Planning Resilient Water Management Strategies Part I

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Planning Resilient Water Management Strategies Part I

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Purpose and Learning Objectives

Purpose:

Growing and concentrating populations, shifting weather patterns, increasing frequency and ferocity of storm events,

disappearing water supplies, and rising costs have made the provision of potable water and the management of other

water-related issues increasingly difficult for many communities. This course explores the current state of water usage

and water management practices and the emerging issues affecting potable water supply, stormwater, floodwater, and

wastewater management that may affect those usage and management practices and inform the creation of

alternative, more resilient ones.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this program, participants will be able to:

• analyze their current water issues and usage patterns to inform the development of healthy, safe, and resilient water

management planning

• identify those emerging water-related issues that may affect their community and citizen health in the future

• determine which current water management practices should be modified or changed to address those issues, and

• leverage the experiences and actions of others to avoid implementing unsafe, uneconomical, or unhealthy water

management solutions.






Contents

Where Is All the Freshwater?

Current Water Management Approaches

Emerging Water-Related Issues and Impacts

Summary and Resources






WHERE IS ALL THE FRESHWATER?







This course focuses on those planning issues related to fresh, potable water, stormwater, floodwater, and wastewater

that have become increasingly important in relation to water management and community planning. It is designed to

inform those involved in the planning processes and is not intended to be used as a day-to-day water management

manual.

This chapter contains some of the basic facts about freshwater availability, movement, and usage that are relevant to

any planning exercise. Knowing where water is now, who is using it and how, and where it might be in the future is

critical to planning for an adequate, affordable, accessible, and sustainable supply. It is also critical to the creation of

resilient strategies that can facilitate adaptation to any future water reality.






Despite the fact that 70% of the earth’s surface is water and that

the amount of water on the planet has never changed, the planet

is currently experiencing a severe water scarcity. The magnitude

of this scarcity, which affects all continents, prompted the UN to

declare the decade of 2005 to 2015 as the International Decade

for Action, “Water for Life.”

In 2016, the U.S. Office of the Director of National Intelligence

stated that water scarcity was equal to terrorism as a threat to

U.S. national security.

It would perhaps be more accurate to call this crisis a matter of

water availability or water accessibility, as there is actually

enough freshwater on the planet for the current population, but

this water is not necessarily located where people have settled

or available in a state that can be readily accessed.

Water* Scarcity/Availability *Water in this context means fresh, potable water.







Only 3% of the water on earth is

freshwater. Of that, 30.1% is groundwater

and 68.7% is locked up in icecaps and

glaciers, which are melting into the oceans

and becoming saline.

T

This leaves just 0.3% of all the planet’s

water on the surface where it can be readily

accessed from rivers, swamps, and lakes.

The location and health of these surface

sources is not always constant.

Distribution of Earth’s Water

Earth’s water Freshwater Fresh surface water

(liquid)

Rivers 2%Other 0.9%Fresh-

water 3%Surface water 0.3%







The U.S. draws about 80% of its water from the surface, which, as noted

previously, is actually one of the smallest sources but the easiest to use.

Groundwater, which is more plentiful but used less often, is connected to

surface water through recharging and discharging processes.

Surface water infiltrates, moves into underground aquifers*, and

recharges groundwater. Groundwater will discharge to the surface via

streams, rivers, lakes, and oceans. Groundwater is also discharged to the

surface by human activities such as pumping and mining.

Recharging water resources is essential to prevent depletion of water

within a watershed. Storm events are part of the natural water balance.

They bring high amounts of precipitation, recharging aquifers, rivers,

lakes, and reservoirs. Water is constantly on the move, and both

groundwater and surface water levels will naturally vary depending on

climate and season. Contaminating practices can affect the quality of

surface and groundwater simultaneously and can travel great distances.

The line that defines the saturated zone

from the unsaturated zone is referred to as

the water table.

*Underground aquifers, which can provide

large water quantities, are large saturated

zones.







