (Naess et al) shows, forexample, that if we disregard the variations in housingdensity, energy consumption for transportation perperson in the most centralised region was 25 per centhigher than in the most decentralised region. Thestudy led to the conclusion that decentralised concen-tration provides the conditions for lower energy con-sumption rather than a pattern where one large citydominates. This structure implies a regional patternwith several, medium-sized, relatively self-sufficientand densely populated cities/larger towns distributedacross entire regions.

This conclusion is supported by studies of regional struc-tures in the Stockholm region where a multi-cored con-centration to the medium-sized urban areas of the regionwas shown to generate lower total transport activity thanthe more scattered or single-core structures. A westernSwedish model study in the counties of Göteborg andBohus, Halland and Älvsborg, showed that an alternativestrategy for spatial development focussing on expansionin connection with smaller and medium-sized urbanareas would result in a 12-20 per cent decrease in cartravel (Regional Community planning for anEnvironmentally Sound Transportation System, 1995).

In the regional plan for Stockholm, two structural alter-natives have been developed, C (concentrated) and P(peripheral). This can be seen as an attempt to illustratetwo principles regarding the way in which a multi-coredregion can be developed as a basis for the simulation ofenvironmental effects. Transport activity is expected toincrease for both C and P as the result of a rise in thenumber of workplaces (300,000-600,000 new inhabi-tants in the region within 30 years) and greater mobilityamong the population. The per capita emissions of car-bon dioxide from transport is estimated to increase by10-15 per cent by 2015 from around 1.3 tonnes per per-son to 1.5 tonnes per person per year.

Emissions of nitrogen oxides have been halved, how-ever, as a result of cleaner vehicles (from 26,000 tonnesper year to 13,000 tonnes per year) despite the increasein transport eroding part of the reduction. The analy-sis shows that the difference between the structurealternatives is small. The C alternative provides 3 percent less emissions than the P alternative. Even thepredicted impact of car tolls has been calculated. Cwith car tolls leads to around 10 per cent lower emis-sions than P without car tolls. There is, however, somuch uncertainty regarding the development of tech-nology in terms of the time horizon of 2030 that it hasnot been possible to present any forecasts.

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Local levelThe majority of Swedish towns are relatively smalland green with low exploitation and a calm rate ofexpansion. During the last decades the population hasbecome sparser at the same time as building areasbecome denser. The exploitation measured in termsof room units per hectare of urban land has increasedover a thirty-year period from 36 to 45 in the 51Swedish towns which have more than 20,000 inhabi-tants (Hagson 1996). This is a consequence of spacestandards having increased more dramatically (from1.7 room units to 2.03 room units/hectare) than thepopulation has decreased (from 30 people per hectareto 22 people per hectare).

Dense or sparse?

In the discussion concerning which urban and trans-port structures create the best conditions for sustain-able urban development, there is a tendency topolarise the two perspectives. At one end of the spec-trum are the views advocating a compact and densetown and at the other, those who assert that a gradualthinning-out is necessary.

The compact and dense town recommended in theEU’s Green book for an urban environment is characterisedby short walking distances, extensive bicycle and pub-lic transportation, energy-efficient buildings, low costsfor the technical infrastructure and advantages ofinstalling a combined heating and electricity grid.

Several studies show a positive connection betweenhigh housing density and low energy consumption perinhabitant. Newman & Kenworthy’s classic study(Newman & Kenworthy 1989) concludes that there isa strong link between population density and car trav-el and therefore petrol consumption. Low populationdensity would therefore lead to more car use and asmaller proportion of travel on foot, by bicycle or bypublic transport.

Another study of energy consumption for transport in 22Nordic urban areas (cities, medium-sized and smalltowns) showed that there was a statistical connectionbetween housing density (urban living space per inhab-itant) and energy consumption for transportation. In theurban areas with greatest density, the energy consump-tion per capita was around 25 per cent lower than in themore sparsely populated towns. (Falkheden & Malbert2000, according to Naess et al). Previously it wasbelieved that energy consumption per capita - regardlessof housing density - was higher in centralised regionscompared with decentralised. One conclusion of theseresults is that the tendency to an increase of energy con-sumption per capita in larger localities has to be balanced

against the decrease of energy consumption which high-er housing density in these places would generate.

The advocate to go furthest in support of a thinning-out of the population is Folke Günther (1995) whooutlined a radical model for the ruralisation of citiesand urban areas. It is a far-reaching conceptual exper-iment based on different fundamental units withbuilding areas and surrounding area of agriculturalland combined in a network structure.

One fundamental unit consists of a building area witharound 100-200 inhabitants, one or more agriculturalunits dimensioned to supply the population of thearea (area of around 40 hectares), a system for recy-cling plant nutrient substances and other material,and workplaces on a small scale.

A consistent conversion of the community towards self-sufficiency in accordance with this model would implyextensive economic and social consequences. At thesame time, the proposed building area pattern wouldbring better conditions for more resource-efficient foodproduction. This would have considerable significancefor the capacity to conserve resources since the han-dling of food products represents a large proportion ofthe energy consumption of a household. The proposalmay appear utopian but it raises many ideas and there-by contributes to the stimulation of debate about theways in which we could create a sustainable society.

Arguments in favour of a dense building structureat the local level:

• Basis for efficient systems for heating, water sup-ply and wastewater management

• Short distances between housing, workplacesand service points

• Conditions for controlled handling of environ-mentally hazardous waste

Arguments in favour of a sparse building structureat the local level:

• Green areas which “air” the urban developmen

• Conditions for green areas of such a size thatplants and animals can reproduce

• Proximity to nature in the everyday life of theinhabitants

• Space for the turnover of nutrients between soil,food and people

• Facilities for the exploitation of solar energy andbio-fuelsFrom Orrskog (1993), summarised in Ranhagen & Trobeck (1999).

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In the practical planning situation it is, as a rule,always necessary to combine and discover a soundbalance between dense and sparse. The garden citygets its special identity from the combination of thebest of the dense and sparse structures.

“The issue of concentrating or thinning-out the townscannot been solved with an either-or approach. Anenvironmental urban planning strategy has to bebased both on some thinning-out (such as in the mostunattractive densely built-up suburbs) and a certainamount of concentration in the more sparsely built-upzones in the urban areas.” (Rådberg 1995). He advo-cates “a selective concentration strategy which aimsto make sparse areas or unexploited areas denser inorder to create a basis for public transport.”

Which geographical shape is sustainable?

The shape of a city is a theme which is closely linkedwith the issue of concentration or thinning-out. In thehistory of urban planning, different structural modelsfor the development of building have been drawn up.Cities that are compact, concentric or in some otherway cohernet provide good conditions for efficientpublic transport and centralised systems for heating,water supply and wastewater management.

Linear, star-shaped and finger-shaped urban struc-tures, if sufficiently large and compact, provide a basisfor good public transport supply (compare Stockholm,Copenhagen and Curitiba) at the same time as acces-sibility is good to the urban areas and to the country-side.

Orrskog (1993) provides a simple illustration of howan environmentally sound town might be permittedto grow in four stages (see figure 17):

• The town centre would be permitted to grow tomaximum density and extent

• Further growth would be located around anouter ring beyond a green belt

• Radial growth of the public transport corridorand radial green stretches

• Adaptation to the actual conditions of the land-scape - building would be organised in demarcat-ed and surveyable units.

A town has thus been created like a tuft of seaweed inthe shape of a bicycle wheel. This is the same form aswe see in cities like Stockholm, Copenhagen,Helsingborg and others. In the Nordic region, we findourselves in a good position compared to many othercountries as far as achieving sustainable urban plan-ning is concerned. According to Orrskog, we have atradition of preserving the planned structure of a com-munity. It would seem that consideration for the envi-ronment was already partly incorporated in the plan-ning of the welfare state.

Integrated or divided into zones?

During the 1900s, there has been an increasing ten-dency to divide up and specialise the functions oftowns. Behind this development lie powerful eco-nomic forces which have been supported by a philos-

concentric <(centralised)

multi-core dispersed lineal

Town centre <allowed to grow to <maximum density <and extent.

Further growth <located around an <outer ring beyond <a green belt…<

…and along radial<routes. Growth pro-<vides a good shape<for public transport.

Templates for the<actual conditions of <the landscape - buil-<ding areas are orga-<nised in demarcated <and surveyable units.

Figure 17. An illustration of the growth of anenvironmentally sound town based on Orrskog(1993). The lower row shows how a town can becreated in the form of a clump of seaweed. It isthis form we see in Stockholm and Copenhagentoday, for example. Against this background, wecan make two observations: Firstly, that we inthe north should find ourselves in a relativelyhealthy position at the start of the epoch of sus-tainable urban development compared to othercountries. Secondly, within the planning of urbandevelopment, we have a tradition to preservesince it would seem that environmental considera-tions were already incorporated in the planningof the welfare state.

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ophy of planning with its roots in modernism/func-tionalism. Terms like suburban archipelago, subur-ban landscape, function area or simply ‘zones’describe the constituent elements of a town whichhave evolved as described by Söderlind (1998).Another indicative term for the phenomenon of frag-mented building patterns which Söderlind launchesis “distinct community”. A distinct community doesnot gather its business activities or its inhabitants tothe common project which the town represents.Different specific interests build distinct islands offunctional and social communities in a sea of no-mans-land.

During the last decade, a significant change in atti-tudes has taken place towards integrating activities inthe town instead of separating them up into zones, seeFigure 18. The social and cultural advantages of anintegrated town structure are obvious. They createliving environments which are often a natural elementin smaller and medium-sized urban areas as well as inthe historical centres of the towns. At the same time,the threat to the coherence of the town increases withthe virtually explosive expansion of external shoppingcentres and entertainment complexes. We should beaware, however, that there are activities destructive to

the environment which cannot feasibly be integratedin the town structure and that the integrated townbrings with it transport problems such as noise pollu-tion and emissions.

An integrated structure does allow for greater effi-ciency in the use of land, premises and the infra-structure in terms of conserving resources since it ispossible to make optimal use of the variousresources such as premises, parking space and mainsystems. (Ranhagen 1997). German studies showthat transportation activities per workplace are low-est when the workplace quota = 1 (in other words,the ratio between the number of workplaces and thenumber of residents working in the locality) regard-less of the size of the locality. According to thesestudies, the generation of transport per capita ishighest in the smallest localities between 2,000-10,000 inhabitants.

Even though there are many advantages to integrat-ing an increased proportion of lighter activities withhousing and services, we should of course recognisethe risks and environmental factors associated withnoisy, polluting and hazardous activities in the prox-imity of residential areas.

housing

education

workplaces

publicadministration

hypermarkets

sport andrecreationalfacilities

health andmedical care

The fragmented town The integrated town

Figure 18. Town divided in zones versus an integrated town

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Increase public transport

Helsingborg’s case study has highlighted in an inter-esting way the scope for increasing the number ofbicycle and public transport travellers by extendingthe clear finger structure with a pearl necklace of trainstations and change points proposed in theComprehensive Plan-97. The case study takes up theissues we are constantly reminded of in comprehen-sive planning and which are mentioned above: thedegree of exploitation, the shape of the town and theintegration of activities.

An important question in increasing the attraction ofpublic transport is in localising and forming thechange points to improve accessibility to and fromthem. Localisation was studied in relation to landutilisation (housing, workplaces and services) and toimportant target points such as the number ofinhabitants (day and night population) within walk-ing distance. The possibility of gathering severalfunctions close to the change points Maria Park and

Figure 19. The Helsingborg case study illustrates the potential for improv-ing public transport by developing the interaction between the buildingareas and transportation structures.

Ödåkra by increasing density around these pointswas explored. A GIS-based comparison was con-ducted of the range with the aid of isolines for dif-ferent change points.

The scope for improving accessibility within thechange points was studied by attempting to shortenthe walking distance between parking spaces and theplatforms and between the different stops within thechange point. The number of possible changes with-in the change point indicates how many differentkinds of transport coincided within them includingvarious public transport routes with varying levels offrequency.

Re-use of land and premises - a new dimensionin working for sustainable development

In Sweden the structural changes which have takenplace within industry have, as in many other industri-al countries, meant that many units have been closeddown but these changes have also resulted in theremaining and new enterprises becoming more effi-cient per surface unit.

Future extension areaswith train transport

comprehensive plan

36

When the industrial landscape in Norrköping lost itstextile industries at the end of the 1960s, there wereextensive demolition plans. But when the newsprintpaper mill moved out to Bråviken at the start of the1980s, there had already been a shift and the area isnow seen as an invaluable part of the town’s culturalheritage. The old paper mill now houses a concert halland the old textile factories now accommodate theLinköping University-Campus Norrköping, witharound 3,000 students.

Within the defence sector, we can begin to see a pic-ture of how two waves of expansion have reversedinto a phasing-out period which has not yet beencompleted. At the beginning of the century, regi-ments were established in towns with the construc-tion of monumental buildings, often prominent inthe city landscape. The military presence should bemanifest and inspire respect and express power. Theother wave of expansion culminated during the1940s and included the air force, radio and signalregiments, armoured divisions and air defence regi-ments.

Since the 1970s, we have experienced a wave of cut-backs which will have halved original property stocks.The defence decisions of 1996, for example, haveresulted in 800,000 square metres of premises beingemptied of the original activities and 9,000 hectares ofland being released for re-use. In addition to closures,a drive for greater efficien-cy has incorporated over 30barrack buildings per year.In March 2000, a decisionwas made concerning theclosure of a further 12 units.

An R&D project for theBuilding Research Council(BFR) and the SwedishFortifications Administra-tion (FORTV) in whichregimental property dis-posed of between 1970-95was surveyed, concludesthat the main part of theproperty stock with onlymarginal demolition hasbeen able to be re-used fora broad spectrum of activi-ties. There are many goodexamples within this sec-tor of the re-use of build-ings where enterpriseshave been able to makeuse of the specific advan-

Figure 20. An example of re-use - accommodation on for-mer institutional land (Maria Park, Helsingborg). Photo:Ulf Ranhagen

tages presented by different locations and types ofbuilding (Häckner & Ranhagen 1997).

Within the county council sector, changes in healthcare strategies and increased financial cut-backs haveled to both closures and the vacation of property orvacancies in key properties. This is a question ofchanges in the local property stock which is, weshould consider, perhaps 4 times greater than fordefence property, around 20 million square metres. In1996, the rate of vacancies was one million squaremetres of premises the equivalent of a 6 per cent rateof vacancy. Between 1996 and 1997 alone, every tenthhealth care bed disappeared (a total of 3,000 beds) atthe county hospitals. During the last decade, around50 care facilities have been converted to completelydifferent enterprises or are in the process of beingconverted. About the same number are at the plan-ning stage or under discussion for conversion.

This kind of change will have considerable signifi-cance for sustainable development since new buildingon virgin land can be reduced. Centrally situated areascan be made denser which can lead to a reduction oftransportation activity. Since this land is attractive for

37

housing and workplaces, there is often a financialincentive to restore contaminated land. The opportu-nities for developing parks and green spaces in areasnot previously built on within older port and industri-al areas can also be considered as a way of introducingenvironmental quality into the city.

What conclusions can we come to?

The material available in the literature reviewedshows that the issue of the link between physical-spa-tial structures and sustainable development in abroader perspective (including resource and energyconsumption) is complex and can be interpreted inmany ways. There is no unequivocal data, for exam-ple, indicating that one city structure provides signif-icantly higher or lower energy consumption thananother structure. One-sided or simple solutions forthe best type of city structure for sustainable devel-opment should therefore be rejected. The reasons forthis are:

• Lack of or uncertain awareness of optimal townstructures in a sustainability perspective.

• Lack of a holistic perspective in studies conduct-ed so far where targets for the conservation ofresources and energy are seldom related to otheraspects.

• Building patterns and town structures are slow tochange which means that it is unrealistic to pro-pose the comprehensive conversion of existingstructures.

It is difficult to come to any certain conclusions con-cerning the extent to which a structure contributesto sustainable development or not from the exami-nation of existing structures alone. Improvedexpertise may be gained in the future through sim-ulations of environmental effects of future struc-tures. Since comprehensive planning is conductedin a long-term perspective, it is doubtful, however,whether forecasts and trend predictions can betrusted to any great extent. This situation has ledthose working on the case studies to try usingvisions and scenarios for the achievement of a sus-tainable society. These provide a point of departurefor consideration of the consequences implied indifferent structures. In addition to the NationalBoard for Housing, Building and Planning’s Vision2009, which has already been referred to, the EPA’sstudy of the future known as Sweden in the year2021 has been useful in the municipal case studies.See the next chapter.

Green structuresThe multifunctional importance of green structuresfrom the perspective of sustainable development -often summarised in the ecological, social and cultur-al functions - has been increasingly observed. In aEuropean perspective, the Swedish medium-sizedand small towns are green and sparsely developed.The green structures incorporate not only the cohe-sive landscape of the countryside and cultural tradi-tions in the transition between the city and the coun-tryside or in the form of green and blue wedgesbetween the town’s fingers of buildings in towards thecity centre. Characteristic of many Swedish towns isthe green web of large and smaller parks and naturalareas which surround houses and blocks of flats.

During the past decade the proportion of unexploitedland has decreased in Swedish towns and urban areas,partly through towns becoming denser and throughchanges in the use of the land. Accessibility has alsodecreased to the linked chain of green areas both inSweden and in Norway (Halvorsen-Thorén & Nyhus,The Parks and Open Spaces of the City 1994). The extensiveinfrastructure projects of the past decade have con-tributed to fragmenting the green structures. This hashad particularly far-reaching consequences in the beltssurrounding larger cities where well-needed recreationland has been built on. On the other hand, the construc-tion of tunnels and the roofing over of large roads haveled to strips of green passing over the transport routes.

It has long been known that our surroundings affect ourhealth and sense of well-being. We now have sufficientirrefutable scientific evidence to be able to set up cri-teria for the localisation and dimensions of green areasand open spaces in comprehensive planning. ProfessorRoger Ullrich at Texas A&M University has developedresearch results illustrating that patients who see thecountryside through hospital windows recover fasterthan those who look out over walls and asphalt.

During a concentration test on older people, the testgroup were shown to have significantly better testresults after having spent an hour in the park thanafter having spent an hour indoors in their favouriteroom (Ottosson & Grahn 1998).

In the same way, it has been shown that children at out-door pre-schools in countryside surroundings have bet-ter concentration, better motor skills and less absencedue to illness than children who spend time outdoors inplaygrounds with swings and slides etc, lawns, rows ofbushes and cement block paths(Grahn et al 1997).

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Surroundings affect health

This type of research evidence has had great signif-icance for Burlöv’s case study, for instance, wherecooperation was set up with the researchers atAlnarp who are behind many of the studies.Indicators have been prioritised with considerablesignificance for improving the opportunities for dif-ferent groups of the population to reach green areaseasily from their homes, workplaces and services,for example:

• the accessibility of green and blue spaces:access to common land, walking distance togreen areas, the fragmentation of greenspaces

• access to calm and pleasant places

• the barrier effect: roads, railways, agriculturalland and industrial areas.

In the planning material for the Regional Plan 2000 inStockholm, it is claimed that the urban building in theregion exerts increased pressure on our land reserves.Exploitation for building purposes and the expansionof the technical infrastructure eats away at green areasconstantly and reduces their value and function. Each

Figure 21. Burlöv’s Kyrkby. Photo: Ulf Ranhagen

individual exploitation project is often full of promisebut the combination of all the measures producesnegative consequences which are difficult to foreseewhen assessing each case. The impact of extensive,general projects in the region can also be difficult tosupervise for each municipality.

Despite increased environmental awareness, greenstructures do not have such high status as other sectorinterests. It is not such an established planning issueand the distribution of responsibility is unclear. Thereis a lack of equally weighted planning betweenpreservation and exploitation interests.

Active planning of green structures is necessary inorder to create good living environments and tosecure the attractiveness of the region. We needgreater awareness of the recreational values whichexist and their significance for the region. The natureconservation value of the area is relatively well man-aged as we can see from the report Green Structures inthe Stockholm Region. The cultural and, most impor-tantly, the social value of the region are, on the otherhand, less well documented.

Source: The Swedish Office of Regional Planning and Urban

Transportation memo 3:2000. Green Structures - Planning Blueprint for

the Regional Plan 2000.

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The blue structureAccess to clean fresh water will become one of thecentral issues of the 21st century. The conservation ofwater resources linked to towns, industries and hous-ing will present a considerable challenge to sustain-able development. Access to drinking water is crucialfor economic development and the supply of safefood products. Many Swedish towns lack a sustain-able water supply. One reason is that they are notalways situated close to good water resources. Thewater available which is appropriate for use as drink-ing water is rather unequally distributed throughoutSweden.

The potential for maintaining a good long-term sup-ply of water is complicated by:

• the shortage of ridged areas suitable for waterpurification of surface water

• municipalities having used up the valley glaciallayers through exploitation or water source activi-ties close to urban areas

Figure 22. The Järva wedge at Kymlinge with the underground train bridge. Photo: Ulf Ranhagen

• towns, in some cases, having exceeded thecapacity of existing water resources at the rate atwhich they have expanded after which they havebeen compelled to use inferior raw water tocover their drinking water supply.

One of the social problems that may become criticalduring the new century is if many municipalities haveto use the material and water assets of other munici-palities to maintain their own supplies. What happensif the municipality that owns the resources refuses toshare them? Is it always a matter of course that asmaller municipality should have to submit to anoth-er with a larger population and stronger financial base?This places demands on good regional planning andthe careful consideration of inter-municipal supplyresponsibilities in comprehensive planning.

Within the in-depth study SAMS on water - compre-hensive planning for long-term sustainable water sup-ply - these problems are considered along with thepotential for managing the drinking water resources ofthe district with greater foresight.

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The problematic water supply situation of south eastern Sweden

A shortage of suitable drinking water in this part ofSweden has caused municipalities to cooperate inorder to solve their drinking water requirements.Examples of water supply conflicts discussedinclude:

• Högsby municipality’s attempts to prioritise thenatural values of Lake Allgunnen over the possi-bility of the lake becoming a source of watersupply for the region.

• Sölveborg’s attempt to solve the problem of anegative water balance and salt water invasion bywater rights suits and quotas on agriculturalwater requirements.

• Lessebo municipality’s problematic water supplysituation.

The county administrative board of Kalmar Countyhas taken measures against the continued use of grav-el and is very restrictive in granting new water sourcepermits due to the ground water situation in thecounty.

Interaction between town and country Sustainable development requires that the mainte-nance of society is based on renewable resources andthat flows of water, energy and material are adapted tothe eco-cycle. Almost ten energy units of fossil fuelsare used in all phases of food production to provideone energy unit on the plate. The energy input for theentire food production process in Sweden can be esti-mated at around 60 TWh per year. Around 50 per centof a normal household’s energy consumption is usedon food (transportation, trade, conservation and pack-aging) while 30 per cent is used for transport (mainlyby car) and 20 per cent for heating.