Although it is common knowledge that water vapor is in the air, it

is generally not considered a viable source of freshwater. Most

simply wait for it to rain, or in more serious instances, attempt to

cause it to rain.

At any one time, though, there are some 37.5 million-billion

gallons of water in the atmosphere, most of it invisible but some

of it in the form of clouds, which are created when the vapor

condenses back into water. The amount of vapor at any one

location varies considerably, as do surface and groundwater

quantities, but even at 86°F (30°C) on a sunny day, air can hold

as much as 4% vapor.

In some situations, it is viable to extract this vapor, convert it to

liquid, and use it as a freshwater supply.







Water is constant in quantity globally

but continuously in motion.

This hydrologic cycle sketch illustrates

how water moves through the air and

ground in its various states (liquid,

vapor, and solid) in a continuous loop.

Scientists have noted that wet areas

are becoming wetter and dry areas are

becoming drier. This implies that in

many areas, this cycle will be

interrupted and that some current water

resources will disappear while others

will increase. Communities, which are

fixed in location, may be forced to

access water from great distances.






Accessing Water from a Distance

Accessing water from great distances and at great expense has been an issue

throughout history (e.g., Roman aqueducts) and is currently still a reality for

some.

China will spend about $62 billion for a 1,000 km (620-mile) pipeline to move

water from the Yangtze River to dry regions in the north. It already has 2,700

miles of man-made waterways that divert water from its south regions to its

north.

Mexico City, which was founded on a site that was once a lake, now must

access its water from distant sources. One source is the Cutzamala System

(pictured). This system, which supplies only 20% of the city’s water needs, was

built from the late 1970s to the late 1990s. It moves water from the Cutzamala

River southwest of the city and pumps it over a mountain 1,100 meters high

with a system consisting of seven reservoirs, a 127 km (79-mile) aqueduct that

has 21 km (13 miles) of tunnels, 7.5 km (4.5 miles) of open canal, and a water

treatment plant. The system cost $1.3 billion and is considered by many to be

the biggest and most expensive water access system in the world.

National Water Commission, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikipedia





https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_management_in_Greater_Mexico_City#/media/File:Cutzamala_system.png



Affecting the Hydrologic Cycle

Every time we use, detain, interact with, or redirect water, we affect the hydrologic cycle.

For instance, dam construction alters natural river flow significantly. The Colorado River and its Glen Canyon Dam, Hoover Dam, and Flaming Gorge Dam on the Green River tributary have created a controlled flow regime that has virtually eliminated flow fluctuations.

Regulating flow in this manner allows for a predicable water supply for agriculture, power production, and industry, and also reduces the risk of flooding.

However, dams such as these not only disturb natural seasonal water fluctuation, but also have an effect on river sediment transport, geomorphology, river ecology, and riparian ecosystems. Water and land use planning must include restoration of these ecosystem attributes.

ARIZONANEVADA






Mimicking the Hydrologic Cycle

The Dockside Green project in Victoria, British Columbia, in many ways mimics the natural hydrologic cycle by

capturing, “polishing,” and reusing stormwater before slowly releasing it to the ocean through the ground. The surface

component of the system is used as a major design element that enhances the entire project.






Water Usage

In addition to understanding how water moves, knowing how water is used

locally is important for any water management plan. The largest water user in

the U.S., and in fact the world, is thermoelectric power. This use draws

roughly 40% of the water nationally. The second largest user is agriculture

with 32% (irrigation and watering stock), followed in descending order by

public supply (12%), industrial self-supply (5%), aquaculture, mining, and self-

supplied residential (wells).

It is important to remember that these are national figures and that water

usage varies considerably from place to place.

It is also important to understand how the water is used and if it is returned to

its source as it was withdrawn, if it evaporates or is absorbed by the ground,

and if further treatment is required before the water becomes available for

reuse.






Water Usage

The global population not only is growing but also is increasingly

concentrating in urban centers with finite water resources. Such

concentrations can quickly deplete local supplies.