This example indicates the need for planning to cre-ate a better interaction between urban areas and thesurrounding countryside at various geographic lev-els. Meanwhile, development moves towards a morediffuse transition between town and countryside. Awell-developed functional integration is exchanged,according to Falkheden, for an increasingly func-tional disintegration with blurred spatial distinc-tions. An R&D project in cooperation betweenMovium and Ystad, Tidaholm and Upplands-Brolike the case studies for Trollhättan, Burlöv and

Storuman, illustrates the significance of cultivatedland and open countryside close to urban areas as apotential for:

• A locally based supply of base food products

• The collection and re-use of nutrients in thewaste products from the town

• Production of different kinds of bio-crops andother renewable energy production

• Recreation areas

Figure 23. Access to drinking water - a question of survivalthat needs to be addressed in comprehensive planning. Photo:Karin Slättberg

Pedagogical visualisation

The ecological footprint concept, EF, can be used as apedagogical visualisation of how much land a townwould require for the needs of its inhabitants, seeFigure 24. EF can illustrate whether we are livingbeyond the geographical municipality’s land assetsand, if such is the case, how dependent we are on landoutside the municipal borders. Within Sweden, loadcapacity between municipalities varies. In principle,we can say that the northern part of Sweden “exportsload capacity” to the urban areas in the more denselypopulated parts of Sweden. The rural municipality ofStoruman has a “net export surplus” of 4.6 hectaresper person in energy flow and land. Meanwhile, themunicipality of Burlöv, situated close to a large town,has to import the equivalent of 7 hectares per personin energy flow and land (note that energy for trans-portation has not been included). Trollhättan’s use ofEF showed that the municipality requires 25 per centmore land than it has in a theoretical assumption thatthe whole energy supply would be based on energycrops. See also “Ecological footprints” used as a work-ing method in the “Catalogue of ideas”.

Figure 24. The ecological footprint is an instructional methodof presenting the area of productive land we require for oursupplies of energy, foodstuffs and other resources. The expand-ing foot in the diagram illustrates that the ecological footprint,calculated on the rich population of the world, increased 4times during the 20th century, from 1 hectare per capita toaround 4 hectares per capita. During the same period of time,the land area available in the world for organic productionfell by a quarter of what it was at the start of the last century,from around 6 hectares per capita to around 1.5 hectares percapita. The available area of land is calculated here on the

basis of the global population. So, to sum up: the wealthy pro-portion of the world’s inhabitants consume about three timesthe land area per capita than is available for the total global population calculated per capita.

Source: Wackernagel & Rees(1996)

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1900 1950 1995

Multi-functional energy cultivation

The environmental pressure exerted by agriculturein the form of greenhouse gas emissions, nutrientleakage and erosion can be reduced when energycrops usable over several years replace single-yearfood crops produced with current conventionalmethods of cultivation. Energy crops affect biologi-cal diversity and may be an alternative against land becoming overgrown when farms are closeddown.

The cultivation of energy forest (Salix) and energygrass can be exploited for the purification of waste-water, surface water, desalted water and sewagesludge. In a sustainable society, it will be important tocoordinate several functions and make use of synergyeffects and systematic thinking in multifunctionalsolutions, see Figure 25. In the future, it will there-fore be necessary for municipalities to plan for eco-cycle solutions and general system solutions forwaste, energy and the water and waste supply as wellas for the purification of various types of waste fromwater used in agriculture and forestry, for instance

Moreover, energy forest can be used as protectiveplanting against disturbing operations such as indus-tries, roads etc. to obstruct snow drifts along exposedroads and for cleaning land from moderately diffuseemissions. Energy cultivation can also be used toclean up contaminated land. With selected clones ofSalix, the cadmium content in arable land can bereduced. Trials are also underway to reduce the con-tent of nitrate in groundwater through the wateringand absorption process when cultivating Salix.

Bio-fuels can affect the appearance of the landscapeboth positively and negatively. Low growing energygrass could be chosen where an open landscapeshould be preserved since this would not change thelandscape as much as Salix. However, energy grassgenerates about half the energy exchange comparedwith Salix.

The greatest restriction for bio-energy, as we men-tioned above, is the availability of land. The conver-sion of solar power into usable energy is very low forbio-energy, less than 1 per cent which leads to consid-erable land requirements.

The potential for bio-energy from bio-pulp primarilycultivated for energy purposes, is dictated by landaccessibility and productivity. Estimates of both thesefactors in the future are very difficult on a global level.For example, the availability of land is dependent onthe degree to which we succeed in regenerating dam-aged and exhausted land, known as degraded land, to

samhället

erosion and nutrient leakage

surface water andgroundwaterarable land

multi-functional energy cultivationfood

waste water and sludge

biomass

carbon dioxide and ash

clean water

energy thermalpower plant

Figure 25. An example of how the multifunctional cultivationof energy crops can be beneficial for the environment.

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production and how the demand for food productsdevelops in the future. Productivity depends, amongother things, on progress made in the work of refiningplants and the extent to which land is degraded so thatproduction falls.

The utilisation of bio-fuels instead of fossil fuels isprimarily motivated, with regard to the environment,by advantages in the context of the consumption ofenergy. Reduced net emissions of, for example, car-bon dioxide, have been evaluated in Sweden in termsof carbon dioxide tax on fossil fuels for instance. Inaddition to the use of bio-fuels bringing environmen-tal advantages, the production of bio-fuels also gener-ates environmental gains. Environmentally sound cul-tivation of perennial energy crops (such as energy for-est and energy grass) based on optimal design, locali-sation and care would mean that the pressure exertedon the environment by agriculture, for instance, in theform of the leakage of nutrients, erosion and green-house gases could be reduced (see Figure 25). Energyforest can also be used to reduce the content of heavymetals in arable land. Furthermore, the cultivation ofenergy crops can reduce society’s negative impact onthe environment. The cultivation of energy crops canbe used, for example, in the purification of waste anddesalted water along with the treatment of wasteproducts such as sludge.

Source: Bio-fuels and the eco-cycle city/countryside - a shared view. In-

depth study for SAMS.

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What role can comprehensive planning play in mak-ing use of the opportunities for achieving environ-mental objectives in the development of the physicalstructure? If we depart from R&D in this field, wehave concluded above that there is currently consid-erable uncertainty regarding the significance of thephysical structure as a means for achieving environ-mental objectives.

Despite this, the practical developmental work in thecase studies shows that there is great potential whentaking an active and in-depth approach to explainingthe capacity for the physical structure in achieving sus-tainable development (compare the Helsingborg - CPactive). Of course, we should always work to try toachieve the best possible interaction between spatialand other means in planning.

There is strong political support for the use of com-prehensive planning as an integrated element in a col-lective environmental policy. Through amendmentsin the Planning and Building Acts (The SwedishPlanning and Building Act 1996 and 1998), demandsfor environmental consideration in comprehensiveplanning were increased. Planning, it is emphasised,should promote appropriate physical structures:Chapter 2, Section 1 states:

“The comprehensive planning should, through con-sideration of natural and cultural values, promoteappropriate structures for buildings, green areas, com-munications and other facilities. This includes a goodliving environment in general from a social point ofview as well as the promotion of good long-term con-servation of land and water, energy and raw materials.The conditions in neighbouring municipalities shouldbe taken into consideration.”

There is also a legislative requirement for a compre-hensive impact assessment of the comprehensive planfrom an environmental viewpoint:

‘The implications of the comprehensive plan and itsconsequences should be easily comprehensible’ (TheSwedish Planning and Building Act, Chapter 4Section 1).

One likely effect of these type of changes in the plan-ning and building legislation can be seen in environ-mental issues having the most pronounced impact inthe reports of comprehensive planning during the latter

part of the 1990s. A questionnaire survey of the SwedishAssociation of Local Authorities in 1998 showed thattwo thirds of municipalities had specific accounts of theimpact from an environmental viewpoint while onethird also reported on economic and social aspects inmore detail. In a comprehensive impact assessment inthe CP, the conflicts between these aspects can be moreclearly highlighted. A reduction of travelling to min-imise emissions may mean, for example, that employ-ment and education are also restricted.

In recent years, the function of the comprehensive planin preventative environmental work has been enhancedand its primary task has been to contribute to ensuringthat changes promote a good living environment. Sincecomprehensive planning provides guidelines and is notbinding, its ambitions, recommendations and proposalscan be realised with the help of other instruments, suchas area decisions and detailed development planning.Other instruments can be found in the EnvironmentalCode, Forest Conservation Act and the Highways Act.

The comprehensive plan, in interpreting what consti-tutes good use of land and water, provides the munic-ipality with an important function in the decision-making process: the coordination of a large number ofdecision-makers outside the municipality. The com-prehensive plan should be used to provide the back-ground material on which a decision is made by all par-ties applying Chapters 3 and 4 of the EnvironmentalCode. These regulations cannot be applied withoutthe support of the interpretation and more tangiblepresentation contained in the comprehensive plan(Comprehensive Planning Book Part 1, NBHBP).

The scope of the comprehensive plan

In the SAMS project’s thematic study Environment-oriented comprehensive planning, emphasis is placed onthe freedom each municipality has to decide how theoptions presented in the comprehensive plan shouldbe used. In the same way, each individual can decidehow active s/he wishes to be regarding her/his or thenext generation’s future living environment.

In general, planning has considerable scope in envi-ronmental work, not least on the basis of municipalcomprehensive planning:

The role of comprehensive planning in achieving environmental objectives

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• The comprehensive plan is developed on acontinual basis during democratic process-es which are transboundary. A better localforum for collective discussion about the futureand about the implications of sustainable devel-opment than that offered by the planning sys-tem has never been compulsorily regulatedwithin any other social field. The process iden-tifies conflicts and can stimulate a shared view.Work incorporating every sector and level is abasic requirement for providing environmentalissues with a broad presentation in the planningprocess and for creating understanding of thelink between the environment and physicalstructures.

• The comprehensive plan evolves in the local surroundings where people spend most of their time. The public, businesses,interest groups and others are given the chanceto conduct a direct dialogue with experts anddecision-makers about how physical structures,which form the outer framework of our surround-ings, should be planned in the long term. In thisdialogue, mutual awareness and insight into localenvironmental problems can evolve. Eachmunicipality has its own specific conditions. Inorder to stimulate a discussion early on in theprocess about environmental issues in compre-hensive planning, it might be constructive tobegin the planning work with an open dialoguefree from preconceptions which could lead to avision or different scenarios. Awareness of futureissues and environmental issues in a local,regional and national perspective is generallyenhanced among those who take part in compre-hensive planning.

• Environmental and risk factors which themunicipality considers significant in deci-sions regarding the use of land and waterresources should be presented in the comprehensive plan. Important environmentalissues can be highlighted in a general discussionand their link to physical structures can be tested. A specific municipal environmental evaluation of the area (including, for example,polluted areas, areas of considerable biologicaldiversity, important green areas/stretches andtransport junctions) could contribute to makingclear which physical structures could supportecologically sustainable development.

• The contents of the comprehensive plan andits impact should be easy to discern. Theplan should offer scope for both predicting andfollowing up the development of events. A clearplan and an informative process in several stageswould be both instructive and inspiring. Itbecomes easier to understand that even smallsteps have to be taken in the right direction.

• The Committee for EnvironmentalObjectives proposes (SOU 2000:52) regionalenvironmental evaluations reports for use insupporting municipalities. The County Boardsshould be responsible for these evaluationreports. They should include regional environ-mental targets, strategies and programmes ofmeasures to be taken for achieving the nationalenvironmental quality objectives and stipulatepoints of departure for a collected programme forhandling environmental and resource conserva-tion issues in regional and local planning.

• Swedish environmental legislation has large-ly been collected within the EnvironmentalCode which includes regulations for envi-ronmental licensing. The Environmental Codewhich includes regulations for conservation ofland and water areas and natural resourcesshould be applied in comprehensive planning.

The Environmental Code is based on a project approachin certain respects. The project and activities which areexamined from an environmental point of view cannotalways be analysed in detail and without preconceptionsin a broader social developmental perspective. In com-prehensive planning, on the other hand, the develop-ments are forged by the social structure as a whole inprocesses which require initiative, involvement and abase in the domain of the local community. The signifi-cance of comprehensive planning in environmentalwork was therefore strongly emphasised in the prepara-tory work to the Environmental Code. The Code shouldideally handle projects within the boundaries drawn upin active comprehensive planning. Environmental legis-lation and planning legislation promote, when appliedtogether, the best holistic result in planning.

All in all, comprehensive planning can engage andinspire many people and interests. To construct com-mon frames of reference, describe problems, conflictsand opportunities and to formulate objectives increasethe degree of preparation for forthcoming changes.

Source: Environment-oriented comprehensive planning.

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It would seem that interest in the potential provided bycomprehensive planning is enjoying something of a ren-aissance among municipalities. In the spring of 2000,over half the municipalities in the country were workingon their second or third municipal comprehensive plan.While the first generation plans could be generally char-acterised as “inventory plans”, the current plans andplanning forms have progresses with extended breadthand wealth of variation.

Comprehensive planning has changed direction fromland and water planning to developmental planning.The focus has shifted from physical planning to spatial

planning to a significant extent. Increased integrationof several different issues in the planning along withcooperation across administrative and geographicalboundaries are key concepts for the future accordingto the Swedish Association of Local Authorities (1999).

Inter-municipal cooperation in planning work is alsobecoming more common, increasing considerably inthe 1990s. In the autumn of 1998, over 80 per cent ofthe municipalities in the country were cooperating ona regional basis, a figure which is constantly on theincrease (Swedish Association of Local Authorities1999.).

Figure 26. Comprehensive planning provides an overview and illustrates the physical structure’spotential for contributing to sustainable development. Photo: Staffan Arvegårdh

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A joint comprehensive plan

Falun and Borlänge municipalities have been cooper-ating for some time regarding comprehensive plan-ning and environmental issues. The municipalitieshave devised a joint comprehensive plan for the areabetween Falun and Borlänge. This work is conduct-ed at a joint comprehensive planning office (see theNational Board of Housing, Building and Planning CDrom “Influence the future of your municipality” 1999)The SAMS case study work has contributed to bring-ing comprehensive planning and environmentalplanning increasingly closer. The experiences gainedin the joint work on agricultural and forest land willbe used in forthcoming comprehensive planning andwork with an environmental programme and environ-mental annual report. An initial step in seeing howthis has been achieved can be made in the joint in-depth work on the comprehensive plan conducted bythe municipalities of Vassbo and Fågelmyra whichhave been the subject of consultations during thewinter of 1999/2000.

With the incentive resulting from having generalresponsibility for the environment, the case studyfocuses primarily on how municipal territory shouldbe managed in such a way as to promote sustainabledevelopment. The case study illustrates in an inter-esting way how this perspective on planning can beintensified to the same degree as an approach whereplanning is associated with the extension of the builtenvironment: the comprehensive plan takes on thenature of a “survival plan” rather than an “extensionplan”. The case study presents this idea as follows:‘Comprehensive planning up to now has largely beenin preparation for exploitation and has therefore con-centrated on the localisation of various kinds ofbuildings and facilities. In the future, the focusshould increasingly be placed on the managementand development of the resources that already exist,both natural resources and the built-up environment.In this perspective, the municipalities need betterexpertise and should take a more active role withregard to the economic resources in terms of area cov-ered. The comprehensive plan is an instrument forthe expression of the will of the municipalities inthese issues.’

The importance of planning and decision-making processes in

integrating environmental objectives into comprehensive planning

More than a well-presented plan document is neededfor comprehensive planning to be able to function as aforceful instrument for integrating environmentalobjectives. As implied above, probably the most impor-tant factor is to achieve a planning process based onopenness and cooperation between different partiesunder the direction of the municipalities. In this way,planning would create a forum for the exchange ofviews with the aim of bringing together the expertiseof professional, the involvement and local knowledgeof the public and the ambitions of politicians. In thecollation of examples from the National Board ofHousing, Building and Planning, “Comprehensive plan-ning for sustainable development” the planning process-es placing environmental issues at the centre are pre-sented. The later stages of the comprehensive plan-ning process is conducted in consultation and presen-tation as regulated in the Swedish Planning andBuilding Act.

However, the case studies in the SAMS project aremainly concerned with the earlier stages of theprocess before the formal consultation proposals ofthe plan are presented. These concern the formula-tion of the background material for planning, maingoals are formulated and developed and alternativesare analysed. The forms for this work are not regulat-ed in legislation. Our case studies indicate the scopefor creating new and informal ways of injecting abroad spectrum of views on the environment andother issues.

Municipal environmental work during recent year hasmainly been conducted with Agenda 21 as a point ofdeparture. The National Board of Housing, Buildingand Planning and the Swedish Association of LocalAuthorities sent out a brief questionnaire to municipal-ities in March 2000 with questions concerning the inte-gration of Agenda 21 in municipal comprehensive plan-ning along with questions about other links betweenenvironmental work of different kinds and comprehen-sive planning. 86 per cent of the municipalities thatresponded (67 per cent of the total) replied that workwith Agenda 21 is integrated or will be integrated incomprehensive planning. This indicates a significantincrease in relation to previous surveys.

In half of the municipalities, there was a link betweencomprehensive planning and environmental preserva-tion programmes or environmental policies. We canalso note that one third of the municipalities state that

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there is a link between local investment programmesand the comprehensive plan. The survey mentionedabove does not provide a picture of the depth orbreadth of this integration. Even though there may bemany positive signs that increased cooperationbetween planners, for example, and environmental-ists has taken place it is important to be aware of theobstacles and pitfalls that may exist in developing in-depth co-operation.

One obstacle might be, for example, the varying cul-tures of the different professions and administrativeprocesses within environmental work and planning.That such differences exist has been confirmed inempirical studies by Lars Emmelin (2000). In ratherpolarised terms, he contrasts a centralised expertiseculture within environmental preservation against adecentralised planning philosophy and ideology.Within the environmental preservation support atlocal level is not particularly good according toEmmelin. (We should add here that the Agenda 21group has a strong local base which contradictsEmmelin who refers to an attitude which may exist atcentral level). Behind these two standpoints, accord-ing to Emmelin, lie two fundamentally different per-spectives on environmental problems:

• the natural science “realistic’ approach - environmental problems are seen as naturalproblems”

• the “social constructivist” approach - environ-mental problems are seen as a “social contract”.

The difference between the two cultures can also bedescribed in terms of environmentalists representingthe guardians of irreplaceable values in a local per-spective along with the aim of environmental preser-vation in the long term. Planners are often seen - at

least in growth regions - as the long arm of exploita-tion who try to find short-term solutions to acute andburning urban construction issues. In concrete terms,the tension between the two perspectives could be anopposition between a hierarchical perspective of envi-ronmental objectives and in the local base of planninglegislation from a municipal planning monopoly. Bothperspectives are legitimate - since they both exist inlegislation and organisation, see figure 27.

The research project Municipalities and territory(Asplund et al, 1997) also concludes that different pro-fessions and administrations with responsibility forenvironmental issues represent deeply diverse cul-tures in many respects: comprehensive planning withits links with the social sciences and to urban buildingand architecture, while environmental protectionbelongs to the category of the natural sciences andtechnical management and is based on the technolog-ical sciences. The method of approach developed inAgenda 21 has associations with the humanities andbehavioural sciences. These different fields of com-petence cannot be co-ordinated simply.

A further dimension in the process touches on thescope for strengthening the influence of the generalpublic in planning. One condition for a sound every-day life is our ability to be more involved in the deci-sion-making which concern our own local community.The opportunity to influence local conditions is cru-cial for a sense of community and social unity. Bothpoliticians and the general public can be seen as lay-men compared with the experts. The big differencein the role of layman between politicians and the indi-vidual is that politics is expected to represent an ide-ologically based vision of society. The politician alsohas quite another position in terms of power than theman in the street.

environmental paradigm

planning paradigm

dialogue withHexperts

central control

dialogue with Hpoliticians andHcitizens

decentralisation

H

Figure 27. An area of tension exists in planningbetween central and local levels and also betweenexperts and politicians/the general public. Figuretaken from Emmelin (1997).

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It is no easy task, however, to make greater involve-ment a reality for the public in comprehensive plan-ning. This is the conclusion that can be drawn after theevaluation of the Southern counties project conducted bythe National Board of Building, Housing and Planningin conjunction with the College of Higher Education inKarlskrona/Ronneby and the University in Växjö (WhoDecides, 1998). There is often considerable interest inadvance from planners and the public but the involve-ment of the public has been seen as the constant frag-ile factor throughout the project. The conclusions ofthe project can be summarised as follows:

• Political will and a municipality policy decisionare needed!

• The municipal planners have a key role to playas initiative takers and process leaders!

• It is imperative to establish precise rules of thegame - provide a clear framework!

• A strategy is needed to establish a local base andrule of law!

• Participation is a basic premise for comprehensiveplanning according to the Swedish Planning andBuilding Act. Make use of this process to promotemore firmly rooted democracy!

Cooperation in planning for a better environment - from three SAMS case studies

The municipality of Burlöv involved 15 members ofthe public interested in the environment and plan-ning in round table discussions to identify importantenvironmental targets, to create positive futureimages and to develop concrete measures and pro-posals. During the period from August 1998 toJanuary 2000, nine meetings were held but the par-ticipants also had work to do between meetings byreading up on the issues that arose at the meetings.As part of the process, a larger meeting was held withabout 100 people living in the municipality whereenvironmental questions were discussed on a broadbase. The basis for the work was the PICABUEmethod which focuses on the use of environmentalindicators. Other tools used in the dialogue with thepublic included mental mapping and GIS, see A cat-alogue of ideas. In addition, a larger public meetingwas held to broaden the discussion further. An evalu-ation of the process showed both positive and nega-tive responses, here is a selection:

+ ‘Involvement and a will to create a wider contextamong the people who took part’.

+ ‘Better understanding for the link of environmen-tal issues with comprehensive planning’.

+ ‘Mental mapping provided me with a new conceptof the municipality’.

- “In grass-root level cooperation it is importantto use a non-technical language”

- “Shortage of time at the meeting for penetratingand discussing the different issues properly.”

- “Will this become yet another dust collector?”

This experience will be integrated and developedfurther within the framework for the work for Agenda21 and in the production of the EnvironmentalProgramme 2000. It will also be used as a basis forincreased depth in the comprehensive plan for boththe urban areas of Arlöv and Åkarp along with the areadecisions for Burlöv’s Kyrkby. Perhaps most impor-tant of all is the contact network which evolved dur-ing the process. The municipality administrators andpoliticians can, for example, call on the group forinformal consultations.

Figure 28. Photo from the Picabue group’s work with visionsfor Burlöv. Photo: Ulf Ranhagen.

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The municipality of Trollhättan also tested the workof breaking down and adapting the environmentalobjectives to local conditions through round table dis-cussions. The PICABUE method was considered butrejected since it proved to be difficult to discuss indi-cators without first formulating the adaptation ofobjectives and targets. At the first meetings, generaland detailed objectives were discussed. The materialfrom these larger meetings was collated with the reac-tions of the contact people and the proposals for tar-gets presented by the National Board for Building,Housing and Planning.

Subsequent round table discussions were then organ-ised in smaller groups of around 5-8 participants. Theenvironmental objective was divided up into seven tar-gets which were all discussed in a smaller group. Newviews were presented on the content of the environ-mental objectives along with suggestions for the formu-lation of local objectives and drafts for indicators for fol-lowing up the objectives.

The round table discussions were very fruitfulthanks to the fact that the different interested par-ties were given the opportunity to express them-selves in an open but focussed forum. It is importantthat the participants are engaged in the issues, thatthey have some knowledge of the field discussed

and that they are good at presenting theirviews. It is also important that the partici-pants discuss and base their views onissues at local level so that what is pre-sented is generally relevant rather thantoo individual.