1.2 billion people already live in areas of water scarcity, and 500

million live where water consumption* is more than double the

locally renewable water sources. Water consumption has grown at

a rate more than twice that of the world’s population in the past

century and is expected to grow even further.

Water usage habits compound the issue of finite supplies further.

Canada and the U.S. are the two highest per capita water users in

the world. Both countries also enjoy some of the largest water

sources and the lowest costs.

*Water is not technically ever consumed, but it can be retained, relocated, diverted,

evaporated, returned to the ground, mismanaged, and/or contaminated. A bottled drink,

for example, may hold water for some time between creation and “consumption,” but

eventually, it will reenter the water cycle, perhaps in a different country.

Frivolous or wasteful practices can seriously affect

local water availability.

Michael Kalimukwa, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons





https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Washing_Car_03.jpg



Water Usage

Surveys indicate that most Americans seriously underestimate how

much water they use each day and that they are surprised to find out

that toilets can use more than 25% of the household water and showers

and taps use another 40% or so.

Raising awareness of just how household water is used can identify

which aspects should be addressed in conservation efforts and where

or how water can be recycled or reused.






Water Usage

A 1999 report from the Asian Development Bank

suggests that a 17% increase in the number of

countries facing water stress by 2025 is expected as

a result of the factors described previously. This

includes the U.S. The population of Texas, for

example, is expected to increase 82% by 2050, and

the Texas Water Development Board has issued $6

billion in bonds to fund new water infrastructure and

conservation projects in order to have sufficient

water to serve it.

An increase in population size requires an increase

in food production, and consequently a further

increase in water demand for irrigated agriculture. It

is expected that annual water use for agriculture will

have to increase by 30% for crop production to

double and meet global food requirements by 2025.

Stresses include depleting reservoirs.






Water Usage

The U.S. has 4% of the world’s population and 7% of its freshwater supply.

In addition, total freshwater withdrawals in 2015 were actually at their lowest

levels since 1970 due to the effectiveness of conservation programs and the

fact that thermoelectric users drew less as alternate energy sources have

begun to replace them.

Despite the seemingly adequate supply and the trend to lower withdrawals,

the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) suggests that 70% of all

counties in the U.S. may face water shortages by 2050, and at least 40 state

water managers noted that they expect some water shortages in the next

decade.

It is possible that conservation programs by themselves will not necessarily

ensure a water supply for everyone. Communities must look ahead to

forecast their own future water situation and make plans for alternate water

sources or water creation.






The Las Vegas Water Story

Las Vegas may have the most difficult (and best known)

water management issues of anyone. It is the driest city in

North America (4.5″ [10 cm] rain per year), it has an

exploding population (2.2 million), and 90% of its water

comes from one source (Lake Mead) that is shared with

California and Arizona, has dropped 125 ft in a decade, and

some say will be gone by 2021. It also has 36 million

visitors a year, 240 hotels, 70 golf courses, and a number

of large water features such as the famous Bellagio

fountains, artificial lakes, and Venetian canals.

In an effort to offset these constraints over the years, it has

introduced numerous water conservation programs: e.g.,

paying for golf courses and residents to replace grass with

desert plants and banning most new grass, strict measures

on washing cars and watering gardens, using recycled

water for golf course irrigation and public fountains.

Some of these measures can be reviewed and a more

complete story can be seen here or here.




https://www.lvvwd.com/

https://www.outsideonline.com/2016686/water-conservation-brought-you-las-vegas




These conservation measures have significantly

reduced per capita water usage to about 40% of

previous levels. Las Vegas now cleans and returns

all of the water used indoors back to the lake.

Despite these efforts, which have also served as

models for others, water usage levels remain at least

double that of the national average. In drier climates,

there is a stronger, natural urge to use more water.

Outdoor water usage remains the major

management factor there. The fountains that use

recycled water still lose 12 million gallons a year to

evaporation, leaks, and wind, and the golf courses

that now use more efficient drip irrigation systems

and recycled water discharge this water to the

ground and not back to the lake.







The city briefly considered building a desalination plant

on the Pacific Coast and pumping water 300 miles

inland, building desalination plants for other users of

the Colorado River in exchange for their water rights,

and purchasing groundwater rights in the surrounding

desert. The latter program met serious opposition from

ranchers and rural dwellers who also claimed the

groundwater rights. The city is now building another

$800 million water intake pipe that will withdraw water

from the bottom of the lake instead of the sides as the

current two intake pipes do.

The water managers have noted that it is necessary to

think at least 20 years ahead in order to affect major

savings, to get a community to totally rethink how they

use water, and to put in place measures that can

adapt to serious drought conditions such as those

currently being experienced in Las Vegas.






REVIEW QUESTION

What are the major influences on global water

scarcity?






ANSWER

There are many factors affecting what is usually

termed water scarcity. There is actually enough

water on the planet for everyone, so it is more of a

question of water accessibility.

As populations both increase and concentrate in

urban centers, especially in locations where water

amounts have decreased from shifting weather

patterns, accessibility becomes more and more

difficult and expensive.

Factors such as pollution from various toxic

runoffs and raw sewage further decrease the

supply of freshwater.






Planning for Potential Water Issues

This brief review demonstrates that there are many influences

on water availability and that a number of them are beyond the

direct control of local administrations. Because many of these

influences are becoming more and more significant, it is

important that every jurisdiction develop long-term water

management plans that will facilitate adaptation to any potential

water shortages and/or excesses and fully integrate these plans

with all other aspects of community planning. As noted by Las

Vegas and others, changing water usage habits, attitudes, and

management approaches is slow, so planning should be done

ASAP even where water supplies seem adequate.

After consulting long-range weather and community growth

predictions, one of the first tasks is to examine which

management techniques are in current use and which ought to

be altered, replaced, or added. The next chapter examines

some of the more common techniques.






Current Water Management Issues and Approaches

CURRENT WATER MANAGEMENT APPROACHES







Many, if not most, water management plans and strategies have been based on historical weather and usage patterns.

Because implementing new water management procedures is a slow process, and because there have been a steadily

increasing number of shifts in weather patterns and ever-increasing issues with freshwater supply, stormwater

management, and infrastructure failure, it is increasingly important that all communities begin to prioritize water

management and to plan at least two decades ahead for any eventuality.

The majority of plans have also traditionally focused on ensuring an adequate supply and not on a combination of

conservation, reuse, and supply. Rising costs for water treatment and the disappearance of some supply sources

suggest that all communities should prioritize the opportunities for conservation and water reuse/recycling along with

supply.







Aging infrastructure is also becoming a major issue for many communities. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) estimates that it would cost at least $380 billion to repair America’s deteriorating and/or inadequate water

infrastructure over the next two decades; others suggest that this might not even be enough to address all water

scarcity and quality issues. Many cities lose a considerable amount of treated water through aging, leaky pipes.

Chicago, for example, loses some 20 billion gallons of processed water annually. Losses like this represent a high cost.

The many instances where plans must be revisited and/or infrastructure must be rebuilt present an opportunity to

implement new approaches and programs.

This chapter records many of the most common current issues related to water management as well as current

approaches to dealing with these issues. Those who are new to water management can use this information to become

familiar with many terms and procedures, while planning organizations could use it as the basis for cataloguing those

issues that affect or could affect their community and considering which approaches should be modified or completely

revised.






Water Governance Issues

Any water management strategy should be developed in

recognition and support of its governance context. Water does

not recognize man-made borders. Not only is it constantly

crossing them, but also it is often used as the border itself. Thus,

many water governance structures involve issues related to the

differing objectives and solutions of numerous jurisdictions and

authorities. According to an IBM Innovation Outlook report, there

are nearly 53,000 water agencies in the U.S., with little or no

coordination between them. A failure to recognize the current and

future needs of water-sharing jurisdictions often leads to conflict.