Nevertheless, there were both advantagesand disadvantages to the discussions in both the larger and smaller groups, seefigure 30.

The case study produced in Storuman illustrates yetanother way of involving the general public in anactive dialogue around environmental objectivesand comprehensive planning. Here the municipali-ty chose to use the outlined working procedure pre-sented by SAMS as a point of departure and supportin their work. Another important base was the studyfrom the Swedish EPA Sweden in the year 2021 andthe future images outlined there, Trailblazer andPathfinder. A seminar group was formed with broadrepresentation from municipal commerce, societiesand associations and other community groups. Theparticipants also represented the various geographi-cal parts of the municipality with two points ofemphasis: the mountain region around Tärnaby andHemavan, and the urban area of Storuman. Threeextensive two-day seminars were held for the wholemunicipality with between 15 and 25 participants(in March, June and December 1999). A broad dis-cussion was conducted at these seminars concerningthe conditions, key issues, objectives and indicators,future images and impact assessments. A number ofsmaller seminars were held between the larger onesto go into more detail concerning the eastern andalso the western parts of the extensive municipalarea. There was also cooperation between the semi-nar groups and the Mountain Agenda project whichhas been conducted by the municipality at the sametime.

working withthe environ-mental objectives

sectoral plans

comprehensive plans

development strategy for Trollhättan

environmental management systems

time axis

Larger groups 15–30 people

Strategically important issues can be discerned at anearly stage – more people gain an overview of thescope of the issue and the connection between the main objectives and the subsidiary targets.

Difficult to work in concrete terms – discussions held on a general level.

Benefits

Drawbacks

Smaller groups 5–8 people

More concrete discussions focusing on a delimitedsubject area. Greater local support.

Risk of participants missing the big picture. Heavyload on project leaders who have to coordinate thework of several groups.

Figure 30. Advantages and disadvantages of conducting round tablediscussions in groups of various sizes (the Trollhättan case study).

Figure 29. Work on environmental objectives permeatesmany kinds of planning activities in Trollhättan.

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This work engaged a core group which took part in allthe seminars and which was responsible for continuity.This group comments that it was unclear from the starthow all the stages could be got through in the work planproposed. By the end of the process, the group had abetter understanding of how all the parts were linkedand felt that they had gained a deeper insight into howenvironmental issues might be given a less ambiguousrole in forthcoming comprehensive planning and localdevelopmental work.

Figure 31. Photo collage from the work at the majorseminars in Storuman. Photo: Ulf Ranhagen

The questions posed around environmental objectivesand indicators were felt by the majority to be difficultand theoretical. Those members of the seminar groupthat did not have the opportunity to take part in all theseminars felt that it was difficult to follow the wholeprocess. The seminars were organised too infrequently(every 3-6 months). This meant that the participantsfound it difficult in some cases to maintain the involve-ment inspired initially. Experience of cooperationbetween Luleå University of Technology and the inclu-

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sion of students in one of the larger seminars were seenas valuable additions. This brought some external per-spective to the work along with new values from theyoung people.

Comprehensive planning and environmental dialogue in the SAMS case studies - what factors divide and unite?

Common factors in the comprehensive planning andenvironmental dialogues described above include:

• Broad involvement of many parties - planners,environmentalists, representatives of commerce,Agenda 21 groups and others.

• Work in an interaction between a larger unifiedgroup along with smaller working groups whichhave familiarised themselves with the issuesconcerned.

• Work in informal dialogue form in an initialphase of the comprehensive planning work.

• Testing and further development of methods ina way previously partly untested.

A few lines of distinction:

• The three processes have taken different direc-tions:

– The development of plan and field indica-tors on the basis of the main objective A good living environment (Burlöv).

– To break down and adapt national environ-mental objectives to local conditions(Trollhättan).

– To develop future images on the basis ofenvironmental objectives but also consider-ing economic and social objectives(Storuman).

• The three processes have tackled methodologyissues in different ways:

– Primarily to implement a method with anumber of precise working stages whichhave previously been developed at universi-ty level in practical applications (Burlöv).

– To attempt to apply the working proceduretaken from the SAMS project and to com-bine it with several methods and tools(Storuman).

– To develop a local working model(Trollhättan).

Other examples of planning and envi-ronmental dialogues at an early stageof the comprehensive planningprocess

The sub-report Comprehensive Planning for SustainableDevelopment presents an account of other interestingexamples of comprehensive planning processes whereextensive involvement of the general public has beenattempted.

Sala Municipality: The plan for Sala local eco-author-ity, Sala Agenda 21 and the comprehensive plan 2000are formulated as an instructive process. The munici-pality has invested in a broad course of instructionconcerning the environment and has worked on sev-eral fora to enable as many of the public as possible totake part. The consultation process has been devel-oped in the project “Our bit of earth” where severalfora have been created: vision workshops, study cir-cles, future fora, networks, working groups and anecocycle festival.

Municipality of Karlstad: The comprehensive plan-ning work was initiated in 1995 with a broad offensiveon vision aiming to build awareness of eco-cyclethinking and sustainable development in associationwith international competitive force, shifts in values,the moderate city and a good living environment. Thevision discussions about Karlstad in the future wereconducted in the form of seminars with politiciansand public servants from the various municipal divi-sions. A number of activities were organised as a basisfor the seminars; series of lectures for the public, anessay competition about the Karlstad of the future forthe upper secondary students in the municipality, andquestionnaires to households and local businesses.

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Part 2Methods and toolsfor comprehensive planning with

the environment at the centre

There are many methods, tools or prototypes for toolsthat should be able to contribute to dealing more effi-ciently with environmental objectives in comprehen-sive planning. “Planning with environmental objec-tives! A guide” is therefore very much about sum-marising the experiences of applying different instru-ments in the practical work conducted by municipali-ties and regions and to draw conclusions for futureuse.

Why use methods and tools?

Our aim is to provide a soundoverview of methods and tools whichwill then enable those involved inlocal planning and environmentalwork to find the right mix of equip-ment. There are no tools that can beused mechanically since local adapta-tion is always necessary. We also feelthat it is important to bring togetherdifferent methods and tools in a tool-box and to attempt to clarify the mostimportant areas of use. See A cata-logue of ideas.

Point of departure for developing methods

The point of departure for develop-ing methods comprises the limita-tions, definitions and discussionsconcerning sustainable developmentand environmental objectives out-lined in previous chapters, in addi-tion to the complex issue of theinteraction between environmentalobjectives and physical-spatial andother means explained above.However, we have not developed theinstrument of a comprehensive planin a rigid sense but rather refer to theComprehensive Plan Book (TheNational Board for Building, Housingand Planning 1996).

On the other hand, we have devel-oped methods and tools for enhancingthe ability of the comprehensive planto satisfy environmental objectives.There has also been considerableprogress made in strategic environ-mental assessment as part of planning,knowledge and processes of changetaking place in the municipalities thathave conducted case studies.

Suggestions for working procedures

The working procedures are partlylinked to current practicesemployed in many municipalitieswhile clarifying the way in which

economic social

ecological

physical-spatial aspects

Definition of planning task

Conditions in theworld around

Conditions in theplanning area

key issuesobjectives

planning-specific<objectives <indicators

spatial alternatives – future images

alternative A alternative B alternative C

impact Hassessments

more precise definition <of objectives and <

indicators

action<programme

strategy

main<alternative

main <strategy

supplementation of inicators

zero alternative

1Definition of planning task

2Analysis of conditions – Conditions in the <world around and in the planning area focusing on<physical-spatial (including shape of the town an <architecture), ecological, social and economic factors.<Diagnosis of current qualities an deficiencies.

3Identification of key issues, objectives and inicators – <ecological, social, economic and physical- spatial.

4Development of future images and spatial<alternatives based on the conditions, <objectives and indicators.

5Impact assessment of alternatives based on <prioritised objectives an indicators.

6Choice of strategy – main alternative, main <strategy and action programme strategy.

7Implementation and follow-up. This step i mainly <after the planning itself but executing the measures <in the action programme may be of interest in the <work with strategic planning.

implementationfollow-up

Figure 32. Proposal for a workingprocedure for the integration ofenvironmental aspects in compre-hensive planning.

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environmental objectives and indicators are involvedat different stages. The link with international analy-ses is also emphasised here (such as how scenariosfrom the global environmental situation can affectthe municipality) along with an analysis of differentfuture images, as well as strategic impact assess-ments, to a greater extent than is the case today. Theidea is that environmental issues should permeate allstages and be dealt with in an integrated way withsocial and economic issues. Indicators are highlightedas a tool for making environmental objectives moreprecise and for enabling more refined diagnoses andimpact assessments to be made at each stage.Nevertheless, the experience of using indicators incomprehensive planning is still limited. It is there-fore difficult to provide an account of how to proceedand of the advantages and disadvantages. The devel-opment of methods has been conducted in an inter-play between practical work in the case studies,developmental work in the thematic studies and thefeedback of experience from expert overviews andfrom collations of examples. The working procedure

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planning spiral

input data input data input data

economic social

ecological

1

planning round 1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

planning round 2 planning round 3

Figure 33. The cyclical working procedure.

in the planning process presented in figure 32 con-sists of seven main stages.

The working procedure can be used in the preliminarywork or in pre-studies to the work on the comprehen-sive plan but can also be employed in devising a pro-posal for consultation. It is also applicable at differentlevels of planning from regional level to a more in-depthapproach to the comprehensive plan.

A cyclical approach

The work is not expected to be conducted in linearterms at these stages. Instead, many years experienceof developing method and of practical planning at var-ious levels has shown that there are advantages in acyclical approach, in recurring rounds of planning inconnection with the formulation of the plan pro-gramme and proposals for consultation. (The discus-sion concerning a cyclical working approach should notbe confused with the situation in which the compre-hensive plan is to be declared approved by the assem-bly for each mandate period which means recurring re-

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evaluations of the background material, objectives andproposals.) Experience has been gained from the workwith SEA in the case studies, especially the Office ofRegional Planning and Urban Transportation’s casestudy concerning the advantages of this approach.Figure 33 illustrates an approach where planning isconducted in three rounds with a successive shift inemphasis from the analysis of conditions and the for-mulation of objectives to alternative proposals andimpact assessments. This could also be described insuch a way that the different stages of the work are con-ducted parallel to each other with continual checkingsince it can be difficult to clearly distinguish the differ-ent rounds of planning in a complex planning situation.(In A catalogue of ideas, Part 3 illustrates how the work isconducted in the final stage of the process with SEA inthe formulation of consultation proposals for theStockholm regional plan).

The advantages of this approach are discussed in thethematic study, SEA. It is claimed that the work con-ducted in several rounds - or with different stages beingworked on parallel to each other - facilitated the inte-gration of environmental objectives and socio-economicissues in comprehensive plan-ning. The use of future imagesand alternatives at an earlystage, while at the same timemaking early impact analyses inthe process, highlighted prob-lems, conditions and objectiveswhich may perhaps not havebeen discovered in a linearapproach.

The linear approach oftenmeans that an attempt is madeto complete the survey and for-mulation of objectives beforethe work on alternatives andimpact assessments. This carriesthe risk that issues are dealt within detail which prove to be lessrelevant when seen in a futureperspective. On the other hand,other issues which are less obvi-ous in the survey might be givengreater weight when seen aspart of a future image.

SWOT

ecological footprints

scenario techniques

dialogue tools

GIS

mental maps

MCA

SEA

ind

icat

ors

focus diagrams

SAMS working procedures

ind

icat

ors

Figure 34. Overview of the SAMS project toolbox where varioustools, including indicators, are illustrated in connection with theworking procedure shown in more detail in figure 32.

The toolbox

A review of the different toolsFigure 34 shows an overview of the methods and toolsbeing developed further and applied in SAMS. Thedistinction between methods and tools is not rigid.Methods are more comprehensive and often consist ofseveral stages and activities. A tool is more limitedand operative. In order to simplify the description ofthe system of methods and tools we present here, wehave chosen to use the term ‘tool’. The toolbox rep-resents that whole system of methods and tools.

The working procedures described above can befound at the centre of the figure. The working proce-dure is surrounded by a number of tools that can beused in one or more of its stages. The general descrip-tions of the national environmental quality objectivescan also be seen as a tool. Since these objectives are offundamental significance in SAMS and provide thebase for all the case studies, we have chosen instead todeal with them in a separate chapter presented earlier.

Here, we deal with the tools that can be used to moreeasily facilitate the integration of environmentalobjectives in comprehensive planning. Tools have dif-ferent functions and are introduced at different stagesof the working procedure. They are taken up here inthe order in which they are described in A catalogue ofideas. However, they are not all included here in Aguide.

A SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities,Threats) analysis is a tool for identifying strengths and weaknesses relating to the conditions prevalent inthe municipality, threats and opportunities in thefuture and to be able, on the basis of this analysis, tohighlight the key issues. SWOT was used inStoruman.

With the aid of a Focus Diagram, a tool developedwithin the SAMS project, the relative size of a prob-lem or its significance can be related to the potentialfor tackling it. The aim is to identify the key issueswhich are important and prioritised as a complementto the SWOT analysis.

Mental maps have been inspired by the methodused for analysing the image of the city in compre-hensive planning, launched by Kevin Lynch. Theyhave been used in one phase of the round table dis-cussions about environmental issues conducted in theBurlöv case study. They are based on discussions withgroups of inhabitants of the municipality where viewsand wishes have been drawn onto a map.Questionnaire surveys are carried out to complementthe maps. The result can be presented in the form offree hand sketches or GIS maps.

Ecological footprints are “the productive land arearequired to support the population with raw materialsand the processing of waste resources”. Specific cal-culations of the future footprints are carried out on thebasis of assumptions about food product and energysupplies as used in the Trollhättan case study.Comparisons were also made between the ecologicalfootprint in relation to energy and land use along withthe infrastructure in Burlöv and Storuman. Ecologicalfootprints are primarily an instructive tool for illustrat-ing sustainability and can also be used in following upplanning and measures.

Other functions of significance in this work includescenario techniques using backcasting and futureimages. The National Board of Building, Housingand Planning’s “Sweden in the year 2009” is one of thepoints of departure. The Swedish EPA future imagesTrailblazer and Pathfinder, in the study “Sweden in theyear 2021”, have been most used in the case studies inBurlöv and Storuman. Two alternatives for the

Stockholm Region’s 2030 have been studies C and Pwhich represent a concentrated and a more peripher-al approach to creating a multi-cored regional struc-ture.

Greater weight has been placed on the use of SEA(strategic environmental assessment) and GIS(Geographical information systems). The differentSEA efforts were developed in the case studies inHelsingborg, Stockholm’s Biological Diversity,Stockholm SEA, The Stockholm Region andStoruman.

MCA (multi-criteria analysis) has been used to evalu-ate the total quality of a plan alternative for a certainfactor or indicator with assumptions concerning theweight and quality of different aspects. The tool canalso be used as part of SEA or separately and wasapplied in the Helsingborg case study.

GIS applications have been developed in Burlöv,Helsingborg, Stockholm (in the study on BiologicalDiversity), The Stockholm Region and Falun-Borlänge. The thematic reports “SEA and comprehen-sive planning”, and “GIS and environmental objectives inplanning” summarise the experience and draw someconclusions from the case studies.

Today, advanced techniques are under developmentfor dynamic simulation and modelling of, forinstance, the interaction between transportation andurban structures. The impact in relation to the flow oftraffic and sewage can be calculated using advancedcomputer models. This type of tool, such as IMREL,provides a basis for the analyses of the alternatives inthe regional plan for the Stockholm Region. On theother hand, this type of tool has not been used in theother case studies. In A catalogue of ideas, Part 3, areview is presented of the various computer tools andtheir applications in illustrating environmentalimpact.

Different varieties of planning and environmentaldialogues exist for developing indicators in roundtable discussions. The method has been tested andhas been developed further, especially in Burlöv(PICABUE). Round table discussions have also beenconducted for formulating objectives, targets andindicators on the basis of a model developed specif-ically for the Trollhättan case study. In the Storumancase study, the working procedure outlined bySAMS provided the base for round table discussions.In the collation of examples, different models arepresented to initiate and conduct dialogues in com-prehensive planning in Sala, Karlstad, Kungälv andVallentuna.

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These tools have been used to develop and test vari-ous types of indicators for the relevant stage in theworking procedure. An indicator shows that some-thing is or appears to be a certain condition. An indi-cator is an instrument used increasingly to showwhether environmental changes lead in the directionof established objectives. These type of indicatorsare referred to here as field indicators since theyassume the potential for measuring conditions in theenvironment. The most well established indicatorsystem for environmental follow-up is the DPSIRchain (Driving forces, Pressure, State, Impact,Response). We have attempted to develop and testplanning indicators partly to illustrate the impact of environmental objectives in comprehensive plan-ning, and partly to permit impact assessments ofalternatives.

Using the toolboxThe toolbox is intended to be useable in a flexibleway adapted to the relevant situation in comprehen-sive planning. In certain planning situations, it may bemost appropriate to use all the tools in a general way.In other cases, it may be necessary to concentrate onone or more tools. The use of the toolbox and possi-ble links between the components available aredescribed in A catalogue of ideas.

Figure 35 illustrates the stages in the working proce-dure at which tools may be used most effectively. Thereis no universal tool. Instead, the methods and tools com-plement each other. SWOT and ecological footprintsare effective as far as analysing conditions and identify-ing key issues are concerned. Scenario techniques canbe used both to generate scenarios in the world aroundus in a global perspective and then, on the basis ofthese, formulate alternatives and future images of aregion, community or a district within the community.

Figure 35. Overview of tools and examples of their link to working procedures.The dark green boxes mark the stages at which the methods/tools are most effec-tive while the light green boxes illustrate stages where they can also be used.

definition of task

conditions in the worldaround

planning conditions

key issues and objectives

future images/alternatives

impact assessments

strategy

implementation andfollow-up

SWOT

Stage of the work

ecologica

l footp

rints

scen

ario te

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CAGIS m

enta

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ools

DPSIR in

dicato

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planning in

dicato

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methods/tools

useful tool

very useful tool

SEA is most valuable in analysing impact but requiresthat the conditions and objectives are made clear, forexample, with the aid of a SWOT analysis. MCA is aspecific tool used to make quantitative assessmentsof, for instance, alternative transportation structures orthe interaction between traffic and the urban struc-tures. This tool can also be used in diagnosing the cur-rent situation and for obtaining an analysis of thetrend towards or away from the proposed alternatives.

GIS is a tool which will become increasingly forcefulin documenting conditions and for visualising andanalysing alternatives. Mental maps can function as acomplement to identifying qualities and problemswithin a planning area. This requires the opportunityfor communicating with groups of the general publicin some form of planning dialogue. DPSIR indicatorsare mainly used to diagnose and follow up the envi-ronmental situation. Planning indicators complementthis type of indicator since they are most valuable inthe work of developing and evaluating plan alterna-tives.

The use of tools in the case studies - an overview

Figure 36 represents an attempt to provide an overviewof the most valuable aspects in the use of tools, andwhere the tools can be used with less weight. The toolused in all the case studies is the plan indicator whichwas a condition for working with the project. Falun-Borlänge also used the DPSIR method to structureindicators for follow-ups.

Three municipalities - Storuman, Trollhättan andBurlöv - used dialogue tools to create a structure andgenerate creativity in the planning processes. TheFocus Diagram and Mental Maps were tested inStoruman and Burlöv respectively. The most exten-sive application of GIS can be found in the studiesFalun-Borlänge, the Stockholm Region and Burlöv.SEA was used in five case studies but the specifictool MCA was used only in Helsingborg’s study. Work with SEA is generally based on the develop-ment of scenarios or future images; all SEA

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case studies

SAMS

Owndev.

SAMS

Pica-bue

methods/"tools

Used

Important

SWOT

ecologica

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Stockholm-NUP

ORP and UT

Stockholm-SEA

SEAM

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ools

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planning in

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Figure 36. Overview of which tools were used in which case studies.

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Figur 37. Översikt över visioner, framtidsbilder och struktur-Figure 37. Overview of visions, future images and structurealternatives which provided a point of departure for the workin the SAMS case studies. The National Board of Housing,Building and Planning’s Sweden in the year 2009 and theEPA’s Sweden in the year 2021 along with the Office ofRegional Planning and Urban Transportation’s work with twoalternative multi-cored structures for the Stockholm region –Concentrated (C) and Peripheral (P).

The National Board of Housing, Building and Planning’s(NBHBP’s) Sweden in the year 2009: NBHBP’s report from1994 proposed a collected spatial developmental perspective atnational level. In this vision, Sweden’s building patterns andlocality structures are seen as an archipelago with 24 denselypopulated regional islands. One of the cornerstones of thevision was a transportation system based on regional publictransport.

The Office of Regional Planning and UrbanTransportation (RTK): Within the frame-work of the Regional Plan 2000, RTK hasworked on two alternative multi-cored struc-tures for the Stockholm region - alternativesC and P. Alternative C (Concentrated)locates more housing and workplaces in thecentral part of the region. Alternative P(Peripheral) locates more housing and work-places in the suburban districts. In both cases,urban development is achieved to a greatextent through increasing the density andcomplementing already built-up areas orareas closely linked to them.

The Environmental Protection Agency’s Sweden in the year2021: The EPA studies two different basic principles for a sus-tainable society of the future - Trailblazer and Pathfinder. InTrailblazer a shift has been made in the weighting comparedwith present conditions towards specialisation, concentrationand large supply areas. Pathfinder is characterised by a shifttowards differentiation, spread and small-scale activities withina supply area.

municipalities have developed alternatives from thefutures study “Sweden in the year 2021”. Ecologicalfootprints were most used in Trollhättan but this toolwas also used in Storuman, Burlöv and Falun-Borlänge.

More systematic SWOT analyses were conducted inStoruman and in the Office of Regional Planning andUrban Transportation case study.

Below, we discuss the scenario technique tool, SEA,GIS and indicators. They are treated in more detail inA catalogue of ideas along with the other tools avail-able.

Visions, scenarios andfuture images

- a source of inspiration The SAMS project shows that methods and toolsused to help us formulate visions, scenarios, futureimages and alternatives have great potential for thedevelopment of comprehensive planning towardssustainable development. It lies in the definition ofthe concept “planning” that this involves workingwith alternative courses of action for the future. Themethods and tools can be developed, however, if we attempt to make more systematic use of the gains achieved within the research field “futurestudies”.

During recent years, it has become popular to discussthe future in comprehensive planning in terms ofvisions. In a planning context, “vision” has come tosignify a desirable future situation which is attainablein the long term. A vision is thereby distinct from autopia which suggests an ideal state which is impossi-ble to realise. Le Corbusier’s proposal to pull downthe whole of Stockholm’s inner city and replace itwith huge laminate buildings can be seen as aprovocative utopia. The demolition undertaken inStockholm’s inner city area can be considered rathermoderate in comparison with the complete eradica-tion of the stone city Corbusier’s proposal would havemeant.

A pattern is outlined

The proposal from the National Board of Building,Housing and Planning from 1994 for a collected spa-tial developmental perspective on national level,Sweden in the year 2009 - Proposals for a vision,describes Sweden’s building patterns and localitystructures as an archipelago consisting of 24 relativelydensely populated regional islands which each have adifferentiated labour market, well equipped servicecentres, institutions for higher education and goodcommunications with the outside world.

In the vision, a pattern is outlined where the separateislands in the built-up landscape are linked togetherin a network by means of efficient, track communica-tions. The structure that emerges is a network or pearlnecklace of medium-sized and small towns and urbanareas with good accessibility. This network wouldcomprise 80 per cent of the country’s population. Afurther 10 per cent of the population would live with-in the network if one considers the area as integratinga distance of 40 kms by means of good communica-tions.

A cornerstone of this vision is therefore a transportsystem based on regional public transport to reducecar commuting. The vision points out that an inte-grated transport and land use plan is a condition forany investment in regional, tracked communicationroutes to be efficient. In a regional perspective, thestrategic functions and target points should be placedtogether with the link-up points for public transport.Furthermore, the importance of well-developed co-operation between different types of transportation atlocal, regional, national and international level isunderlined.

The vision illustrates the potential for developmentfor medium-sized urban areas in a pearl necklace for-mation. The development of these would mean lowerenergy consumption but would also provide the con-ditions for a good living environment with qualitiessuch as being easily comprehensible, rich in variety,close to the countryside and with good recreationfacilities.

Helsingborg’s case study associates well with the mainideas of the vision by building further on a clear fin-ger structure with a pearl necklace of train stations. InStoruman, the vision has functioned in a provocativeway since the stretch between Umeå and Mo in Ranahas not previously been identified as an importantstretch in the future for the region. Ideas are thereforegenerated about developing Storuman into a junction

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point in northern Norrland’s inland area with the rein-forcement both of the Inland Railway route and thecross rail connections between Sweden and Norway.Umeå develops a functional region along with theneighbouring authorities Bjurholm, Nordmaling,Robertsfors, Vindeln and Vännäs. Further inter-municipal cooperation would concern the drinkingwater supply with common water planning along theUmeåälven and Vindelälven rivers along with theBothnia railway project - a project closely connectedto the original “Sweden” vision.

Future studies attempt to systematically analyse thedevelopment in the future, often over periods of acouple of decades. As a rule the studies aim to broad-en the analysis of social phenomena. Methods andapproaches were devised at an early stage with con-siderable differences. The concept of future studies issomewhat misleading since it is not possible to studysomething which does not yet exist. The chaos theo-ry has also illustrated difficulties in predicting devel-opments and making credible forecasts. This theoryshows that even very small changes in the point ofdeparture can lead to decisive differences in the finalresult. It has been claimed that the flap of butterflywings in the Pacific could lead to a tornado in theAtlantic!

Such insight has led to inter-disciplinary approachesdominating in current future studies. It has also led toan increased awareness of the limitations of forecast-based methods. In considering broader social prob-lems and a genuinely long-term perspective, theefforts at forecasting are often problematic. One rea-son is that the assumptions on which the models arebased are seldom relevant in a longer time perspec-tive (Steen et al 1997).

The scenario technique involves attempting to imag-ine alternative futures by thinking in terms of radical-ly different chains of events. A scenario is a systemat-ic description of a potential situation in the future; anattempt to show the possible connections betweendifferent social sectors in simplified form, often withcontributions from many different areas of expertise.In this way a probable overall image of social devel-opments can be outlined in which ecological, socialand economic perspectives are integrated. Scenariosare primarily used involving future images whichinclude an analysis of the world around us. In theSAMS project, we have used the concept of futureimages for alternatives concerning the future of themunicipality which includes ideas about spatial struc-tures.

One method used in the work carried out with sce-narios and future images is backcasting in contrast toforecasting.

Backcasting involves imagining a future situation witha sustainable social structure. This is done withoutpreconditions and without the restrictions imposed bycontemporary obstacles. Future images can be used tooutline lines of development which are desirable orinteresting from the point of view, for instance, of theenvironment. This approach has been used to create amore tangible concept of how a durable transport sys-tem might look in Sweden (Steen et al 1997).

After having described the future, the work thenbegins to attempt to find ways and strategies forchange from the present into the future. In this con-text, strategic decision are presented at differentpoints in time from the present situation to the pointat which the scenario or future image has been set.Bodil Jönsson (1999) discusses the advantages of thebackcasting method and claims that:

“Many people have considerable difficulty in makingtheir visions tangible when imagining the future. If,however, they turn things around and start by guess-ing how it might be to look back from the future, itfeels much easier…..One of the many advantages ofbackcasting is that the problems one sees lookingback using this method are not at all of such over-whelming importance as they can appear to be whenwe look forward into the future. A combination of thevision’s problem dominance and the problem reduc-tion effect of backcasting could possibly provide uswith both a sound and realistic relationship with thefuture.’

The scenario technique and backcasting wereemployed in the futures study produced by theSwedish EPA’s “Sweden in the year 2021 - The roadtowards a sustainable society.” The long- term environ-mental objectives acted as guiding principles whenthe agency outlined future images for Sweden in a 25-year perspective. Two distinct future images weregenerated on the basis of various ideas about the waysin which a sustainable society might be formed, seefigure 38.

The two future images were inspiring and useful sup-port in the work in Storuman and Burlöv. The casestudy in Storuman used future images as a basis forexplaining the problems of sparsely populated regionsand the opportunities that exist in a longer perspec-tive. The student working group from the Universityof Technology in Luleå have gone into more depthwith the work using these future images in relation tourban areas but in a 50-year perspective.

In Burlöv, working groups of students from Alnarphave examined the consequences for each of the twofuture images for Burlöv in a 50-year perspective.The perspective in this case study contrasts with the one in Storuman. Will Burlöv merge withMalmö? Or will a regional structure be developedbased on a network of partly self-sufficient townsand villages?

A catalogue of ideas describes the methodology used in“Sweden in the year 2021” in detail under the headingFuture images/Scenario techniques.

Key issues or stages

In Storuman, the future images are not only based onenvironmental objectives but also on three key issueswhich were identified. Taskminder involves larger point-investments in infrastructure in the form of a newcharter plane airport and a tunnel link with Norway.Pathfinder focuses on the potential for making use oflocal energy resources for bio-fuels and wind powerboth for domestic use and export. Today, as much as 94per cent of the electric power is already exported andthe potential for other types of energy in the futureshould be considerable.

Initially, a future image was also adopted which repre-sented a threat since it was based on the assumptionthat people would move out of the area and serviceswould continue to be phased out. This image was sub-sequently replaced with a combination of Taskminderand Pathfinder. The new alternative was based on col-laboration between town and country, and on the factthat the sparse structure had awoken national interest.The future image highlighted environmental taxationas a means of encouraging companies to establish inthe area with an environmental surplus.

The comprehensive planning for Kungälv was initiatedwith a futures project divided up into two stages: a sce-nario and a vision stage. The aim was to attempt to dis-cover consensus concerning development within themunicipality. Using the vision as a basis, commonobjectives were then developed and the planning workprogressed. In the first stage, four scenarios were gen-erated by the working group for comprehensive plan-ning: coastal and sparse areas, service localities, servicelocalities and stretches, local communities/villages.After an impact assessment on the basis of Agenda 21and a broad discussion among politicians, civil servantsand the public “Kungälv 2015 - A Vision” was pro-duced. See the section on SEA in A catalogue of ideas,Part 3.

62Figure 38. The basic principles for Taskminder and Pathfinder(from Sweden in the year 2021 - towards a sustainable society).

Two alternative visions from the""Sweden in the Year 2021" project

<

TaskminderLarge supply areas

Concentration of building areasIntensive agriculture

Forestry with concentrated consideration<for the environment

Large-scale and specialised technology

PathfinderSmall supply areasDispersion of building areasExtensive agricultureForestry with combined consideration<for the environmentSmall-scale and differentiated technology

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SEA – a method for integrating environmental

aspects into planning at an early stage

Strategic thinkingA more in-depth way of working with visions, futureimages and alternatives requires the methods andtools for the analysis of impact in comprehensiveplanning to be further developed. Strategic environ-mental assessment, SEA, is the collective name formethods and tools concentrating on the analysis of theenvironmental impact of policies, programmes andplans. The EU directive concerning SEA currentlyunder preparation gives the concept legal support.

The legal basis from which we work with regard tocomprehensive planning is the fourth section of theSwedish Planning and Building Act which states thatthe content and the impact of the comprehensive planhas to be able to be discerned easily in consultationsand in the presentation of the description of the plan.Content and impact mean that the desired result of theplanning, its side effects and indirect effects should beapparent. A broad approach should provide the point ofdeparture for the assessment of what needs to beexplained. This may mean that social and economic

consequences should also be taken up in addition tothe environmental, health and conservation aspects.

A holistic view of comprehensive planning is aimed atbeyond the physical structures on which the plan doc-ument focuses. An impact analysis of the comprehen-sive plan is therefore broader than SEA and the work-ing procedure should be adapted on the basis of this.At the Office of Regional Planning and UrbanTransportation, developmental work has been con-ducted concerning the potential for devising a modelat regional level for social impact analysis using indi-cators and other tools. See the Office of RegionalPlanning and Urban Transportation report 1997:5.

There is therefore a process underway to find amethodology for showing the impact of a plan. EIAmethodology is an important point of departure.Experience from EIA work cannot, however, be sim-ply transferred to inter-sectoral and strategic levels.The reason being that experience from EIA is in gen-eral project-linked.

We have worked without preconditions to attempt todevise practically feasible working procedures andinstruments for strategic environmental assessment.The strategic focus is a guiding principle. There aremany definitions for the concept of “strategy”. It isdescribed by the Swedish Academy dictionary as orig-inally a military concept for “the art of conductingwarfare”. In the context of comprehensive planning,the concept has more peaceful implications:

policy plans/programmes

SEA

EIA

projects

whereif

why

how

Figure 39. SEA focuses on the strategic level where the ques-tions why, if and where are of primary interest. At projectlevel the assessment is mainly concerned with how an area oran object should be designed to fulfil environmental objectivesand environmental requirements.

• To think in the long term on the basis of theconcept of sustainable development.

• To stress different developmental directions andsequences of events, chains of events and choic-es rather than the ultimate situation and readysolutions.

• To lay the basis of preparation through planningfor encountering threats and challenges in achangeable and uncertain world.

• To attempt to evaluate the potential for affectingvarious conditions.

The role of SEA

A strategic environmental assessment should illus-trate how the choices and focal points selected in

comprehensive planning affect the environment andthe potential for establishing environmental objec-tives. In order to be most meaningful, the assessmentshould be made as early as possible in the process sothat the direction of the planning can be modified onthe basis of the results obtained. It contributes to theidentification of strategic choices and in this contextcan therefore disclose conflicts between objectivesbut can also discover synergy effects between theobjectives. When the attainment of objectives is eval-uated, it is possible to take a position on:

• Conceivable effects, in other words, objectivelymeasurable, physical, social or economic changesas a result of the plan.

• Consequences representing the effects evaluatedon the basis of their significance for the people

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RP

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time perspectivede

gree

of d

etai

l

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EIA2EIA1EIA3

Direct link SEA1/RPand EIA project ofregional power

linked SEA inCP and EIA

linked SEA inICP and EIA

CP

ICP

working plan DP1 DP2

ex. project: new traffic route work, housing and serviceintegrated areas

new golf course

scope

Figure 40. An ideal modelfor SEA work in a regionwhere SEA is integratedwith regional and compre-hensive planning in order tocover the environmentaleffects in a long-term per-spective with greater breadthbut less depth. A comprehen-sive basis for a decision iscreated for EIA at detailedplanning and project level.(RP = regional plan, CP =comprehensive plan, ICP =In-depth comprehensiveplan, DP = detailed plan).

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who are directly or indirectly affected by thecomprehensive planning.

The work with SEA should not be seen as a purelytechnical procedure but rather as a dynamic process ofcommunication contributing to the development of acreative, active and interesting dialogue about environ-mental issues and their connection to a social, culturaland socio-economic perspective. It should contributeto increasing involvement in environmental concernsand provide new insights into problems and solutions.It should also highlight undesirable effects, providewarning signals and question traditional views whereenvironmental issues are seen as a sector concern.

As illustrated in Figure 39, SEA work is currentlymainly focused on the questions why, if and where,while the project level places the primary focus on thequestion “how”.

SEA is used at various levels in a more or less con-tinual process both in inter-sectoral comprehensiveplanning and in sectoral planning. The process anddocuments have different contents and appearancesdepending on where in the decision chain theyoccur. As we can see in Figure 40, SEA is ideallyintegrated in the comprehensive planning but SEAhas the greatest significance in the stages wherechoices of direction are identified and alternativesare evaluated.

At regional level, the work has greatest breadth andthe longest time perspective but is not as detailed inall issues. Here the key issues are identified which areprocessed further in the comprehensive municipalplans and in more in-depth work for special areas. Itshould be observed that the process should not bestrictly hierarchical but should function in an interac-tion between levels. See figure 40.

The most important element in this ideal model isthat the integrated planning and SEA processes areconducted parallel to each other at different levels.There should always be “a receiver” of issues andproblems sent from one level to another. Otherwisethere is a danger that issues remain unaddressed andare first discovered at a late stage when there arerestrictions on projects and solutions.

Projects of different kinds can emerge during theplanning process as a result of integrated planning andSEA work. Within the projects, detailed environmen-tal assessments are made within the framework forEIA work. At EIA level, the work can be more clear-ly demarcated and penetrating for environmentalissues - within a shorter time perspective - than is pos-sible in a SEA process. The EIA for different projects

can be related to a broader context and a larger wholein SEA work with foresight. Issues may also arise dur-ing the EIA work which are of great significance forcomprehensive planning levels. If the SEA work iswell structured, these issues can be taken up and inte-grated in a positive way.

An interaction

In the Stockholm region, the SEA process had to bedeveloped in comprehensive planning in an interac-tion between different planning levels.

Three key issues were identified in the SEA for theregional plan as of particular importance for achievinga good environment in the region: the preservationand development of green structures; the reductionand increased efficiency of energy consumption forinternal and external transportation; and the reduc-tion of energy consumption along with rendering theenergy system environmentally sound. In order toensure development in the right direction, theseissues have to be made more tangible in specific SEAprocesses in the 26 municipalities of the region.

This work should be conducted in an interaction sothat the issues relevant at municipal level can bereturned to regional level. This applies to the issueconcerning the invasion of green structures by trafficroutes; studies at municipal level should lead toreconsideration of a controversial route’s extent atregional level. In the same way, it is often meaningfulto be able to move between SEA at regional, munici-pal and district level.

In devising the comprehensive plan programme for thearea around Löwenströmska Hospital, the issue con-cerning future noise disturbance from air traffic becamerelevant. This issue cannot merely be explained withinthe framework of the plan programme but has also to beseen as part of Vallentuna’s, Sigtuna’s and Uppland-Väsby’s comprehensive planning. If a system of SEAprocesses were put in place at different levels, a moreall-round basis for decisions on individual projects,including the EIA for these, would be created.Examples of such projects are the new track system atArlanda or a new business park at LöwenströmskaHospital. See also SEA in comprehensive comprehen-sive planning in A catalogue of ideas, Part 3.

On the basis of the case study work and general expe-rience and R&D into SEA, we would like to make thefollowing points about working with SEA.

Points in SEA

from SEA in comprehensive planning

Choose your approach:

1. Identify a structure of objectives and make iteasier to identify conflict and co-operation fac-tors between objectives. Allow the environmen-tal objectives - preferably formulated as a localinterpretation of national and regional objectives- to act as the main thread.

2. Integrate environmental assessments in theplanning process with integrity - so thatenvironmental issues become clearer. See theimpact analysis as a core activity in comprehen-sive planning to provide a more tangible andclearer attitude to alternatives and choices ofdirection.

3. Reiterate between analysis and synthesis:compare different future images/proposals byevaluating the impact of them in several roundswhere the conditions are also more detailed andthe formulation of the objectives more precise.By using future images in the first round of planning, the key issues become apparent at anearlier stage than if one adopts a more linearprocedure (completing one phase before begin-

ning the next). The original future images canbe gradually improved over a longer period oftime at the same time as the potential increasesfor noticing alternatives originally neglected.

4. Indicate quality rather than quantity if it isthen possible to achieve equal weighting and acomparative method of expressing social, eco-nomic and environmental impact analyses.Attempt to achieve broad relevance and avoidmisleading precision! Planning indicatorsevolve gradually during the process. Make surethat they are meaningfully linked to objectives,conditions and future images. Do not count theindicators together but use them parallel toeach other to be able to compare alternativesand judge whether these contribute to the ful-filment of environmental objectives and othertargets.

Form the process so that it becomes:

5. Constructive and permissive so that it encour-ages new thinking, creative problem solving andexciting ideas from those involved.

6. Communicative and open so that dialogues canbe developed across fraternal divides and formalroles, between the leader of the process, experts,the public/organisations and decision-makers.Make recurrent general impact assessments whereenvironmental issues are balanced against econom-ic and social issues. Identify and highlight conflictsbetween objectives and conceivable choices ofdirection. In this way, uncertainty can be handledand this increases future freedom of action.

7. Continuos through the various phases andstages to the ultimate project. Enable differentparallel processes at several planning levelssimultaneously to permit dynamic interactionbetween the work at different levels.

Involve the parties concerned using:

8. Expertise - in making impact assessment, theplanners and decision-makers may need supportin their dialogue from experts with specialistknowledge within the specific fields. Appointing apanel of experts early in the process allows a con-tinual dialogue around the issues needing to bedealt with. The composition of the expert panelmay have to be changed at the rate at whichissues are dealt with and new ones emerge.

9. Experience - tested local experience amongdecision-makers and the public has to be givenpriority along with scientifically based expertisesince it can take a long time (perhaps a wholegeneration) to discover scientific evidence forthe causal connection between biological diversi-ty and the extent of green structures, for exam-ple. Knowledge of processes and the way inwhich use can be made of the creativity andknowledge of local developmental and environ-mental groups can be just as important as naturalscience or technical expertise.

10. Involvement - the ambitions and openness ofdecision-makers towards the public and organisa-tions as well as the will of public servants to workwith SEA, not to mention their ability to encourageenthusiasts, is of decisive significance for success.

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GIS – Geographical Information Systems

Facts about GIS

GIS is a computerised system for the handling, analy-sis and presentation of geographical or site-boundinformation. The concept of GIS covers software,hardware, data, the necessary administrative organisa-tion and the users.

GIS is thus not just a way of facilitating and improv-ing the graphical representation of information onmaps. It is also a tool which enables us to link up geo-graphical, locality-specific sites with other kinds ofinformation and other ways of presentation other thanmaps, for example tables, text, pictures or video clips.

Information that is accessible in computers can beused in GIS by structuring it in a uniform way andlinking it to the earth’s surface via reference systems(coordinate systems, positional addresses, statisticalareas or road numbers). Different types of informationcan then be linked together and analysed as one.

The amount of information required to handle envi-ronmental issues in comprehensive planning hasincreased dramatically over the last few years. The dif-ficulties involved in mapping, analysing, processingand reporting this information in manual form is con-stantly on the increase. Tougher demands will con-stantly be put on municipalities to develop ways ofhandling composite basic data. With this development,the GIS technique will have an increasingly importantrole to play in future comprehensive planning.

But technology is not just an aid with which to ratio-nalise routines. It is also a powerful tool with whichcomprehensive comprehensive planning can bestrengthened, not least when it is a question of inte-grating environmental issues into it. As has beenestablished in the theme studies concerning GIS andenvironmental objectives in comprehensive planning,certain method development is required for GIS tech-nology to become an efficient tool. An important basisfor continued method development is the “de-facto”standard which was developed in the PilotGIS project,see the final report on PilotGIS, 1997, http://gis.lst.se/

GIS is often used as a synonym for GIT, GeographicalInformation Technology. GIS is really an umbrellaterm which also includes GIT. GIS is the predominat-ing term used both nationally and internationally.

Besides mapping the situation with regard to GIS inSweden and to a certain extent internationally, theGIS theme study has functioned as a support resourcefor the case studies that have used GIS to clarify theinteraction between physical structure and the envi-ronmental objectives, as well as to develop indicators.The theme studies worked in close collaborationabove all with the case studies in Helsingborg andBurlöv but also to a certain extent also withFalun/Borlänge, the Office of Regional Planning andUrban Transportation and the Stockholm NationalUrban Park. A catalogue of ideas shows examples ofGIS use in these case studies.

Invest in competence development!

Improved GIS competence is crucial if the techniqueis to have a greater impact in the work to integrateenvironmental goals into comprehensive planning.The training project StrateGIS is a welcome initiativewhich will help develop the use of GIS in a good way.StrateGIS will run from 1999 to 2001 and will addressGIS training in the area of comprehensive planning.The training is aimed mainly at county administrativeboards and municipalities where one of the aims is toprovide the opportunity to establish the de-facto stan-dard that was developed during the PilotGIS projectthrough a nationally coherent programme. (seewww.lst.se/strategis). A similar training programmeshould be run regarding the GIS tool’s role in envi-ronmental objective work and in the work with plan-ning indicators.

GIS mostly comprises complex systems and ques-tions. For this reason, a great deal of basic knowledgeis needed before one can understand its strengths andweaknesses. This may result in the start-up time forGIS work among unaccustomed users being ratherlong. The municipalities’ administrators must havetime to do GIS training and computers and softwaremust be obtained. Access to data must be reviewedand most of all, administrators must know what GIScan and should be used for.

Improve the quality and exchange of input data and meta-data!

High demands are placed on the input data used invarious indicator analyses linked to the environmentalobjectives. Very specific meta-data is often requiredfor each calculation.

The costs and restrictions associated with geograph-ical data may represent a problem when trying toestablish a common geographical database. However,coordinating geographical databases within theorganisation may lead to the data actually becoming

less expensive and more available for comprehensiveplanning.

It is currently difficult to find good data-sets forregional and municipal planning at the same location.The development potential lies in making the geo-graphical databases of several different data hostsmore accessible in a simple way via Internet. In addi-tion, payment and licensing routines should also beintegrated into the systems.

Example

It is not always so easy to know whether the data col-lected is of the necessary quality. The analyses ofinput data carried out in the Falun-Borlänge casestudy show that it is important to perform a thoroughcheck of the quality of the input data.

Block maps were tested as a tool for mapping biologi-cal diversity in agriculture and forestry. But it turnedout that far too much processing would be necessaryto make for example analyses of edge zones – whichare of great importance for biological diversity. A sim-ilar analysis but with satellite images (25-metre reso-lution) was tested but the results were poor.

An analysis of the satellite images with 25-metre res-olution showed that they did not give conclusiveinformation on where deciduous woodland which hadpreviously been meadowland was situated.

The example shows to a certain extent that satelliteimages with 25-metre resolution lacked sufficientaccuracy to be able to act as a basis for this type ofcalculation in municipal comprehensive planning.Images with a higher resolution and with wellthought-out classification could be used whenchecking the state of the environment within amunicipality, but at present cost outweighs benefit.The geographical information managed by theNational Land Survey of Sweden seems to be themost attractive, but it needs to be reviewed so thatthe classifications and attribute data will be suffi-cient for use in environmental objective-orientedcomprehensive planning.

In the development work, it is important to achievebetter coordination among local, regional and centralauthorities concerning concept apparatus, structures,format and coordination systems to facilitate theexchange of geographical data and to create a high-quality database. For example, how municipalitiesshould classify and describe areas in their comprehen-

sive plans. This would put the planning informationin GIS to better use concerning regional planning andregional strategic environmental assessments. Otherauthorities and organisations – for example theSwedish EPA, The National Road Administration andthe National Rail Administration – would also be ableto supply digital input data, which may be useful inthe planning process and for strategic environmentalassessment.