Water management, therefore, must be cooperatively integrated

at a number of scales: countries, states, provinces, watersheds,

regions, districts, communities, neighborhoods, sites, and

buildings. Managing, planning, and designing at each scale

requires understanding and cooperating with the management

strategies of every other scale and jurisdiction.

The Colorado River, which is quickly drying up, flows through seven

U.S. and two Mexican states. These jurisdictions are concluding

drought contingency plans that will facilitate the survival of the 40

million people involved. This requires recognizing the roles and

needs of the upper basin states that provide most of the water and

the lower basin states that use more than half of it, as well as the

introduction of numerous conservation measures on the part of the

lower basin states in particular.




https://www.usbr.gov/dcp/



Water Governance Issues

The Great Lakes are perhaps the most iconic use of

water as a border. The lakes contain about 20% of the

world’s surface freshwater but serve only 40 million in the

eight states and two provinces that encircle them.

There is a binational agreement to try to keep Great

Lakes water in the region. In the U.S., the agreement is

the Great Lakes Compact of 2008, which is enforced by

state governments and a regional body composed of the

eight Great Lakes governors.

Public utilities or private interests are barred from taking

water out of the lakes’ drainage basin because those who

live there realize how valuable it is. There have been

almost two centuries of controversy and conflict over this

water, and if water becomes scarcer elsewhere, it is quite

conceivable that there will be considerable pressure to

alter this policy.

NOAA Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory,

MODIS image of the Great Lakes CC BY-SA 2.0 via Flickr




https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Lakes_Compact

https://www.wiscontext.org/battles-shaped-great-lakes-water-politics

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/

https://www.flickr.com/photos/noaa_glerl/4037600280



Managing Local Water within a Larger Governance Context

Toronto, one of the major cities on the Great Lakes,

manages six watersheds. To preserve the quantity

and quality of the water for itself and the lakes, it

established a major greenbelt that prevents further

residential and commercial development to the north

of its metropolitan area. This involved a great deal of

resistance and negotiation with developers and

commercial interests and affected the planning of

new growth all across this region, placing

development pressures on nearby communities, who

in turn had to review their own planning policies.






As part of the management of one of its watersheds

(the Don River), Toronto constructed a wetland that

polishes the water from this river and provides a

temporary stormwater holding area. The wetland also

provides additional wildlife habitat and a natural

recreation amenity.

Ponds, in conjunction with wetlands, generally provide

increased water storage time, thus allowing a greater

number of the lighter particles, such as clays, to settle

out of stormwater. Plants growing in the wetland further

improve downstream water quality by assimilating

phosphorus and nitrogen from the stormwater.

Although stormwater ponds are designed to protect

downstream areas by containing material that could

create undesirable conditions for aquatic life, the

accumulation of contaminants within the ponds could

pose a threat to local wildlife using these areas as

habitat, unless ponds are properly managed.







Further downstream from this wetland, the city is planning a

715-acre (290 ha) development area that will be predicated

on naturalizing the mouth of this river as it enters Lake

Ontario. It will also floodproof the new development area.

The objectives of this development include:

• naturalizing the river mouth to improve its habitat

conditions

• addressing the flooding issues in this area without

affecting other areas

• managing the sediment, debris, and ice in order to

facilitate the natural river flow

• integration with all existing and planned infrastructure, and

• the provision of recreational, cultural, and heritage

opportunities.








In addition, in 2009, the city adopted a green roof bylaw to

help manage its stormwater surges. It calculated that there

would be significant economic advantages to the use of

green roofs, which slow down the surge of stormwater into

the city sewer system and thus prevent overflows into the

sanitary systems and discharge of untreated water into the

lake. Green roofs have many other advantages as well.