The PilotGIS project’s de facto-standard includes des-ignations and contents for the information as well ashow it should be structured. The de-facto standardcovers mainly the information that is exchangedamong county administrative boards and municipali-ties in connection with comprehensive planning inaccordance with the Planning and Building Act, withthe emphasis on the basis for planning which thecounty boards are to supply the municipalities with.The results of planning in the form of municipal com-prehensive plans are also included in the standard.

“The regional environmental basis should be general-ly available to be able to serve as a coordinated andgeneral point of departure for decentralised and pre-ventative environmental work. Various interested par-ties in the county need access to easily available mate-rial on the situation regarding the environment andresource efficiency in the county and its environmen-tal goals. A well-structured and accessible informationsystem for environmental issues is a prerequisite ofsuccessful environmental work” (Swedish OfficialReport 2000:52)

Plan interactively with GIS and its applications!

There is great potential for interactive planning usingGIS and its applications. Apart from the possibility ofsubmitting viewpoints on purely geometric matters,for example area delimitations, one can also carry outpart of the consultation and exchange of informationat an early stage of the planning process. By introduc-ing GIS early in the process, intentions and politicalstandpoints can be shown and analysed more deeplyduring the whole of the planning process than is pos-sible using manual methods. GIS is suitable for sce-nario studies of different plan alternatives. Thesestudies most often require certain program or applica-tion development in order for them to be handled bythe public.

Use GIS to calculate indicators in environmental work!

GIS can be an important aid when calculating indica-tors associated with environmental work and environ-mental quality norms (EQN) in for example compre-

68

69

hensive planning. A further development of thePilotGIS project’s de-facto standard could include thefoundations for certain indicator calculations.

In view of the complexity of each environmentalobjective and its relation to the comprehensive plan,the work with GIS application should be preceded bya thorough examination and discussion of the rele-vance of indicators for the different environmentalobjectives and how they can be followed up in thecomprehensive plan (see the next section on indica-tors). The case study in Burlöv is an example wherecomprehensive roundtable discussions preceded GISapplication. The chosen indicators for accessibilitywere thus highly relevant which also motivated thework to build up a model for GIS analysis.

The case studies showed that even some apparentlysimple environmental objective indicators requireanalysis in different GIS programs. In this case, tailor-made applications could be useful. The drawbackwith this might be however that they require reason-ably homogenous data-sets and attribute data, whichmay reduce their usefulness.

The lack of routines for the exchange of data inmunicipal authorities is a problem when they wish touse GIS in their environmental work. A GIS for thefollow-up of environmental objectives should have adatabase construction that corresponds to the organi-sational levels of society. A thorough analysis of thedata that is to be included should be carried out.

The GIS tool’s function in the work with environ-mental objectives is presently associated with a num-ber of problems. There seems to be numerous diffi-culties to overcome before we can work with GIS in aconsistent manner to calculate indicators. Similarly, itshould be emphatically pointed out that the benefit ofusing GIS in the long run is substantial. Neither cancertain assessments of the state of the environment, ora future situation, be done without digital tools suchas GIS. There are a number of indicators that areimpossible to calculate manually, not to mention thedifficulties of showing them geographically later on.

Do a thorough needs inventory prior to building upa GIS system for comprehensive planning!

An important component when starting up a GIS sys-tem is to carry out a proper inventory covering the fol-lowing steps:

1. Description of the current situation. Here theGIS competence of planners and environmental-ists should be analyse along with the technicalplatform, data flows and analysis of the worldaround us.

2. Needs analysis. Here, studies of the organisa-tion’s needs for GIS are performed. Everythingfrom broad questionnaires distributed through-out the organisation to detailed interviews withplanners and environmentalists. Common workmeetings should also be set up in which thepossibilities of using common concepts andbuilding common database structures can bediscussed.

3. Results. Here suggestions are made concerningcoordination and administration issues, possibletraining initiatives, technical solutions as well aswhat the current data supply is like.

Figure 41. View of the Pacific south of New Zealand. Photo.NASA STS081- E-5226

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2 1622 1622 1622 1622 1622 1622 1622 1622 162

2 5732 5732 5732 5732 5732 5732 5732 5732 573

2 4092 4092 4092 4092 4092 4092 4092 4092 409

1 6071 6071 6071 6071 6071 6071 6071 6071 607

1 7551 7551 7551 7551 7551 7551 7551 7551 755

2 7032 7032 7032 7032 7032 7032 7032 7032 703

2 0302 0302 0302 0302 0302 0302 0302 0302 030

1 7031 7031 7031 7031 7031 7031 7031 7031 7032 1202 1202 1202 1202 1202 1202 1202 1202 120

2 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 201

2 4002 4002 4002 4002 4002 4002 4002 4002 400

1 7671 7671 7671 7671 7671 7671 7671 7671 767

2 8722 8722 8722 8722 8722 8722 8722 8722 872

2 4802 4802 4802 4802 4802 4802 4802 4802 480

2 1632 1632 1632 1632 1632 1632 1632 1632 163

2 1082 1082 1082 1082 1082 1082 1082 1082 108

2 5882 5882 5882 5882 5882 5882 5882 5882 588

recreationalHarea

area circumference totalHdistance< D

averageHdistanceD D

laciniationHindex

distanceHarea index

D D <

(ha) (m) (m) (m)

Granbacken 1,90 609 31 561 465 2 162 320 4,6

Arlövsgården 3,12 733 37 554 527 2 573 235 6,3

Villa backen 2,74 807 35 160 335 2 409 295 5,9

Kronotorp 5,43 1 066 23 460 937 1 607 196 17,6

Helenelund 1,50 486 25 614 228 1 755 324 4,5

Svanetorp 2,93 1 066 39 448 862 2 703 363 5,6

Stationsparken 1,83 582 29 633 430 2 030 317 4,7

Mossvägen 32,87 2 833 24 864 260 1 703 86 100,6

Kockums område 3,25 1 540 30 945 725 2 120 474 8,0

Hvilan 1,36 519 32 124 798 2 201 383 3,2

Österleden 2,79 1 049 35 036 490 2 400 375 6,1

Lyckö gård 1,09 424 25 786 432 1 767 390 3,2

Spillepeng 29,39 2 617 41 912 811 2 872 89 53,3

Karstorpsparken 1,53 733 36 194 844 2 480 479 3,2

Fruktodlingen 5,01 1 178 31 577 557 2 163 235 12,1

Sockerbruksparken 3,04 859 30 766 102 2 108 283 7,5

Tågarpshed 11,57 1 505 37 781 094 2 588 130 23,3

Total 111,35 18 606 549 423 897

Average 7 1 094 32 319 053 2 214 293 16

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

0-12 13-64 65+ Total

400-900100-4000-100

Figure 42. Average distance perperson to the various recreationalareas in Burlöv municipality.

Figure 43. The number of inhabitants in Burlöv municipalityper age class with 0-100, 100-400 and 400-900 metres to thenearest recreational area.

Figure 44. The total and average values per person for the distance between all the inhabitantsof the municipality and the various recreational areas within Burlöv municipality.

71

Summary of some of the strengths and weaknesses of GIS:

Strengths• Cost-effective updates.

• Can produce results that are not possible toobtain manually.

• Possibility of illustrating complex connections inpedagogical map illustrations.

• Can handle a large number of indicators with rel-atively little investment/effort.

• An efficient way of calculating advanced indica-tors in the long run.

Weaknesses• Lack of good GIS competence in the organisa-

tion.

• Significance of mixed competence within com-prehensive planning, conservation/ecology andGIS.

• Price of geographical databases.

• Accessibility of input data (including attributedata) for comprehensive planning and environ-mental conservation.

• Indicator calculations are often complex whencalculated in GIS.

Future threats and opportunities

One future threat picture may be that the technologywill become so advanced that only a few specialistswill be able to manage the programs. It will becomeincreasingly difficult for planners and environmental-ists to keep up with developments and a gap willappear between computer technicians and otherexperts. The risk here is that technology will dictatethe content of plans. Specialists understand theadvanced indicator calculations that form the basis ofdevelopment and evaluation of plans. It will becomeincreasingly difficult for laymen and politicians toquestion the seemingly indisputable results producedwith such technical precision.

One can assume that these risks are greatest in theintroductory and development stages in which GIStechnology finds itself. One could see the same phe-nomenon when personal computer technology andCAD technology hit the scene at the beginning of the1980s. At the beginning, specialists were responsiblefor the technology in companies and administrations.Now at least most of us have a reasonably good graspof PC technology thanks to ever-increasing user-friendliness. This should mean that GIS technologywill to an increasing extent be applied directly bythose who administrate planning and environmentalissues.

Vision

Not only those working with comprehensive planningbut also laymen contribute with the help of interac-tive aids in GIS and other computer tools. The sys-tems for developing and structuring alternatives andindicators are transparent: they allow insight and addi-tion as and when new prerequisites and alternativesarise. Through flexible and broadly constructed indi-cator systems, the evaluation and directional analysesof plans are facilitated. Qualitative assessments canalso be built into the systems supported by VR tech-nology (Virtual Reality Technology) and animation.The risk of narrowly demarcated indicators whichpossess high precision but low relevance having toogreat an impact can therefore be avoided.

Indicators – a multi-facetedtool but with some pitfalls

The concept of indicators The dictionary says that an indicator is something thatpoints out or gives information about something else.Alternatively, it is usually defined as a means orinstrument which can demonstrate something.Indicators have an information value or significanceand/or constitute a relationship between input valuesor magnitudes which convey more than the indicatorsthemselves. Here, indicators are used to express ameasurement or key ratio.

An indicator expresses a phenomenon in a simplifiedway and helps us to understand and obtain anoverview of complex realities and happenings. Thenumber of parameters and measurements used todescribe a given situation or a development trend canbe reduced. If the indicator can also be measuredquantitatively, the evaluation and follow-up ofchanges in the environment will be facilitated.

Discussions on the opportunities and limitations asso-ciated with using indicators in the work to integrateenvironmental goals in comprehensive planning havebeen a recurring feature of the whole SAMS project.As early as in the pre-study (Ranhagen 1997a), theneed for indicators was discussed. In the preparatorywork for the project, a literary overview on environ-mental indicators in comprehensive planning wascompiled (Dryselius & Johansson 1996).

It aimed at describing different environmental infor-mation systems and the work within internationalorganisations, experiences from different countriesand Swedish examples. During the first stage of theSAMS project, a survey of ongoing development workwas carried out to complement the literatureoverview. Indicators were emphasised and structuredbased on the project’s reference framework(“Indicators in comprehensive planning. An overview”1998).

Indicators are based as a rule on statistics and raw datathat can be further processed and/or weighted intomore complex indices, see the information pyramid infigure 45. For each new aggregation level, however,the degree of detail drops and the new indicatorsbecome more and more general. If no attention is paidto this phenomenon and if the systems are not han-dled correctly, it may lead to incorrect interpretationsand inaccurate information on which to base deci-sions. It will be a question of weighing up the prosand cons of being seized with indecision faced withfar too large and complex an amount of information oraccepting simplifications in order to obtain manage-able data on which decisions are to be based.Different target groups require different types ofinformation, a fact which is illustrated by the pyramidof information requirements, see figure 46.

Researchers, environmental experts and professionalplanners may need information with a high degree ofdetail and which can be traced back to raw data andstatistics. Decision-makers and the media may needmore focussed information. Indicators for the general

72

informationincreasingly

concentrated

total amountof information

indicatorsfor the

general public

indicatorsfor decision-makers

indicators for researchers

Figure 45. The environmental index is a collationof statistics and/or indicators which summariselarge quantities of closely linked information,through systematic procedures for weighting andputting together the different kinds of variables, toestablish a value (from RTK Memo 11:1997).

Figure 46. Pyramid forthe information require-ment (see RTK Memo11:1997, from Braat, atthe Department of theEnvironment, Sport andTerritories, 1994)

index

indicators

statistics

raw data

Figure 47. Indicators as a measure of well-being. Source: Sverker Sörlinin a DN (national press) article from 31 August 1999 “Statistics are notdamned lies”. Photo: Digital Stock.

Environmental quality, level of education, election turn-out, housing standard

and a great many othermeasurements make up

today’s indicators of howwell society is functioning.

73

public need to be expressed more simply and morepedagogically. This division in terms of informationrequirements is not so self-evident. We can also turnthe pyramid upside down and interpret the situationso that the general public need broader informationand researchers demand information of a narrower yetdeeper scope.

Well established indicator systems for environmental follow-up

From the knowledge overview above, it is evidentthat there are attempts internationally to formulateindicators for environmental monitoring in amongothers OECD, UN, World Bank, EU and the Balticcooperation project Baltic 21. The OECD’s PSRmodel (Pressure-State-Response) for the descriptionof indicators is the one that has made the greatestimpact internationally. Applications can be found inthe USA, Canada, Australia, the Netherlands andNorway. The field of application was restricted to theenvironmental sphere from the beginning but gradu-ally has been broadened out to include both social andeconomic aspects.

Subsequent to a dialogue with other authorities, theSwedish EPA has proposed follow-up systems for thenational environmental quality objectives which areconnected to a DPSIR model that has been developed

further (report 5006). The proposed indicators can bedivided into the following groups:

• Needs of society or driving-forces that influencethe state of the environment. (Driving Forces)

• Factors that directly influence the environment(Pressure)

• The development of the state of the environ-ment (State).

• Consequences of environmental changes(Impact).

• Action taken by society to counteract one or sev-eral of the above-mentioned environmentaleffects (Response).

Need for indicators to facilitate the inclusion of environmental objectives in comprehensiveplanning

The need for formulating indicators in order to follow-up environmental developments is obvious. By beingable to constantly monitor the state of the environmentand how it being changed, the need for action andinvestment can be more easily identified both in theshort and long term. Isn’t it therefore possible to applythis type of indicator directly in comprehensive planningto follow-up in accordance with the DPSIR system?

Unfortunately, in our pre-studies, we found that indi-cators for environmental follow-up are not alwaysdirectly applicable. Many of the indicators that havebeen developed both internationally and in Swedencan be classed as field indicators. This means that theindicators are based on the fact that it is possible tomeasure the state of the countryside empirically or insome other way register the actual state of environ-mental work. For example:

• The number of pearl mussels in watercourses.

• Proportion of the population that suffers fromstress symptoms due to noise pollution.

• Proportion of households that prefer publictransport to their own cars.

• Proportion of inhabitants that participate in con-sultation.

Finding out the current situation and the develop-ment in the world around and the planning area inquestion constitutes an important basis for compre-hensive planning. Here, DPSIR indicators and fieldindicators play an important role. But the most centralactions concerning planning are creating better pre-paredness for the future and finding and assessing theimpact of sustainable alternatives. If indicators are tobe used for this, they must help to facilitate environ-mental assessment of plan alternatives. For example:

• Comparisons of how well various alternativesmeet the environmental objectives.

• Directional analysis of proposals to see theextent of environmental change they would leadto in comparison to the present situation.

In the pre-studies of the SAMS project, we proposedthat an indicator used for planning purposes should be

termed a planning indicator. An important aspect ofthe SAMS project and our case studies has been to tryformulate and test planning indicators which are con-nected to the environmental objectives and physi-cal/spatial means in planning. It is not necessary to beable to measure a planning indicator, but it shouldshow a qualitative aspect or indicate a direction.

Another Dagens Nyheter (DN) article shows what apowerful instrument indicators are for comparingSweden with other countries. Wärnersson &Ekholm’s article “Svenska skolan i Europatopp”(Swedish schools top European league”, published inDN on 21 June 2000) reports not only on how Swedenis in the elite division when it comes to using IT butalso that we are only on an average level when itcomes to the percentage of young people (18- 24 yearsof age) who study at college or university. The resultsare presented in a current EU report.

The concept of planning indicators

What is a planning indicator?

A planning indicator is an indicator that facilitates themeasurement of environmental impact inphysical/spatial plans and that can be gathered fromthe planning documentation or from analyses, forexample by GIS or other kind of computer simulation.

A planning indicator elucidates concisely the impor-tant properties of a plan for achieving the environ-mental goals. This should not be interpreted merelyas a planning map off which a planning indicator canbe read. As a rule, more detailed information isrequired both on the prerequisites and the contents ofthe plan concerning for example the type of activitiesand their environmental impact. Planning indicatorsshould describe future conditions in plans – possible,proposed, desirable or expected – in the same termsas the present situation. This means that it should bepossible to obtain, by analysis, planning indicatorsboth from plans with different time perspectives andfrom maps of the current situation.

The indicator has therefore a spatial connection andalso enables comparison between the environmentalchanges that the proposed plan would lead to and thecurrent situation. The planning indicator should also bean aid in the creative process of choosing the meanswith which to solve or prevent environmental problemsand create sustainable alternative plans.

The planning indicator can be seen as a bridgebetween the goal and the means as it should be relat-ed to both goal achievement and differentphysical/spatial structures or alternatives. Like other

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technical/scientific process “expert dialogue”

environmentalobjectives

planning-specific

objectives

planningindicators

fieldindicators

meansalternativeproposal

democratic process “broad dialogue”

Figure 48. Planning indicators can be seen as a bridgebetween objectives and physical-spatial means, propos-als or alternatives.

alternativefuturescenarios

backcastingplanning indicators

feedbackDPSIR indicators�field indicators

then now

Figure 49. An attempt at description of the differencebetween planning indicators and field indicators withthe aid of the concepts backcasting and feedback.

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indicators, it should have a high degree of relevancefor the planning situation in question, which meansthat dialogue is required both with the general publicand experts to sort out the right type of indicator, seefigure 48.

Why is the concept of planning indicators needed?

Planning indicators are motivated by the fact thatthey are needed to facilitate the inclusion of environ-mental objectives in comprehensive planning. Out ofa lack of considered and well supported indicators, weare referred to general assessments of plans. Planningindicators may even stimulate and facilitate the dia-logue between experts, decision-makers and the gen-eral public. The concept of indicators has the advan-tage of being well known by environmental expertsand therefore can act as a bridge between compre-hensive planning and environmental conservation.Another benefit is that the concept can be used toaccurately specify social and socio-economic goals andenable impact analyses and follow-up of goals thatconcern not only the environment but also coversocial and socio-economic aspects. Finding crediblelinks between indicators and goals is however notalways easy.

What are the most important differences betweenfield and planning indicators?

The DPSIR system is most suited to following updevelopment up to now. Some of the indicators devel-oped can also be used to describe possible futuredevelopment. Those indicators that can be expressedin planning/spatial terms can also be used as planningindicators. As a rule, indicators for following up devel-opment up to now need to be transposed so that theycan be used as planning indicators.

A conclusion drawn in the knowledge overview was thatthe indicators formulated on the condition that theywere measurable or readable in the natural environmentcouldn’t just be reformulated into planning indicators.Our work in the case studies has shown, however, thatthey can be adapted to comprehensive planning.

From the field indicator “the number of pearl musselsin local watercourses”, how can we find a relevantplanning indicator to be able to compare futureimages of an area which contains these watercourses?An equivalent planning indicator could be formulatedas “coherent, protected areas surrounding watercours-es in order to allow the preservation of the musselpopulation”.

Conversely, planning indicators that are based onwhat is possible to read from a plan alternative can beused as field indicators to read the current situation.In this case, it is as a rule not a question of directobservations in the field but rather an analysis of spa-tial statistics concerning the current situation. Anexample of such an indicator is “the number of work-places with a maximum of 300 metres to a publictransport change point”.

The difference between planning indicators and indi-cators for environmental follow-up can be illustratedas in figure 49. DPSIR indicators or field indicatorsare, as previously mentioned, based on empirical sur-veys and can be characterised as feedback indicators.Planning indicators must be able to be used to analyseplan alternatives concerning an uncertain future.They must therefore be formulated with roughdimensions and on a more comprehensive level. Theyshould be expressed so that they can be used to com-pare future alternatives.

They should also be formulated so that comparisonsbetween plans and the current situation – a direction-al analysis – are possible. A planning indicator is, inother words, useful in backcasting. In this way, it canbe linked to one of the most interesting methods ofworking with future images.

This could also be expressed as DPSIR indicatorsbeing primarily aimed at detecting and curing prob-lems. They are more operatively aimed at the currentsituation and the near future. Due to their clear con-nection to plan alternatives and choice of action, plan-ning indicators are more focussed on the long term.They are more concerned with the prediction andprevention of environmental problems in comprehen-sive planning, see figure 49.

Can planning indicators not be classified under theheading “response”?

Strategic planning is as a rule not a question of pointmeasures. The comprehensive plan should point theway for a gradual development towards a sustainablesociety. A spatial plan illustrates a future physicalstructure with interaction between building areas, thegreen structure, infrastructure and business structure.It indicates opportunities, a playing field on whichmeasures of different types can gradually be imple-mented. The planning indicator attempts to capturesuch system properties in a plan that is of significancefor the achievement of environmental objectives.Based on the holistic picture that the plan illustrates,we can then discuss strategies for how to graduallyimplement the proposals of the plan. The problem

with the concept of measures is that it can easily beassociated with short-term point measures in a certainsector to improve the environment. Planning indica-tors should therefore be seen as a special class of indi-cator.

Important criteria for planning indicators to be effec-tive planning tools are:

• A future criterion – it should be possible tounderstand this from the plan alternative whichshows ideas or assumptions about future physicalstructure.

• A spatial criterion – it should be possible toexpress this in spatial terms and relate it to afuture image.

• A directional criterion – this should show thedifferences which the plan alternative willinvolve in relation to the current situation andpreferably indicate a historical situation as well.It should be possible to express past, present andfuture conditions using the same scale/measure-ments.

• A goal criterion – it should be possible to relatethe properties of the plan which the indicatorexpresses to environmental objectives or othergoals with a high degree of credibility.

Review of the attempts to use indicators in the case studies

The knowledge overview contains a compilation ofthe indicators that are relevant from a planning pointof view and that we could screen out from interna-tional and Swedish efforts. These were structuredaccording to the physical-spatial means that werewithin the reference framework of the project. Usingthe suggested indicators from the case studies as ourpoint of departure, we have carried out a review toascertain which objectives and means they are linkedwith. Figure 50 shows the results of this analysis. Notsurprisingly, most of the indicators can be linked tothe environmental quality objective A good urban envi-ronment. Adjacent to the figure, there is a summary ofthe methods used to sort the indicators.

Most of the indicators recur in many places in theschedule since an indicator often has a bearing on sev-eral objectives. All the indicators in the case studieshave been included. Most of them have the attributesof planning indicators and there are also some fieldindicators included. In A catalogue of ideas, there areexamples of planning indicators from the differentcase studies as well as a compilation of a selection ofinteresting indicators.

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building area/land use

green structure/water

technical infrastructure

business structure

building area – traffic

interaction between all meansincluding town-country

others

physical-spatial means

0

1

number of indicatorsdeveloped which are linked to eachobjective and means respectively 16 – 30 31 – 60 61 – 90 91 – 120

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1 – 15

clean

air

high quality gro

undwater

susta

inable la

kes and w

aterco

urses

flouris

hing wetla

nds

no eutrophica

tion

natural

acidific

ation only

susta

inable fo

rests

a vari

ed agric

ultural

landsc

ape

a mag

nificent m

ountain la

ndscap

e

a good urb

an enviro

nment

a non-to

xic enviro

nment

a safe

radiat

ion environment

a pro

tective ozo

ne layer

limite

d influ

ence on cl

imate

a bala

nced m

arine enviro

nment with

susta

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astal

areas

and ar

chipelag

os

Figure 50. An attempt to group the ways inwhich the case study indicators link up withnational environmental objectives and withphysical-spatial instruments. An indicator isoften relevant for several objectives and instru-ments, which is why many indicators can befound in more than one box.

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In the case studies, we can differentiate two differ-ent angles of attack in the work with indicators. Thefirst is a development of indicators in broad dialoguewith many interested parties, which results in exten-sive lists of indicators that may work as checklists inplanning work. Here we can mention the studies inStoruman, Burlöv and Trollhättan. The other angleof attack involves deeper work in a particular sectoror for a particular environmental objective. Anexample:

• Helsingborg, public transport and GC transport.

• Stockholm National Urban Park, green structure.

• Burlöv, indicators developed in a Picabue dia-logue.

• Falun-Borlänge, ecological footprints in agricul-ture and forestry.

• Trollhättan’s study on ecological footprints.

Methods for connecting the indicators to objectives and means

The indicators developed by the municipalities in theSAMS project have been analysed based on their con-nection to physical-spatial means and the 15 environ-mental quality objectives.

Here is a review of the methods used. The followingdivision has been made for the physical-spatial means:

• Building area structure/land use.

• Green structure/water.

• Technical infrastructure (not traffic).

• Business structure.

• Connection between town/city and country.

• Connection between building areas and traffic.

• Interaction among other means.

The division of indicators in the columns of the tableare based on a tentative assessment of on which of theobjectives each of the indicators has a bearing. Usingthe review of the national environmental objectiveswhich the theme study, Environmental objectives andphysical structure, developed in the SAMS project, anumber of key terms have been identified for eachobjective. These key terms have been used as thepoint of departure for the division.

For the environmental objective Clean air the follow-ing key terms have been identified: transport sector,energy and heat production sector, industry, buildingand construction sector, use and combustion of fossilfuels, energy forests and to reduce traffic.

Reducing traffic is directly or indirectly connected toseveral of the national environmental objectives. Forexample, the indicator Proportion of public transport inrelation to other types of transport has a bearing on thefollowing objectives:

• Clean air.

• Sustainable lakes and watercourses.

• No eutrophication.

• Natural acidification only.

• A good urban environment.

• A protective ozone layer.

• Limited influence on climate.

A question that often comes up when indicators arediscussed is on what planning level the indicator isrelevant or if it is applicable on several levels. Theindicators suggested in the case studies have comeout of the key issues and environmental objectivesthat are of relevance to the municipalities in question.In several cases, indicators that are of regional interesthave been brought to the fore. Certain indicatorsshould also be of relevance on a national level sincethis would enable comparisons between differentcountries. Since comprehensive planning is focussedon the municipal level with a connection to theregional level, it is on these levels that indicators willbe most useful.

Selection of planning indicators thatare of general use

The SAMS project has developed close to 300 indica-tors of various kinds. It is a question of both pure fieldindicators and planning indicators. Planning indicatorscan be formulated in the majority of cases so that theycan also be used to assess the current situation, i.e. theycan also work as field indicators.

For most of the indicators, there is still a good deal ofwork left to do if they to be used in practice. Theyneed to be delimited, key concepts must be definedand data/material requirements need to be estab-lished.

The SAMS project has selected 12 main groups ofplanning indicators which have been adjudged to beof general use in all municipalities. In each group,one or more planning indicators are more specifical-ly formulated. The selection of planning indicatorscan be found on pages 78-80, supplemented with thereasoning behind the definitions and the materialthat is required if the indicators are to be of use inthe comprehensive planning and environmentalwork of municipalities.

1. Availability of public transport

• Proportion of thepopulation that cantravel by publictransport to a cer-tain point in Xminutes or less.

• Proportion of the population (in urban areas) thathave X metres or less to a bus stop or train/underground station.

• Proportion of the urban area that is covered by abus stop or train/underground station within aradius of X metres.

Requirement: For these indicators, we need todefine what is considered to be good availability.Is it, for example, a question of a 40-minute rideon public transport and 500 metres to the nearestbus stop? The definition of good availabilitydepends on aspects such as the size of themunicipality, its building structure and density.In addition, the indicators presuppose that it ispossible in the plan to predict the number ofinhabitants and the geographical distribution ofthe population.

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2. Accessibility by bicycle and on foot

• Proportion of peoplewalking/cycling towork.

• Availability of adja-cent, separate walk-ways and cycle-paths.

Requirement: Definition of the concepts ofaccessibility and availability. Availability can bemeasured in terms of both time and distance. To use “proportion of people walking/cycling towork” as a planning indicator, we have to be ableto simulate/estimate this proportion in the pro-posed plan.

The indicator availability of adjacent, separate walk-ways/cycle-paths can be supplemented by illustratingaspects such as cut-through routes, navigability, conti-nuity and the barrier effect, for more information, see the Helsingborg case study report.

3. Accessibility of recreational areas

• Proportion of housing areasthat have good accessibilityto areas for play and recre-ation.

• Walking distance betweenthe housing area and greenarea.

• Number of barriers between housing and greenareas.

Requirement: Definition of good accessibilityand barriers. Accessibility can be measured bothin time and distance. A barrier can be a road oran industrial estate. Furthermore, the conceptsof recreational area and green area need to bedefined in terms of size and quality.

4. Noisy building areas and green areas

• Proportion of noisy housingunits, max X dB(A) outsideand X dB(A) indoors.

• Proportion of greenareas/recreation areas withmax X dB(A).

Requirement: Specify indoor and outdoorthresholds for acceptable noise levels. Definewhat type of noise it is: noise from aircraft, roadtraffic, rail traffic or from industrial activities thatare close by. Green areas/recreational areasshould be defined in terms of size and quality.

To use them as planning indicators, data in the formof predictable traffic loads on relevant stretches ofroad is required so that we can judge future noise lev-els.

5. Re-use of exploited land

• Number of new buildingareas that are built onpreviously exploited land.

Previously exploited land canbe old industrial land that hasbeen remediated and reusedfor different purposes. In thisway, we avoid the requisition of virgin land.

6. Building areas with sustainable energy supply

• Proportion of built-up areaswith sustainable energysupply.

• Energy use distributedbetween renewable andnon-renewable fuels.

Requirement: Definition of sustainable energysupply. The planning indicators are based on thefact that in the plan it is possible to estimatefuture energy use. The plan also specifies howproposed development areas are to be suppliedwith energy.

7. Access to park land

• Area of park land per inhabi-tant.

Requirement: Specify sizeand quality of park land. Theprimary use of this indicator isin larger urban areas wherethe access to green and recre-ational areas is limited.

R E S T A U R A N G

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8. Access to forests, meadows and wetlands

• Proportion of forests, meadowsand wetlands compared to totalland use.

Requirement: Inventory of themunicipalities’ forests, mead-ows and wetlands and pro-posed changes in land use inthe relevant plan.

9. Protected green areas

• Proportion of protected greenareas.

Requirement: Specify whattype of protection it is. Forexample, in accordance withthe Swedish Planning andBuilding Act, the SwedishEnvironmental Code or protection in accordancewith other plans/programmes, alternatively pro-tection in the form of a nature reserve beingestablished.

10. Biological diversity

• Protection of special and valu-able biotopes.

• Proportion of areas containinghigh natural values.

• Length of edge zones aroundland areas – different types ofedge zones of various widthsprovide different prerequisites for biologicaldiversity.

Requirement: Inventory and classification ofbiotopes and natural values. Define special/valu-able biotopes and high natural values. The planshould indicate how the values will be affectedby the proposed land use.

11. Exploited coasts and shorelines

• Proportion of exploited coastsand shorelines.

• Proportion of shores/banks of amunicipality’s lakes, water-courses and coasts that areaccessible in accordance withthe customary Swedish Rightof Public Access.

Requirement: Specify degree of exploitation anddefine accessibility in accordance with theSwedish Right of Public Access.

12. Protected areas for long-term water supply

• Proportion of protectedareas with regard to theirsignificance for long-termwater supply.

Requirement: Specify theconcept of long-term watersupply.

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Part 3SAMS-background and implementationa development project in the intersection zonebetween theory and practice

The SAMS project is a developmental project and lies

therefore in the cut-off area between theory and

practice. The project aims to bridge the gap between

the clear-cut distinctions drawn between theoreti-

cians and those working with practical applications in

order to create a common playing field on which to

develop better instruments to use in our quest for

sustainable development. At the same time, the proj-

ect was designed to enable planners, environmental-

ists and others involved in the planning process to

find common concepts, tools and fruitful forms of

cooperation. Why then burden a practically oriented

developmental project with a review of different plan-

ning theories? As the saying goes " there's nothing as

practical as a good theory". By reflecting in greater

depth about one's actions and by relating them to a

pattern of thought, it becomes easier to perceive the

context and gain perspective - something which is of

particular importance when working with environ-

mental issues in planning. 82

83

Some planning theories Starting in the 1930s, the ideological basis of commu-nity planning was to develop towards what today canbe called the art of social engineering (Wirén 1998).With the aid of planning, the negative impact of mar-ket forces was to be corrected. In addition to goals foreconomic growth and employment, political goalswere defined in broader terms such as good housing,meaningful work and a certain level of service foreveryone.

Out of this tradition, according to Wirén, thereevolved a technocratic and rationalistic attitude toplanning which excluded scope for a natural environ-ment functioning independently of human thoughtand action. The natural environment was seen astameable and was incorporated into the same train ofthought as social knowledge. The natural surround-ings - the vegetation, formations and watercourses,functioned, according to this way of thinking, as acomplement to housing settlements, recreation andtravel. Environmental issues were seen as technicalproblems that could be solved rationally.

Rational planning requires planning to be a well-ordered, stage-by-stage process where each stagerepresents a specific task. This model is based oninstrumental rationality where decision-makersdecide the goals and professional planners and otherexperts then formulate different plans (Khakee2000, page 25).

Increasing awareness of the significance of environ-mental issues for our survival has led to purely ratio-nalistic planning approaches in which environmentalissues play far too subordinate a role and are not inte-grated into planning work, being earnestly called into

question. Biologists, ecologists and an interested pub-lic have drawn attention to the environmental con-flicts aggravated by traditional planning. They havealso placed greater demands for measures to be takenwhen significant natural and environmental valuescome under threat.

The increased significance of environmental issues inplanning has contributed to a greater interest in alter-native theories, philosophies and planning methods.Several different theories have been developed dur-ing recent decades in reaction to rational planningtheories. These are better equipped for dealing withthe integration of environmental issues in planningthan a purely rational planning model. However, thereis no consistent body of theory which discusses theintegration of environmental issues in communityplanning on the basis of a fundamental theoreticalapproach. There are different approaches and differ-ent schools of thought with few attempts as yet tocombine these into an applicable whole. As a result ofthis, those of us involved in SAMS have not found itfeasible to dispense with a rational approach altogeth-er but have rather chosen to combine certain ele-ments of the rational approach with other approacheswithin the framework of the project.

We would like to draw attention to four of the theo-retical positions defined by Khakee (2000) whichhave had considerable significance in the SAMS proj-ect: strategic planning, communicative planning, gen-erative planning and planning based on negotiation.Strategic planning came in for widespread criticism, asdid the rational planning model, during the 1960s and1970s when it was believed that we could predict thefuture using more or less sophisticated forecastingmethods.

Drawing inspiration from the Strategic Choice schoolof thought, strategic planning has been developed tobe able to deal with qualitative uncertainty and tack-le difficult problems. The Strategic Choice schoolexamined the way in which planning decisions wereactually constructed using a search process in stagesthrough a series of decisions. This has been called thecyclical model to distinguish it from the lineal modelof rational planning philosophy (Wirén 1998, page147).

The strategic planning process can consist of findinga base for decisions, examining various options, dis-carding, modifying and reconsidering them, instead ofproceeding directly to tackling a certain problem andthen solving it with a plan. Khakee (2000) presents asummary of the interesting reasoning behind researchinto strategic planning which illustrates the advan-

Figure 51. SAMS - a development project at the intersectionbetween theory and practice.

SAMStheory practice

tages and opportunities of using a cyclical or iterativeapproach. An iterative approach involves the differentstages of planning being returned to on several occa-sions; the work is carried out in several rounds of plan-ning. During each new round of planning, the contentof the work in progress is developed and extended, inother words, new information is contributed and iscombined in alternatives and proposals:

"To be better able to handle qualitative uncertaintyand tackle 'nasty' problems, planning has to be flexi-ble and present several different alternative planswhich do not consist of package solutions. The solu-tions have to be modifiable as new information is con-tributed or new discoveries are made, known as apackage of undertakings. Strategic planning dismissesa preconceived order according to which the planningprocess should progress. The linear sequence isreplaced by a cyclical order consisting of a number ofevents - the creation of an agenda, the formulation ofalternative packages of undertakings, the selectionand implementation of measures, in which problemscenarios are less complicated and uncertaintybecomes more easily conceivable."

We have also been inspired in the work of developinga work procedure for the integration of environmentalissues in planning by the modernisation of the basis ofstrategic planning which took place within the organ-isation theory represented by Mintzberg. This is pre-sented in "The Core Design School Model"(Mintzberg 1994) and is based, in contrast to earliermore rigid planning models, on strategies beingformed in an interplay between internal and externalfactors. The creation and evaluation of strategies arealso conducted taking social factors and ethics intoconsideration. The strategies are formed, according toMintzberg both top-down and bottom-up. What herefers to as the strategy realised is a synthesis ofintended strategy and evolved strategy. These ideashave made a valuable contribution to our work indeveloping SEA methodology.

Communicative planning theory sees planning asan interactive, communicative process where informa-tion is presented in a number of different forms. This,according to Khakee (2000) is how ethical and criticalsocial planning should be done. It clarifies the linkbetween the problems and questions encountereddaily in planning and describes the larger order inwhich they function. The basis of this planning theo-ry is that it interlaces explanatory and normativeaspects. Healy (in Khakee 2000) highlights ten thesesof communicative planning. Of these we would like topoint out the following as significant for our work withthe case studies. Communicative planning is:

• An interactive and explanatory process whichemphasises decisions and actions from differentpolicy areas but which at the same time, gathersknowledge from everyday life.

• Inter-communicative planning involves a consid-erate dialogue between different groups: consid-eration implies understanding, appreciation andattention to the views and actions of the otherparty.

• Communicative planning is a mutual learningprocess in which the participants gain self knowl-edge and insight into their own relationships toother people and their values.

Healy also writes that communicative planning isbased on goals in the same way as traditional planningin the sense that the given goals have to be pursued ina specific way; it is rather a process accepted by allinvolved but which can still be modified if necessary.Although the SAMS project has had its point of depar-ture in the national environmental objectives, wehave allowed considerable scope, in line with this the-ory, for local interpretations of the objectives andencouraged very open and critical discussion aboutthe implications of the objectives on the local leveland around the interplay between the objectives atdifferent levels.

The generative planning theory is related to com-municative planning. It also places considerableweight on the importance of interaction between theparties involved in the planning process. The partieslearn to cooperate with each other, identify commoninterests and respect each other's views when thesedo not coincide. The model was devised when it wasdiscovered that an increasing gap was developingbetween professional planners and the general public.One of the most significant obstacles in this commu-nication is that planners primarily make use of theirprofessional or expert knowledge while the publicbases its ideas on experience (personal or lay knowl-edge).

Professional knowledge is based on theoretical condi-tions and scientific methods while knowledge basedon experience is taken from everyday life which ismore difficult to systemise. The experts possess acombination of professional knowledge and knowl-edge based on experience within their occupationalfields (Schön 1991). The generative model provides,among other aspects, an image of how professionalknowledge and layman's knowledge can be combinedin an instructional process based on a dialogue of trustbetween the parties concerned in the planning

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process. These insights have been expressed in thecase studies where we have employed dialogue withthe public.

A further branch of planning theory attracting increas-ing attention towards the end of the 1970s was plan-ning involving negotiation. It was generally accept-ed that decision processes previously felt to beautonomous within the market or public agencieswere in fact interdependent. According to Cars(1992)the negotiation planning theory is characterised bythe following:

• A strategic interdependence between the partiesinvolved.

• Negotiations are held concerning activities con-trolled by legislation and regulations, but inwhich the parties avoid formal channels for deci-sion making.

• The parties successively adapt their actions andtheir aims for the sake of reaching the best possi-ble result.

Frame of reference formethod development

There was no single theory to adopt, therefore, whenthe project started. In a conceptual essay on thenational environmental objectives and comprehen-sive planning (Ranhagen 1996) which preceded fur-ther work on the preparatory study, an attempt wasmade to create a frame of reference for illustrating theinterplay between the objectives and physical-spatialmeans. By frame of reference we mean "somethingwhich forms a background for ideas and values"(Swedish Academy Dictionary). This approach hasprovided the base for the detailed work conductedinto these questions, examined in chapter 4.

In connection with work on the pre-study, the dis-cussion turned towards the process issues and theirimportance has subsequently increased in the proj-ect. We outlined a preliminary frame of reference forthe planning process providing an overview ofimportant concepts, see the pre-study (Ranhagen1997a). The frame of reference is summarised inFigure 52.

The frame of reference can provide support for relat-ing the project to different approaches and theoriesconcerning planning and the environment. It is basedon a specific view of the process in which cooperationbetween the parties concerned (politicians, the pub-

lic, experts) in different planning processes is seen asa central issue for the achievement of the integrationof environmental objectives in planning constitutingthe overall aim.

The frame of reference is primarily a point of depar-ture for developing a practical working procedureand a dynamic working method to facilitate the inte-gration of environmental issues in comprehensivecommunity planning. This does not preclude anyinterest in more in-depth theoretical developmentwithin the field. The work of developing the frameof reference further involves at least two consider-able challenges:

• The discovery of a credible way of bridging thegap between theory and practice.

• The fusion of two, widely differing perspectiveson society: the planning and the environmentalperspectives.

The point of departure for the frame of reference is asystem perspective for sustainable developmentwhere ecological, social and economic goals coincideand permeate the planning process throughout. Theplanning and decision processes are described as theflow of two interlaced processes, a formal and an infor-mal process. The onus in SAMS has been on thedevelopment of methods and tools in the informalprocess which precedes formalised planning. In theinformal dialogues between the different parties alarge number of associations can be made to what ischaracteristic of both communicative and generativeplanning.

At the centre of the frame of reference is, once again,the process of designing the plan. In the originalframe of reference four aspects were distinguished;objectives, means, conditions and alternatives. Theseaspects have been further developed in subsequentwork to a working procedure for planning which hasbeen described earlier in this report.

The stages incorporated in the working procedurehave been influenced by the way in which the plan-ning process is described in Lichfield (1996). Animportant distinction is that SAMS emphasises thesignificance of the iterative and cyclical proceduremore strongly than in Lichfield in accordance withthe Strategic Choice School, Khakee (2000) andSchön (1991).

In Figure 52 we can see the recurring processes forchange and implementation relevant to the scope forbeing able to implement the proposals presented inthe planning process. This process is shown parallel to

the design of the plan since a number of changes andmeasures are often implemented parallel to the plan-ning and more or less co-ordinated with them.

Another basic activity in planning is recurrent revi-sion and updating where a follow-up of the result ofprevious planning is made. The follow-up is con-ducted in relation to the changes in physical, eco-nomic and social realities which have resulted fromthe planning.

Need for further R&D and practical application

There is considerable need for further developmentwithin several of the areas affected in the SAMSproject. It is easier to see the gaps in knowledgeonce we begin to penetrate an area than when in"blissful ignorance." There is a need for continuedR&D and practical applications for following up theresult of the SAMS project in cooperation with theparties involved. Such studies could appropriately becarried out when the current work has been integrat-ed even further than in comprehensive planningprocesses underway or newly begun. The ideas out-lined below for continued R&D work and practicalapplications should also interest other parties withthe aim of spreading and developing the results fromSAMS more widely.

The interplay between national environmentalobjectives, regional and local environmental targets

In the project we have concentrated on how nationalenvironmental objectives can be adapted locally.There is also a need to analyse the interplay betweendifferent objectives on different levels and develop-ing practical forms for working with environmentalobjectives in the interplay between different levels ofplanning. It is especially important to discover formsfor formulating regional targets on the basis of bothnational and local objectives, such as in the develop-mental project conducted by the regional partiesinvolved in SAMS.

Planning and environmental dialogues andcooperation between different types of parties

There is a need to follow up and evaluate the type ofplanning and environmental dialogues conducted inthe project to attain a deeper impression of the viewsof the parties involved in the processes, as well as thedifficulties and scope for development. Advantagesand disadvantages in the different ways of setting upthe planning and environmental dialogues have to bepresented.

There is also a need for a more systematic survey ofthe extent to which the project has contributed todeveloping cooperation between the different parties

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change and implementation

physical reality

planning processes and decision processes

a sustainability perspective

ecologicaleconomic

social

plan design process

informal dialogue – formal consultation, decision, negotiations

Figure 52. A frame of reference for the planningprocess in the SAMS project.

87

and thereby to clarify the distinguishing and commonviews, language barriers etc. This could be done inthe form of structured interviews with participants inthe case and thematic studies.

The role of comprehensive planning in relation to other factors

The SAMS project is focused on the physical-spatialstructure and its potential for contributing to theachievement of environmental objectives. In the casestudies the emphasis is on the way in which environ-mental objectives can be attained with the aid of aspecific sub structure in an interchange with other substructures. There is also a need for studies using aholistic approach to illustrate the interplay betweenthe sub structures. This might include, for instance,the complex issue of how the interdependence ofhousing, service functions and workplaces affect theinfrastructure, urban- and green structures. What con-flicts and synergies can be identified between differ-ent types of structures?

As pointed out in some of the case studies there arealso other factors - political, economic, social and tech-nological - of decisive significance to the physicalstructure, and to comprehensive planning, in relationto other factors:

• How can the effect of a robust physical structurebe reinforced by being combined with other fac-tors?

• In what way is the potential for attaining envi-ronmental objectives inhibited if these combina-tions are not exploited?

Method approaches, fresh input and the application of tools should be developed further in practical applications

The main part of the method approaches, applicationof tools and other ideas developed in the case studiesneed to be developed further and integrated in con-tinuing comprehensive planning processes in themunicipalities. There is a great need for the develop-ment of more advanced, computer based methodslinking GIS with other models for the use of land,transport and environmental resources. At the sametime these types of methodology should be renderedmore transparent so as not to become the exclusiveproperty of experts.

It is also important to develop methods with a quali-tative focus such as images of the future, SWOT,mental maps, focus diagrams and equivalentapproaches to allow these to contribute to the devel-

opment of planning and environmental dialogues.There is also a need for evaluation and a deeperanalysis of the advantages and disadvantages withsome of the methods and tools used in the SAMSproject.

Development of strategic impact assessments

Methods have to be developed to relate the assess-ments of environmental impact of alternatives in theplans to social and economic consequences in com-prehensive planning. Concepts and tools are neededto make description of the conflicts and synergies eas-ier as well as the interplay between different types ofenvironmental objectives on the one hand, and envi-ronmental along with social and economic targets onthe other. Methods for improving the integration ofstrategic impact assessments in planning work are alsoneeded.