Green roofs are now required for new commercial,

institutional, and residential developments with a minimum

gross floor area (GFA) of 2,000 m2 (21,000 ft2); new

additions to commercial, institutional, and residential

development where the new GFA is greater than 2,000 m2;

and industrial buildings greater than 2,000 m2 GFA.

The bylaw was preceded by a green roof strategy starting in

2006. This strategy included a pilot incentive program,

installation of green roofs on city agency buildings, use of

the development approval process to encourage green

roofs, and publicity and education. A typical green roof






The city now has building-scale

projects that also address the overall

mandate of water usage, quantity,

and quality management. This

building captures and holds rainwater

for several purposes including

irrigation of its rooftop gardens.

These gardens grow some of the

produce that is used in the ground

floor restaurant that, in turn, returns

green waste to fertilize the soil on the

roof.

The restaurant is a training restaurant

for those who wish to work in the

nearby hospitality industries, and the

building is an affordable housing

project where they can live.







Watershed and Subwatershed Management Issues

A watershed (sometimes referred to as a basin) is an area

that drains all precipitation received as runoff or base flow

(groundwater sources) into a river and its tributaries, and

may be separated from an adjacent watershed by a land

ridge or divide. The watershed drainage area provides the

natural boundary for managing human uses of the river and

connected wetlands, woodlands, valley lands, and

floodplains. A subwatershed is the land that drains to a

tributary of a river.

It is conceivable, as noted in the Toronto example, that one

jurisdiction may manage multiple watersheds. Conversely,

as with the Colorado River, one watershed may have

multiple jurisdictions managing it.

In some cases such as Mexico City, Las Vegas, and Los

Angeles, pipes that access water run well beyond the urban

area and cross many watersheds to get to a water source;

their use starts to affect watersheds they are not naturally

part of.

The McKenzie River Watershed

Oregon State University, CC BY-SA 2.0 via Flickr





https://www.flickr.com/photos/oregonstateuniversity/9357445131



Watershed and Subwatershed Management Approaches

Effective water management combines large-scale environmental planning at the watershed level with smaller-scale

subwatershed and stormwater management.

Watershed planning provides a framework to protect, maintain, and restore a healthy natural watershed system,

balancing environmental, social, and economic needs. It requires ongoing collection and analysis of data and is

complicated by wide-ranging interests, uses of water, and the fact that watershed boundaries often cross jurisdictions.

The watershed management plan targets an entire drainage basin area; includes physical, chemical, and biological

characteristics of the basin; defines existing and potential water uses; and defines goals, objectives, methods, and

technologies.

The subwatershed plan addresses stormwater management requirements on a sub-basin level. Information

prescribed in the watershed management plan is used to develop necessary subwatershed stormwater controls such

as infiltration, trenches, extended swales (low-lying land), or stormwater ponds. This planning level is at the same scale

as the neighborhood plans, which provide more specific planning details such as land use and transportation corridors.

Developing these two plans in an integrated manner will ensure the optimization of all resources within that sub-basin.






Watershed Management Approaches: Wetland (Re)construction

Wetland (re)construction is an essential tool for the protection and improvement of watersheds. Wetlands that have

been filled and drained retain their characteristic soil and hydrology, allowing their natural functions to be reclaimed.

Reconstruction requires planning, implementation, monitoring, and management. It involves renewing natural and

historical wetlands that have been lost or degraded and reclaiming their functions and value as vital ecosystems.

Lienyuan Lee,

CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons




https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E9%B9%BF%E8%A7%92%E6%BA%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%B7%A5%E6%BA%BC%E5%9C%B0_Antler_Creek_Constructed_Wetland_-_panoramio.jpg



Watershed Management Approaches: Riparian Zone Preservation

Riparian zones are the transitional areas between the land

and the water of streams, lakes, rivers, and springs. These

have been degraded in much of the world. Their loss affects

the natural water balance, habitats, and stream ecological

and aquatic systems (i.e., biodiversity).