The need for development of GIS indicators

The quantification normally required for the use ofindicators is often based on the application ofadvanced computer tools and GIS for simulating planalternatives as well as in the evaluation of the alterna-tives. As long as the methods are difficult to use forplanners and environmentalists it will continue to bedifficult to integrate the use of indicators in planning.On the other hand, the use and value of indicators willbecome increasingly apparent at the rate in whichthese techniques are developed and become moreuser-friendly as well as becoming easier as data can beobtained at a more reasonable price. The techniquescould then be used to allow easier comparisonbetween different alternatives, along with the abilityto superimpose economic, social and environmentalaspects onto GIS models.

Development of indicator systems for comparisons between municipalities and regions

In SAMS the development of methodology has pri-marily concentrated on how the individual munici-palities or regions could work with environmentalobjectives in planning. It is also important to devel-op indicator systems which enable us to make com-parisons between the municipalities and regions interms of the impact of environmental objectives incomprehensive planning, to allow the assessment ofenvironment impact for example, in sparsely popu-lated and concentrated structures in different partsof the country.

The studiesThe development of method in SAMS is based onthree elements:

Case studies conducted by the municipalitiesinvolved and the Board of Regional Planning andUrban Transportation at Stockholm County Council.

Thematic studies with a more in-depth examination ofcertain themes which were mainly conducted by expertsfrom the National Board of Housing, Building andPlanning and the Environmental Protection Agency.

The accumulation of knowledge and experiencefrom R&D and other work underway with relevanceto the project.

The core of the project is the case studies conducted bythe municipalities involved and the Board of RegionalPlanning and Urban Transportation with the support ofgovernment agencies and the relevant county adminis-trative boards. The case studies were intended to be partof the ongoing planning work of the municipalities. Theparticipants from south to north were: the municipalitiesof Burlöv, Helsingborg, Trollhättan, Stockholm,Borlänge, Falun and Storuman along with the Board ofRegional Planning and Urban Transportation. The coun-ty boards in Skåne, Västra Götaland, Stockholm, Dalarnaand Västerbotten have supported the municipalities.

By means of the geographical spread between thecase studies, the environment and planning situationsexamine everything from a characteristic sparselypopulated municipality (Storuman) to the mostdensely populated regions in the country (Stockholmand Skåne). The case studies have had different focalpoints depending on the issues the municipalitiesconsidered most important to work on. These focalpoints are:

Burlöv: A good living environment through reducedenvironmental impact from transport.

Hesingborg: The interplay between urban and trans-port planning (public transport and bicycle transport).

Trollhättan: Local adaptation of the national envi-ronmental quality objective for a Good UrbanEnvironment.

Stockholm 1: Biological diversity in the NationalUrban Park.

Stockholm 2: Environmental assessment at area level.

Falun-Borlänge: Environmental objectives and indi-cators for agriculture and forestry adapted for planning.

Storuman: Scenarios for sustainable development ina sparsely populated municipality area.

The regional planning level was represented by: The Office of Regional Planning and Urban Trans-portation in Stockholm: Strategic environmentalassessment in regional planning.

Two studies addressing similar issues were conductedby The National Board of Housing, Building andPlanning and the Swedish EPA in cooperation withplanners and environmentalists in the municipalitiesof Kimberly and Port Elizabeth in South Africa.

Thematic studies concentrating on issues central tothe project were conducted by experts from theNational Board of Housing, Building and Planningand the Swedish EPA in cooperation with researchers,those working with practical applications and chiefconsultants. The thematic studies were intended toprovide support to the case studies and represent partof the development of methodology. The mainaspects of the results have been presented in AGuide. The three thematic studies focused on the fol-lowin:

• Environmental objectives and physical structures(presented in Environmentally-based comprehensiveplanning).

• Strategic environmental assessment, SEA (pre-sented in SEA in comprehensive physical planning).

• Geographic information systems, GIS (presentedin GIS and environmental objectives in comprehensiveplanning).

Two in-depth studies were associated with the the-matic study on environmental objectives and physicalstructures. In these studies specific factual issues orissues of methodology have been examined in greaterdetail. One of the studies is about drinking water andmaterial supply in a regional perspective, while theother is about ecocycle solutions for town and countrywith regard, for example, to the handling of sludgefrom sewage treatment plants and the production ofbio fuels. The thematic study into GIS was alsoaccompanied by an in-depth study. This study focused

88

The SAMS-project in short – studies, organisation and financing

89

on GIS applications as a dialogue tool. References forthese studies are cited at the end of this book.

The accumulation of knowledge and experience hasbeen conducted by means of literature studies andthe formulation of literature reviews, through contactswith researchers and those working with practicalapplications in other projects, along with participantsin seminars and conferences. References for theexpert reports published in the project can also befound at the end of this book. Experience has alsobeen exploited from R&D conducted at the RoyalInstitute of Technology in Stockholm at the depart-ment for infrastructure and community planning. Theproject has also acquired experience and results fromprojects, essays, theses degree and doctoral work atthe University of Technology in Luleå, TheUniversity of Agricultural Sciences in Alnarp and theUniversity of Stockholm. The GIS thematic studybenefited from work in conjunction with TheUniversity of Lund and Chalmers Institute ofTechnology, Stockholm University and several gov-ernment agencies and consultants.

Developmental work has been conducted in a net-work cooperation between these studies and parties.

OrganisationThe project has been led by a management groupwith two representatives from each governmentagency. The management group has made decisionsconcerning how the project should be implementedand has had overall responsibility for the budget, theresults and for ensuring that personnel resources wereprovided. The group responsible for running the proj-ect consisted of a project leader and a project secre-tary from each of the government agencies. The proj-ect leader has, assisted by the project secretary, co-ordinated and directed the progression of the work,ensured that the budget and time schedules weremet, organised conferences and seminars, written pro-grammes and presented reports to the EU.

The case studies have had their own working groupsand often reference and management groups. Thegroups have been led by one or two people responsi-ble in each of the municipalities; planners, environ-mentalists and transport technicians. Each case studyhas had two contact people, one from each govern-ment agency, who have followed the work continu-

Office of Regional HPlanning and HUrban Transportation

H

Stockholm 1 Stockholm 2

Trollhättan

Helsingborg

BurlövStoruman

Falun – Borlänge

case studies

GIS

environmental objectives Hand physical structures

SEA

theme studies

Bio-energyand ecocycle

Figures, <positions and

<

experiences

SAMS onwater

Figure 53. Developmental work along with the development of methodology in collaborative networks.

ously to provide support and advice, along with a con-tact person at the county board.

The agencies have had a co-ordination group for co-ordination and the spread of information throughoutthe project. This group comprised the project leaderand secretary, all those responsible for the thematicand in-depth studies as well as the contact people forthe case studies.

A chief consultant was made available to the SAMSproject from SWECO/FFNS Arkitekter who partici-pated throughout the course of the project and wasinvolved in and followed all the sub-studies with par-ticular responsibility for the general development ofideas and methodology.

The reference group which has followed the work ofSAMS (The National Board of Housing, Building andPlanning Council for Community Planning) consistsof experts from planning and environmental functionsat municipal and regional levels, the SwedishAssociation of Local Authorities and from the world ofresearch.

Cooperation between environmentalistsand planners - a basic idea

In order to integrate environmental issues more effi-ciently in the planning the project has concentratedon contributing to the promotion of close cooperationbetween the occupational categories of environmen-talists and planners. This is reflected throughout theentire organisation of the project. All the sub-studies

with the exclusion of the in-depth studies, have beenbased on close cooperation between environmental-ists and planners. The National Board of Housing,Building and Planning, representing planning expert-ise at central level, and the Swedish EPA, with centralresponsibility for environmental issues, have each, forinstance, provided a project leader, a project secretaryand an equal number of representatives in the man-agement group for the project. The municipality casestudies have also incorporated the involvement ofboth environmentalists and planners. In total around150 people have been involved in the project.

Participants

The National Board of Housing, Building and PlanningAili KäärikAnna-Karin SonessonBengt LarsénBo NilssonChatarina HolmbergClaes Göran GuinchardDick LarssonGunnel JonssonJan GunnarsonJanos SzegöKarin Slättberg (project secretary)Kerstin HugneKristina NilssonLars AnderssonLisbeth FallPär EnvallRobert JohannessonYlva Rönning (project manager)Yngve Malmqvist

The Swedish Environmental Protection AgencyAnders LindAnne ThorénClas MagnussonEbbe AdolfssonEgon EnockssonErica BrewitzEva SmithHelena von Knorring (project secretary)Henrik LindströmJannica HäggbomKatrin Ottosson (project manager)Kerstin Backman-HannerzMarie LarssonMarie Louise RydénSven ArvidssonSven GötheUlrik Westman (project secretary)

90

Figure 54. The organisation of the SAMS project.

steering group

coordination group

main consultant

agency/board experts

reference group,researchers,scientific support

case studies theme and in-depth studies

management group

91

Regional and central authoritiesCharlotte Lindström, Region SkåneElisabeth Hellmo, Länsstyrelsen SkåneInga Hallén, Länsstyrelsen SkåneJohan Meurling, Banverket region sydLennart Lennefors, Banverket region sydKristina Rundcrantz, Vägverket region SkåneMartin Ljungström, Vägverket region SkåneArne Fasth, VägverketMirja Ranesköld, VägverketPontus Falk, Vägverket Petter Eiring, Länsstyrelsen SkåneBerit Pettersson, Länsstyrelsen Stockholms länKerstin Gustavsson, Länsstyrelsen Stockholms länMikael Wallin, Länsstyrelsen Stockholms länErik Marell, Länsstyrelsen Västerbottens länBo Berge, Länsstyrelsen Västerbottens länLars Nilsson, Länsstyrelsen Västerbottens län Anders Hagland, Länsstyrelsen DalarnaStig-Åke Svensson, Länsstyrelsen DalarnaGreger Öström, Länsstyrelsen DalarnaHans Lillpers, Länsstyrelsen DalarnaJanet Jaudér, Länsstyrelsen DalarnaLars Ingelström, Länsstyrelsen DalarnaBritta Johnson, Länsstyrelsen Västra Götalands länMargareta Wallin, Länsstyrelsen Västra Götalands länTomas Nyström, SidaTor Eriksson, Sida

BurlövInger Sellers, planeringssekreterareKent Elwér, kommunekologLennart Pettersson, utvecklings- och informations-chef (project manager)

HelsingborgAnna Maria Dagås, Stadsbyggnadskontoret Birgit Müller, StadsbyggnadskontoretCaroline Olsson, StadsbyggnadskontoretChristina Andersson, StadsbyggnadskontoretClaes Nihlén, StadsbyggnadskontoretGregor Holmberg, StadsbyggnadskontoretHåkan Lindström, Stadsbyggnadskontoret (projectmanager)Karin Hansen, StadsbyggnadskontoretNils Lindgren, StadsbyggnadskontoretOle Reiter, StadsbyggnadskontoretPer Fredrik von Platen, StadsbyggnadskontoretSiv Hellmark, StadsbyggnadskontoretWidar Narvelo, Stadsbyggnadskontoret

The Board of Regional Planning and Urban Transportation (RTK)Göran JohnsonHans BrattströmKajsa Bernergård (project manager)Tomas Andersson

Other participants in the RTK case study:Anders Hallmén, Sollentuna kommun.Christer Rosenström, Nacka kommun.Gertrud Egnell, Järfälla kommun.Gunnel Lövkvist, Norrtälje kommun.Jan Forsman, Salems kommun.Magnus Nilsson, NaturskyddsföreningenStockholms län

Stockholm – biological diversityArne Fredlund, StadsbyggnadskontoretCristina Björn, Stadsbyggnadskontoret (project manager)Katarina Löfvenhaft, StadsbyggnadskontoretUlrika Egerö, StadsbyggnadskontoretVeronica Gelland-Boström, Solna stad

Stockholm – environmental assessmentsAgneta Larsson, StadsbyggnadskontoretGunnel Blomqvist, MiljöförvaltningenGöran Lundberg, MiljöförvaltningenLars Erik Wretblad, Stadsbyggnadskontoret (project manager)Per Enarsson, Miljöförvaltningen

StorumanCarola Byström, Tekniska enhetenRagnar Bergeå, Arkinova ArkitekterRalph Johansson, Tekniska enheten (project manager)Ulrika Kjellsdotter, Stadsbyggnadskontoret

Falun and BorlängeAnna Perols, Miljökontoret Falu kommunKarin Blidberg, Miljökontoret Borlänge KommunKristina Harsbo, Miljökontoret Falu kommunMats Reutherborg, Stadsbyggnadskontoret Falu kommun (project manager)Per-Erik Sandberg, Miljökontoret Falu kommunSteve Johnson, Stadsbyggnadskontoret Borlängekommun (project manager)Sören Nyström, Miljökontoret Borlänge kommunTony Svensson, Stadsbyggnadskontoret Falu kommun

TrollhättanBarbara Sandell, MiljökontoretFredric Palm, StadsbyggnadsförvaltningenKarin Thorsenius, Stadsbyggnadsförvaltningen

South AfricaBrendan Hindes, Port ElizabethJonathan Mercer, Port ElizabethDick Eberson, KimberleyMarius Stols, Kimberley

Chief Consultant, SWECO/FFNSHelena DjurstedtSara TrobeckUlf Ranhagen (senior consultant)

ConsultantsINREGIA, Siv Schéele och Staffan ErikssonLagtolken PL AB, Peggy LermanSATELLUS, Anders LundgrenSWECO, VBB VIAK i Malmö, Jonas Andréasson,Peter AlstorpSWEGIS, Mikael ElmquistTorsten Lundberg, UmeåTyréns Infrakonsult AB, Anders Hedlund

Universities and Institutes of TechnologyBjörn Malbert, Chalmers Tekniska HögskolaHördur Haraldsson, Lunds Tekniska HögskolaLars Emmelin, Högskolan Karlskrona/RonnebyLena Falkheden, Chalmers Tekniska HögskolaLennart Olsson, Lunds UniversitetLillemor Lewan, Lunds universitetMats Reneland, Chalmers Tekniska HögskolaVibeke Dalgas, Lunds Tekniska HögskolaWolter Arnberg, Stockholms UniversitetUlf Ranhagen, Luleå Tekniska Universitet

Degree work etcAlexander Ståhle, Stockholms UniversitetBarbara Eggimann, Stockholms UniversitetEva Hessleryd, Stockholms UniversitetJenni Kytöhonka, Kungliga Tekniska HögskolanKarl Ingelstam, Kungliga Tekniska HögskolanRickard Sånnek, Kungliga Tekniska HögskolanSara Olsson, Luleå Tekniska UniversitetKatrin Wimmer, Luleå Tekniska Universitet

FinancingThe project has been partially financed by the EUenvironmental LIFE fund and by Sida. The contribu-tion from LIFE represented 44 per cent of the financ-ing while The National Board of Housing, Buildingand Planning, the Swedish EPA and the regional andmunicipality participants contributed the remainingmeans through their work and effort. Sida contributedprimarily to the case studies in Kimberley and PortElizabeth and also contributed to the development ofmethodology within the project.

Telescreen conferencing provided environmental and time gains!

The travel policy within the SAMS project has con-tributed partly to the reduction of the total cost oftravel and partly to move travel from air to rail. Theproject has also made use of telescreen conferencingto a large extent instead of travelling and meeting inperson. 100 telescreen conferences were held duringthe three years the project was underway. Accordingto the project statistics this resulted in a saving ofaround 231 return flights between Stockholm andKarlskrona and around 19 return flights betweenStockholm and Umeå. In theory this means a savingin emissions of around 34 tonnes of CO2. The totalenvironmental cost can be estimated at around SEK60,000. In terms of time around 1,333 travel hourshave been saved or 167 working days, which is equiv-alent to SEK 308,000 (including national social insur-ance contributions) according to the payroll statisticsfor the SAMS project.

The environmental costs are based on the values thegovernment has established for regional effects.Urban effects are valued even higher (SIKA Report2000:3, ASEA calculation values in brief). Today thecosts are calculated as follows: carbon dioxide (CO2)1.50 SEK/kg, hydrocarbon (HC) 30.00SEK/kg, nitro-gen oxides (NOX) 60.00 SEK/kg, sulphur dioxide(SO2) 20.00SEK/kg. For further information, see theFinal Report.

92

93

Reports

Reports available in Swedish 1. Bioenergi och kretslopp stad/land - en samsyn. 2000. Boverketoch Naturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket 91-7147-625-3,Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5099-0

2. Eggimann, B. 2000. Fysisk planering med strategiskmiljöbedömning (SMB) för hållbarhet. En teoretisk diskussionoch förslag till SMB-process med Stockholms stad som modell.Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket 91-7147-583-4, Naturvårdsverket 530-620-5041-9.

3. Exempelsamling temastudie GIS. 2000. Boverket ochNaturvårdsverket (SAMS). Se SAMS hemsida på Internet:www.environ.se/sams.

4. Falkheden, L och Malbert, B. 2000. Fysiska strukturer för håll-bar utveckling i medelstora och små städer och tätorter. En kun-skapssammanställning. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS),Chalmers tekniska högskola, Arkitektursektionen, Tema Byggdmiljö och Hållbar utveckling. Se SAMS hemsida på Internet:www.environ.se/sams

5. För en bärkraftig samhällsutveckling – miljömål och indikatoreri fysisk planering. 1997. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS).ISBN 91-7147-368-8.

6. GIS och miljömål i fysisk planering. 2000. Boverket ochNaturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket 91-7147-619-9,Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5093-1

7. Hållbara strukturer. 1999. Regionplane- och trafikkontoret.Promemoria 15:99. ISSN 1402-134X, RTN 9710-0189.Medfinansierad av Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS).

8. Idédiskussion kring SMB i planering. 2000. Boverket ochNaturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket 91-7147-626-1,Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5100-8.

9. Indikatorer i fysisk planering, En kunskapsöversikt. 1999.Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket 91-7147-493-5, Naturvårdsverket 91-620-4930-5.

10. Lerman, P. 2000. Fysisk planering arena för samspel: miljömål,miljökvalitetsnormer, indikatorer konsekvensanalyser. Se SAMShemsida på Internet: www.environ.se/sams

11. Lewan, L. Ekologiska fotavtryck och biokapacitet – verktygför planering och uppföljning av hållbar utveckling i ett interna-tionellt perspektiv. Rapport till SAMS-projektet, Boverket ochNaturvårdsverket (SAMS), Miljövetenskapligt centrum, Lundsuniversitet, april 2000. ISBN Boverket 91-7147-647-4,Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5123-7.

12. Miljöinriktad fysisk planering. 2000. Boverket ochNaturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket 91-7147-621-0,Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5095-8.

13. Miljömål och indikatorer i fysisk planering – Port Elizabethoch Kimberley i Sydafrika, Delrapport 1. 1998. Boverket ochNaturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket 91-7147-484-6,Naturvårdsverket 91-620-4922-4.

14. Nordiskt projekt om SMB för planer och program. Bilaga tillrapporten SMB och översiktlig fysisk planering. 2000. Boverketoch Naturvårdsverket (SAMS). Se SAMS hemsida på Internet:www.environ.se/sams.

15. Planera med miljömål! En idékatalog. 2000. Boverket ochNaturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket 91-7147-618-0,Naturvårdverket 91-620-5092-3.

16. Planera med miljömål! En vägvisare. 2000. Boverket ochNaturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket 91-7147-617-2,Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5091-5.

17. Planera med miljömål! - Fallstudie Burlöv, livsmiljöprojektet .2000. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket 91-7147-627-X, Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5101-6.

18. Planera med miljömål! - Fallstudie Falun/Borlänge, skogs- ochodlingslandskapet. 2000. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS).ISBN Boverket 91-7147-632-6, Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5106-7.

19. Planera med miljömål! - Fallstudie Helsingborg, tillgänglighettill miljöanpassade transportsystem. 2000. Boverket ochNaturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN: Boverket 91-7147-628-8,Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5102-4.

20. Planera med miljömål! - Fallstudie Storuman, scenarier förhållbar utveckling. 2000. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS).ISBN Boverket 91-7147-633-4, Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5107-5.

21. Planera med miljömål! - Fallstudie Stockholm, biologisk mång-fald i fysisk planering. 2000. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS).ISBN Boverket 91-7147-630-X, Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5104-0.

22. Planera med miljömål! - Fallstudie Stockholm,miljöbedömningar i fysisk planering. 2000. Boverket ochNaturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN: Boverket 91-7147-631-8,Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5105-9.

23. Planera med miljömål! - Fallstudie Stockholmsregionen,miljöbedömning av Regionplan 2000. 2000. Boverket ochNaturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket 91-7147-634-2,Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5108-3.

24. Planera med miljömål! - Fallstudie Trollhättan, god bebyggdmiljö. 2000. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBNBoverket 91-7147-629-6, Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5103-2.

25. Planera med miljömål! Kort sagt. 2000. Boverket ochNaturvårdsverket (SAMS). Boverket nr 7147-644-X, ISBNNaturvårdsverket 91-620-8007-5

26. Samhällsplanering med miljömål i Sverige, Lägesredovisning1. 1998. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket91-7147-489-7, Naturvårdsverket 91-620-4927-5.

27. Samhällsplanering med miljömål i Sverige, Lägesredovisning2. 1998. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket91-7147-491-9, Naturvårdsverket 91-620-4928-3.

28. Samhällsplanering med miljömål i Sverige, Lägesredovisning3. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS). 1999. ISBN Boverket91-7147-555-9, Naturvårdsverket 91-620-4928-3.

29. Samhällsplanering med miljömål i Sverige, Interrimrapport ochLägesredovisning 4. 2000. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket. ISBNBoverket 9147-7147-581-8, Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5032-X.

30. Samhällsplanering med miljömål i Sverige, Slutredovisning.2000. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket 91-7147-646-6, Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5123-7.

31. Sams om vatten - samhällsplanering för en långsiktigt hållbarvattenförsörjning. 2000. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS).ISBN Boverket 91-7147-623-7, Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5097-4.

32. SAMS - SMB, vad finns inom olika sektorer ? En genomgångav olika rapporter mm. Bilaga till rapporten SMB och översiktligfysisk planering. 2000. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS).Se SAMS hemsida på Internet: www.environ.se/sams.

33. Siffror, lägen och upplevelser – Idéskisser för användning avGIS i samhällsplanering. 2000. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket(SAMS). ISBN Boverket 91-7147-624-5, Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5098-2.

34. SMB och översiktlig fysisk planering. 2000. Boverket ochNaturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket 91-7147-622-9,Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5096-6.

35. Sånnek, R. 1999. Ekologiska fotavtryck - metodansats ochtillämpning i samhällsplaneringen. KTH: Institutionen för infrastruktur och samhällsplanering. KTH examensarbete nr 98 – 79. ISBN 91-7147-549-4.Tema miljömål: Planera för hållbarutveckling. 2000. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS).ISBN Boverket 91-7147-643-1, Naturvårdsverket 91-620-8006-7.

36. Tema miljömål: Planera för hållbar utveckling. 2000. Boverketoch Naturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket ISBN 91-7147-643-1, Naturvårdsverket 91-620-8006-7.

37. Översiktplanering för hållbar utveckling - exempel från 5 kom-muner. 2000. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBNBoverket 91-7147-620-2, Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5094-X.

38. Översiktsplanering med IT och GIS för hållbar utveckling –rapport från tre seminariedagar våren 1999. 2000. Boverket ochNaturvårdsverket (SAMS). ISBN Boverket 91-7147-577-X,Naturvårdsverket 91-620-5025-7.

Reports available in English1. Environmental Indicators in Community Planning – A presen-tation of the Literature. 1999. The Board of Regional Planningand Urban Transportation, The National Board of Housing,Building and Planning and The Swedish EnvironmentalProtection Agency (SAMS). ISBN NBHBP 91-7147-558-3, SEPA91-620-8011-7.

2. Environmental Objectives and Indicators in Port Elizabeth andKimberley, South Africa: Progress report 1. 1998. The NationalBoard of Housing, Building and Planning and The SwedishEnvironmental Protection Agency (SAMS). ISBN NBHBP 91-7147-463-3, SEPA 91-620-4923-2.

3. Environmental Objectives and Indicators in Spatial Planningand Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEA), Progress reportno1. 1998. The National Board of Housing, Building andPlanning and The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency(SAMS). ISBN NBHBP 91-7147-490-0, SEPA 91-620-8011-7.

4. Environmental Objectives and Indicators in Spatial Planningand Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEA). Interrimreportand Progress report no 4. 2000. The National Board of Housing,Building and Planning and The Swedish EnvironmentalProtection Agency (SAMS). ISBN NBHBP 91-7147-582-6, SEPA91-620-5033-8.

5. Final report - Environmental Objectives and Indicators inSpatial Planning and SEA, Kimberley and Port Elizabeth. 1999.The National Board of Housing, Building and Planning and TheSwedish Environmental Protection Agency (SAMS). ISBNNBHBP 91-7147-565-6, SEPA 91-620-5014-1.

6. Planning with environmental objectives! A guide. 2000. TheNational Board of Housing, Building and Planning and TheSwedish Environmental Protection Agency (SAMS). ISBNNBHBP 91-7147-650-4, SEPA 91-620-5124-5.

7. Planning with environmental objectives! In short. 2000.Planning for sustainable development. 2000. The National Boardof Housing, Building and Planning and The SwedishEnvironmental Protection Agency (SAMS). NBHBP No 7147-651-2, ISBN SEPA 91-620-8009-1.

8. Theme environmental objectives: Planning for sustainabledevelopment. 2000. The National Board of Housing, Building andPlanning and The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency(SAMS). ISBN NBHBP 91-7147-649-0, SEPA 91-620-8008-3.

9. The Use of Indicators in Spatial Planning – A Situation Report.1999. The National Board of Housing, Building and Planning andThe Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (SAMS). ISBNNBHBP 91-7147-559-1, SEPA 91-620-5010-9.

10. Towards Sustainable Development – EnvironmentalObjectives and Indicators in Spatial Planning. 1998. The NationalBoard of Housing, Building and Planning and The SwedishEnvironmental Protection Agency (SAMS). ISBN NBHBP 91-7147-464-1, ISBN SEPA 91-620-4905-4.

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95

AbbreviationsCP Comprehensive PlanEF Ecological FootprintEIA Environmental Impact AssessmentGIS Geographical Information SystemMCA Multi-Criteria AnalysisNBHBP National Board of Housing, Building and

PlanningSAMS Environmental objectives and indicators

in spatial planning and strategic environ-mental assessment

SEA Strategic Environmental AssessmentSEPA Swedish Environmental Protection

Agency

References and further readingsAndersson, M, 1998, Stockholms årsringar. En inblick i stadensframväxt. Stockholmia förlag. Monografi 131. ISBN 91-7031-068-8

Asplund, E & Hilding-Rydevik T, 1996, Kunskap, miljö &framtid. Plan-MKB – fallstudier i två kommuner. KTH, Avd förRegional planering. TRITA-IP FR 96-14

Asplund, E, Hedlund, A, Ranhagen, U, 1996, Bärkraftig utveck-ling i samhällsplaneringen – tre idéuppsatser. NaturvårdsverketRapport 4626. ISBN 91-620-4626-8

Asplund, E, Dovlén, S, Håkansson, M, Orrskog, L, 1997, Räckerkompetensen? – en studie av det långsiktiga miljöarbetet i fyrakommuner. KTH, Institutionen för Infrastruktur och samhälls-planering. TRITA-IP FR 97-27

Asplund, E & Skantze, A, 1999, Om relationen mellan forskning ochpraktik. KTH, Avd för Regional planering. TRITA-IP FR 99-61

Boken om översiktsplan 1996 del I–IV. Boverket. ISBN 91-7147-250-9, 91-7147-251-7, 91-7147-258-4, 91-7147-259-2

Cars, G, 1992, Förhandlingar mellan privata och offentliga aktöreri samhällsbyggandet. KTH, Avd för Regional planering.TRITA/RP-92/1007

Din guide till kommunal översiktsplanering. 1999. BoverketT2:1999 (cd-rom)

Edman, S, 1999, Världens chans. Ny möjlighet för Sverige. Enbok om ekologi, teknik och solidaritet. Atlas bokförlag. ISBN 91-89044-58-4

Emmelin, L, 2000, Miljömål och indikatorer i SMB och fysiskplanering: utmaningar och fällor. I Idédiskussion om SMB i fysiskplanering (delrapport från SAMS)

Eriksson, Olof, 2000, Omvända världen. Tlm Thélème, ISBN 91-973824-0-X

Falkheden & Malbert, 2000, Fysiska strukturer för hållbar utveck-ling i medelstora och små städer och tätorter – en kunskapssam-manställning. www.environ.se/sams/

Framtidens miljö – allas vårt ansvar! 2000. Slutbetänkande avMiljömålskommittén. SOU 2000:52 Del 1 ISBN 91-38-21222-6,del 2 ISBN 91-38-21224-2

Grahn, P m fl, 1997, Ute på dagis: hur använder barn daghemsgår-den? Movium Stad & land 145. ISBN 91-576-5199-X

Grönstrukturen i Stockholmsregionen. 1996. Regionplane- ochtrafikkontoret vid Stockholms läns landsting rapport 2:1996

Günther, F, 1993, Systemekologi och samhällsplanering. Uppsats iBiologi och bosättning – naturanpassning i samhällsbyggandet.Natur och kultur

Halvorsen-Thorén, A-K & Nyhuus, S, 1994, Planlegging avgrønnstruktur i byer og tettsteder. Direktoratet for naturforvalt-ning, Norge. ISBN 82-7072-144-1

Hållbara städer i Europa. 1996. Expertgruppen för stadsmiljö,Europeiska kommissionen. ISBN 92-828-4204-5

Häckner, C & Ranhagen, U, 1997, Återanvändning av försvars-fastigheter. Slutrapport etapp 2. Byggforskningsrådet ochFortifikationsverket

Indikatorer i fysisk planering. En kunskapsöversikt. Boverket ochNaturvårdsverket. ISBN 91-7147-493-5

Jönsson, B, 1999, Tio tankar om tid. Bromberg. ISBN 91-7608-776-X

Khakee, Abdul, 2000, Samhällsplanering. Studentlitteratur. ISBN91-44-0134-3

Lichfield, N, 1996, Community Impact Evaluation. UCL Press.ISBN 1-85728-238-8

Lundgren, Lars J (red), 1999, Livsstil och miljö. Värderingar, valoch vanor. Byggforskningsrådet och Naturvårdsverket. ISBN 91-620-1197-9

Miljöbalksutbildningens kompendier i miljöbalken och dessförordningar. 1 Grundkursen, 2 Översiktskursen, 5 Miljöbalkenoch den fysiska planeringen. Kommittén Miljöbalksutbildningen1998-99

Mintzberg, H, 1994, The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning. TheFree Press. ISBN 0-02-921605-2

Naess m fl, delstudier inom forskningsprogrammet ”Energy andBuilt Environment”.

Newman, P & Kenworthy J, 1989, Cities and automobile depen-dences: a sourcebook. Gower. ISBN 0-566-07040-5

Nyström. Louise (red), 1997, Stadslandskapet – sönderfall ellerläkning. Framtidsstaden IV. Stadsmiljörådet. ISBN 91-7147-285-1

Orrskog, L, 1993, Planering för uthållighet: från kunskap till han-dling. BFR R 1993:57. ISBN 91-540-5602-0

Ottosson, J & Grahn, P, 1998, Utemiljöns betydelse för äldre medstort vårdbehov. Movium Stad & land 155. ISBN 91-576-5567-7

Påverka din kommuns framtid – använd översiktsplaneringen.1999. Boverket T1:1999 (cd-rom)

Ranhagen, U, 1996, Nationella miljömål och fysisk planering – Enidéuppsats med tonvikt på resurshushållning. Naturvårdsverket,VBB Samhällsbyggnad

Ranhagen, U, 1997a, För en bärkraftig utveckling i fysisk planer-ing. Förstudie. Boverket och Naturvårdsverket. ISBN 91-7147-368-8

Ranhagen, U, m fl, 1997b, Sociala konsekvenser. Analysmodell förStockholmsregionen. Regionplane- och trafikkontoret rapport5:1997

Ranhagen, U, 1999, Miljöindikatorer i samhällsplaneringen.Artikel i PLAN 1999:3

Ranhagen, U, 2000, Omvandling av industriområden i Tyskland.SWECO, LTU

Ranhagen, U & Trobeck, S, 1998, Physical Planning andSustainable Urban Transport – A comparative Analysis of FourInternational Cities. SIDA och FFNS Arkitekter

Ranhagen, U & Trobeck, S, 2000, EU Capital Regions towardsSustainable Mobility. Innovative Measures in Regional Planningand Transport. Regionplane- och trafikkontoret vid Stockholmsläns landsting rapport 2000:1

Ranhagen, U & Trobeck, S, 1999, Hållbara strukturer. Boverket,Naturvårdsverket och Regionplane- och trafikkontoret vidStockholms läns landsting. RTK Promemoria 1999:15

Ranhagen, U, Rothman, M, Trobeck, S, 2000, GIS-analys av till-gänglighet till högre utbildning i Stockholmsregionen. RTKPromemoria 4:2000

Regeringens proposition 1997/98:145 Svenska miljömål.Miljöpolitik för ett hållbart Sverige

Regional samhällsplanering för ett miljöanpassat transportsystem.1995. Delrapport för N, O och P län: Scenario miljö 2010.Länsstyrelsen i Hallands län

Regionplan 2000, RUFS 2000. Regional utvecklingsplan förStockholms län – Samrådsunderlag. Program och förslag. RTKrapport 2000:3

Rubenson, S, 1998, Miljöbalken. Den nya miljörätten. NorstedtsJuridik. ISBN 91-39-10229-7

Sadler, B & Verheem, R, 1996, SEA, stauts, challenges and futuredirections. Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and theEnvironment of the Netherlands. International Study ofEffectiveness of Environmental Assessment. The EIA-Commission of the Netherlands

Schön, D, 1991, The reflective practitioner: how professionalsthink in action. Avebury. ISBN 1-85628-262-7

Stadens parker och natur. 1994. Boverket rapport 1994:2. ISBN91-7147-915-5

Steen, P m fl, 1997, Färder i framtiden: transporter i ett bärkraftigtsamhälle. Forskningsgruppen för miljöstrategiska studier. KFBrapport 1997:7. ISBN 91-88868-29-X

Svenska kommunförbundet, 1999, Plan och byggverksamheten ikommunerna – en enkätundersökning

Sverige 2009 – förslag till vision, 1994. Boverket rapport 1994:14.ISBN 91-7147-150-2

Sverige år 2021 – vägen till ett hållbart samhälle. 1998.Naturvårdsverket rapport 4858. ISBN 91-620-4858-9

System med indikatorer för nationell uppföljning av miljökvalitets-målen. 1999. Naturvårdsverket rapport 5006. ISBN 91-620-5006-0

Sånnek, R, 1999, Ekologiska fotavtryck – metodansats ochtillämpning i samhällsplaneringen

Söderlind, J, 1998, Stadens renässans. Från särhälle till samhälle.Om närhetsprincipen i stadsplaneringen. StudieförbundetNäringsliv och Samhälle. 2 uppl 1999. ISBN 91-39-10364-1

Wackernagel, M & Rees, W, 1996. Our Ecological Footprint –Reducing Human Impact on the Earth. New Society Publishers,Canada. ISBN 0-86571-311-196

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Vem bestämmer? Om medborgarinflytande och kommunal planer-ing. Erfarenheter från Sydlänsprojektet. 1998. Boverket. ISBN 91-7147-438-2

Westford, P, 1999, Bebyggelseförtätning som miljöstrategi.Kommunikationsforskningsberedningen rapport 1999:12. ISBN91-88371-25-5

Wirén, E, 1998, Planering för säkerhets skull. Studentlitteratur.ISBN 91-44-00555-5

In-depth studiesWithin the broad umbrella of the SAMS project anumber of expert reports were commissioned as wellas SAMS in-depth studies conducted. Some of thesehave been published and can be ordered in the sameway as the case studies, thematic studies and finalreports. Others can be downloaded from the SAMShome page on www.environ.se/sams/. The reportComprehensive Planning for Sustainable Develop-ment - examples from 5 municipalities, complementsthe picture provided by the case studies with furtherconcrete examples of how municipalities work toachieve sustainable development with the aid of com-prehensive planning. The municipalities which haveworked with local environmental objectives are; Sala,Kungälv, Karlstad, Vallentuna and Umeå. The reportdeals especially with the process used by the munici-palities for the formulation and establishment ofobjectives, how the objectives have been adaptedfrom regional targets and the national environmentalquality objectives and the ways in which impactassessments have been used to aid the work of plan-ning. Intra-municipality and regional issues identifiedby the municipalities in their plans, are also highlight-ed. The report is included in the material for ACatalogue of Ideas.

The in-depth report on Bio-energy and the ecocycletown/countryside - a dual perspective highlights a multi-functional view of cultivation of the bio-fuels Salixand energy grass. Ecological and economic conditionsare analysed and the effects are described; both theprimary effects departing from the climate objectiveand the other effects which can be achieved takinginto consideration the nutritional ecocycle betweenthe town and the countryside. The environmentalimpact of agriculture in the form of greenhouse emis-sions, the leakage of nutrients and erosion can bereduced using perennial energy crops to replace annu-al food crops produced with current conventionalmethods of cultivation. Energy crops affect biologicaldiversity and may offer an alternative to the country-side becoming overgrown with weeds where agricul-tural activities are phased out.

Energy forest (Salix) and energy grass cultivationcould be exploited in the purifying of waste water, sur-face run-off water, leachate and waste sludge. In a sus-tainable society the co-ordination of several functionsfor the exploitation of synergy effects and the use of asystematic approach in multifunctional solutions willbe essential. In the future it will therefore be neces-sary for municipalities to plan for ecocycle solutionsand general systematic solutions for waste, energy and

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water and sewage supplies as well as for purificationof diffuse waste products such as soil and water usedin forestry operations.

Energy crops can also be used in shelter planting as abarrier to disturbing operations such as industries,roads and so on as well as a barrier to prevent snow-drifts along exposed areas of roadway and for purify-ing areas of land affected by moderate quantities ofdiffuse emissions. Energy crops can even be used incounteracting polluted land. Selected clones of Salixare able to reduce the quantity of cadmium in the soil.Trials are underway to reduce nitrate in ground waterby means of watering and absorption in land whereSalix is cultivated.

The in-depth SAMS study on water - Objectives in com-munity planning for long term sustainable water supplies -takes up the problem of the lack of a sustainable sup-ply of water in many Swedish towns and communi-ties. One reason is that the towns are not always locat-ed in areas with good water supply resources. Oftenmunicipalities have also used up the supply of glacialreserves in the vicinity of urban areas throughexploitation or quarrying. An issue of increasingimportance between municipalities is that manyauthorities need the water assets of other authoritiesto maintain their supply - share water. The reportpoints out the problems and opportunities of dealingwith the drinking water resources with greater fore-sight and proposes ten characteristics for a soundwater supply:

1. Secured water resource in a perspective of manygenerations.

2. Robust conditions for encountering climate changes.

3. Several alternatives for maintaining the water supply.

4. Good reserve water courses.

5. Good quality raw water.

6. A balance between water consumption and renewed supplies.

7. No uncontrolled threats.

8. Attention to the protection of inflow areas, infil-tration surfaces and subsidiary flow areas.

9. Good protection contingencies and good protec-tion areas.

10. Regional water supply requirements are consid-ered in STRAM or the comprehensive plan.

In the in-depth study 'Figures, legislation and experience'GIS tools are illustrated for visualising the linkbetween man and the environment. How can infor-mation dictated by circumstances be made carto-graphically and illustratively comprehensible to thepublic participating in the various phases of the plan-ning process? This is taken further in examples of theway in which GIS can be used for superimposing andanalysing information with data dictated by the cir-cumstances. The material is linked to the case studyin Helsingborg. Further examples are presented(linked to the Burlöv case study) of how more person-al values of environmental quality and disturbanceexperienced in everyday life can be formulated intogeographical information. This can be translated intocommon mental maps as material for use, for instance,in programmes of measures. See A Catalogue of IdeasPart 3.

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Expert reports and essays (selection)Essays by Lars Emmelin, Anders Hedlund and ErikPlathe on strategic environmental assessment havebeen collected in the SAMS publication A Catalogueof Ideas around SEA planning.

Lena Falkheden and Björn Malbert on the theme ofthe urban environment and sustainable development,Chalmers Institute of Technology has conducted areview of expertise and literature on the theme ofphysical structures for sustainable development inmedium sized and small towns and urban areas. Thisprovides material for the thematic study on environ-mentally focused comprehensive planning.

FFNS Arkitekter, through Ulf Ranhagen and SaraTrobeck, has made an inventory of 24 Swedish andinternational indicator approaches along with indica-tors relevant to planning distinguished in the reportIndicators in Comprehensive Planning - A Review ofExpertise. The majority of the indicators are applicableat regional and local levels. The report is a comple-ment to an inventory included in the pre-study forSAMS, Experience and Environmental Indicators inCommunity Planning - a review of the literature by MatsDryselius and Eva-Lotta Johansson.

INREGIA was commissioned by the EnvironmentalProtection Agency and the Board of RegionalPlanning and Urban Transportation to prepare thereport The Role of the GIS tool in the Regional PlanningProcess - with emphasis on the SPREAD model andSEA work. This is linked to the case study reportPlanning with Environmental Objectives!, the case study onthe Stockholm region, Environmental Assessment of theRegional plan 2000, as well as the thematic report GISand Environmental Objectives in ComprehensivePlanning. This report is an example of the ways inwhich a region can make use of the GIS tool in itsregional planning.

Peggy Lerman, Lagtolken PL AB, has dealt withenvironmental objectives, environmental quality stan-dards, indicators and impact analyses for use in sup-porting the work of comprehensive planning to pro-vide material for continued discussions between plan-ners and experts in various environmental issues in theessay Comprehensive Planning - An Arena for Interplay.

Lillemor Lewan, Centre for Environmental Studies atthe University of Lund, develops the basic conceptsand calculation methods which could convert ecologi-cal footprints into indicators for understanding the rolea region plays in terms of global resource conservationfrom both a consumption and reception viewpoint inthe study Ecological Footprints and Bio-capacity.

Alexander Ståhle's essay The Sociotope as a Tool inPlanning Green Areas introduces the concept of asociotope in contrast to a biotope concerning man'suse and experience of the natural and cultural land-scape. It is based on the same application examples asin the Stockholm part of the National Urban Park,Planning with Environmental Objectives!, and theStockholm case study Biological Diversity in Compre-hensive Planning.

SAMS has also provided methodology support andfinancial assistance in publishing two degree theses.Barbara Eggiman conducts a theoretical discussionwith proposals for the SEA process using the area pro-gramme in the Stockholm city model in Comprehen-sive Planning with Strategic Environmental Assess-ment (SEA) for Sustainability.

Richard Sånnek's Ecological Footprints - a simplifiedmethodological approach, is based on the internation-ally recognised ideas of Rees and Wackernagel. It wastested in Trollhättan for application in communityplanning primarily as an instructional aid.

Financial publishing assistance was also provided to a4 credit point course at Luleå University of Technol-ogy which was included in the Storuman case study,and to a 10 credit point course in landscape planningat the Swedish University of Agriculture in Alnarpwhich was used in the Burlöv case study.

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Brochure

Student dissertations

Environmental objectives and indicators inspatial planning and SEA

Final Report

Planning with environmental objectives!

A guidePlanning with environmental objectives!

A catalogue of ideas

Planning with environmental objectives!

In brief

Theme: envrionmental objectivesPlanning for sustainable development

LIFE – final report

SAMS projectwww.environ.se/sams

Expert reports

Comprehensive planning with SEA for sustainability

Comprehensive planning – arena for interaction

Collection of examples – GIS theme study

Sociotopes as tools for planning greeen areas

Storuman 2050

Indicators in comprehensive planning

Discussion of ideas on SEA

Sustainable development and comprehensive planning i Burlöv

Physical structures for sustainable developmentin medium-sized towns and small uraban areas

Comprehensive planning with IT and GISfor sustainable development

Sustainable structures – citiesEcological footprints

Ecological footprints and bio-capacity

Theme studies

Environment-orientedcomprehensive planning

SEA and comprehensivephysical planning

GIS and environmentalobjectives incomprehensive planning

Gaining ground in comprehensive planning

Case studies

Planning withenvironmental objectives!

Burlöv

Planning withenvironmental objectives!

Helsingborg

Planning withenvironmental objectives!

Trollhättan

Planning withenvironmental objectives!

Stockholmbiologisk mångfald

Planning withenvironmental objectives!

Storuman

Planning withenvironmental objectives!

Falun/Borlänge

Planning withenvironmental objectives!

Kimberley/Port Elizabeth

Planning withenvironmental objectives!

Stockholmmiljöbedömningar

Planning withenvironmental objectives!

Stockholmsregionen

Comprehensiveplanning forsustainable development

Karlstad

Kungälv

Sala

Umeå

Vallentuna

Planning indicators for comprehensive planning

In-depth studies

Bio-energy andecocycle town/country

SAMS on water

Figures, positions andexperiences

Planning with environmental objectives!

a guideNational Board of Housing,

Building and Planning in SwedenSwedish Environmental Protection Agency

“Sustainable development” is a concept that incorporates not just ecolo-gical but also social and economic aspects. But what do we actually meanby sustainable development? What does it imply in practice and how canwe know that we are really heading in the right direction?

Planning with environmental objectives!a guidedescribes the theory and illustrates practical examples which show howcomprehensive planning can help attain determined environmentalobjectives. The reasoning, examples and tools presented mainly concernthe ecological aspect of sustainable development.

It is a final report from an idea and method development project calledSAMS – Samhällsplanering med miljömål i Sverige (Environmental objecti-ves and indicators in spatial planning and strategic environmental assess-ment), run by the National Board of Housing, Building and Planningand the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency in collaboration withseveral municipalities and regional authorities.

Close collaboration between environmentalists and planners throughoutthe whole planning process has been a fundamental concept of the project.

“Planning with environmental objectives! A guide” has an addendum,“Planning with environmental objectives! A catalogue of ideas” givingconcrete examples illustrating how environmental objectives can beused in planning. It also contains tips on useful methods and tools. Morein-depth descriptions of the project’s case and theme studies are given inseparate publications.

National Board of Housing, Swedish EnvironmantalBuilding and Planning Protection Agency ISBN: 91-7147-650-4 ISBN: 91-620-5124-5

ISSN: 0282-7298

Planning with environm

ental objectives!a guid

e