Riparian ecosystems are vital to the health of all other

aquatic ecosystems; they filter out pollutants from land runoff

and prevent erosion, supply shelter and food for many

aquatic animals, and provide shade that helps to regulate the

temperature of the water body.






As noted earlier, there is 10 times as much groundwater as there is surface

water. Knowing how much there is in a place and where it is could be

crucial to communities that experience water scarcity.

Groundwater monitoring is an integral part of watershed management.

This is done by monitoring the water in a series of monitoring wells. These

wells are generally smaller in diameter than production wells and are used

for collecting data, e.g., monitoring the hydraulic head in the aquifer to

evaluate:

• groundwater quality/pollution

• long-term water level trends

• aquifer recharge

• groundwater/surface water interaction

• impacts of climate fluctuations

• water conservation planning, and

• water conflicts and interferences.AuntSpray, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons

Watershed Management Tools: Groundwater Monitoring





https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Monitoring_Well_Diagram.jpg



Watershed Management Tools: Maps

Surface water mapping shows where water is present on the surface, how it moves, and

how it is controlled by topography, as well as information that defines watershed

boundaries.

Groundwater elevation mapping shows the elevation of groundwater in a regional

aquifer as well as its flow direction. Mapping aquifers is as important as mapping surface

water in defining a watershed. Overlaying this map with a topographic map can clearly

reveal where the rivers are being supplied by groundwater or, vice versa, where the

streams recharge the aquifers.

Precipitation and recharge mapping shows the variation in annual precipitation ranges.

Precipitation data is integrated with other information such as ground cover,

evapotranspiration, and the soil vertical conductivity to estimate the annual recharge.

Precipitation and recharge data are used to estimate the water balance and how much

water reaches streams or aquifers over specific areas or regions.






Watershed Management Tools: Water-Balancing Modelling Tools

Water-balancing tools can be found in the public domain at sites such as

this one: https://waterbalance.ca/

Water balance includes three components: evapotranspiration, runoff, and

infiltration. The proportion of each component in the water balance is a

function of the degree of development.

The adjacent chart demonstrates three development scenarios. The graph

illustrates that runoff is highest for commercially developed areas. This is

due to the increase in impermeable surfaces (roofs, roads, and parking

lots) that accompanies traditional development.




https://waterbalance.ca/



Stormwater Management (SWM) Issues

In many older systems, wastewater and

stormwater are mixed. This has resulted in health

issues in places like San Francisco. Sewers in

that city are overloaded after storms, and raw

sewage backs up into basements and into certain

streets that flood regularly. Many aging pipes

burst, and millions of gallons of partially treated

wastewater flow into the bay annually. The city

now uses more than eight million pounds of

bleach each year to disinfect their treated

wastewater.

Washington, DC, and many others have similar

issues. The DC combined system contributes to

the contamination of the Potomac and Anacostia

Rivers.

Dmcdevit, Public domain via Wikimedia Commons




https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Commons:Licensing#Material_in_the_public_domain

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Discharge_pipe.jpg



SWM Issues

Some 850 billion gallons of untreated water is discharged

annually in the U.S. into freshwater sources such as streams,

rivers, and lakes when combined sewers are overloaded by

stormwater. Stormwater picks up pollutants, debris, and silt as it

flows across the surface.

Sudden stormwater flows can also erode the earth and silt up

streams and rivers, thus rendering them unsuitable as an

aquatic habitat.






SWM Approaches

Stormwater is rainfall that doesn’t soak into the ground. Stormwater/runoff management focuses on the smaller

community or neighborhood scales of planning. It considers minor and major drainage systems and the capture and

direction of rainwater, snowmelt, and recharge. Mitigating sudden stormwater flows with porous surfaces, treating them

as a possible resource, and using them as a chance to recharge underground sources can potentially eliminate many, if

not all, of these issues.

Traditionally, SWM dealt mainly with conveying the excess runoff through a drainage system to the nearest waterway.

Today, stormwater management is evolving into comprehensive planning with multiagency involvement. It integrates

stormwater infrastructure planning with relevant municipal planning processes such as official community plans, land

use plans, neighborhood concept plans, recreation and parks plans, and even strategic transportation plans to address

impacts of rainwater on all community functions. Such SWM planning is referred to as integrated SWM (ISWM)

planning. The ISWN plan provides strategies to manage all human activities within a watershed.

The EPA municipal separate storm sewer systems (MS4) regulations and National Pollutant Discharge Elimination

System (NPDES) now require, among many things, that each state identify and require best management practices, or

BMPs, to control nonpoint source pollution (pollutants coming from various locations simultaneously). BMPs are

implemented typically through regional and local governments charged with water quality management, planning, and

regulation.






ISWM Guiding Principles

The Province of British Columbia, which has a number of climatic zones including

wet ones, has published a guidebook called Stormwater Planning: A Guidebook for

British Columbia. This book presents a widely accepted framework for effective

ISWM and contains some guiding principles such as:

• *Agree that stormwater is a resource:

• Stormwater is no longer seen as just a drainage or flood management

issue, but also a resource for:

• fish and other aquatic species

• groundwater recharge

• water supply, and

• aesthetic and recreational uses.

• Design for the complete spectrum of rainfall events:

• rainfall capture for small storms

• runoff control for large storms

• flood risk management for extreme storms

*Quoted from: Ministry of Water, Land and

Air, British Columbia (2002), Stormwater

Planning: A Guidebook for British Columbia.

Authors: Kim A. Stephens (CH2M Hill

Canada Ltd.), Patrick Graham (CH2M Hill

Canada Ltd., and David Reid (Lanarc

Consultants). Available at:

http://www.waterbucket.ca/rm/sites/wbcrm/d

ocuments/media/242.pdf




http://www.waterbucket.ca/rm/sites/wbcrm/documents/media/242.pdf



ISWM Guiding Principles

• Act on a priority basis in at-risk drainage catchments:

• Priority action should be focused on at-risk drainage basins where there is both high pressure for land use

change and a driver for action (a high-value ecological resource that is threatened, or an unacceptable

drainage problem).

• Plan at regional, watershed, neighborhood, and site scale:

• Long-term planning at:

• regional and watershed levels: establish stormwater management objectives and priorities

• neighborhood level: integrate stormwater management objectives into community and neighborhood planning

processes, and

• site level: implement site design practices that reduce the volume and rate of surface runoff and improve water

quality.

• Test solutions and reduce costs by adaptive management:

• Performance targets and SWM practices should be optimized over time based on:

• monitoring the performance of demonstration projects, and

• strategic data collection and modeling.






SWM Approaches

As noted previously, watersheds cross many political

jurisdictions, and their management requires cooperation

among various authorities.

A key element of any municipal, regional, state, or federal SWM

strategy is the storm impact mitigation measures taken at the

source or site level, because cumulatively, they significantly

affect watershed health and performance.

On-site SWM strategies can be loosely grouped into three

categories: detention, retention, and infiltration. These

strategies can be used singly or in combination.

Detention and retention systems primarily control rainwater flow

and quality but do not address groundwater recharge, which is

addressed by infiltration.

Fifteenmile Creek watershed, Oregon (approx. 30 miles across)






SWM Approaches: Low-Impact Development (LID)

LID is a stormwater management strategy that is

integrated with engineered, small-scale hydrologic

controls to more closely mimic predevelopment hydrology,

with the goal of preventing measurable harm to streams,

lakes, wetlands, and other natural aquatic systems from

commercial, residential, or industrial development sites. It

is also able to address both water quantity and quality

issues at a neighborhood scale.

This method of development emphasizes conservation

and use of on-site natural features. It employs a variety of

natural and built features that reduce the rate of runoff,

filter out its pollutants, and facilitate the infiltration of water

into the ground. By reducing water pollution and

increasing groundwater recharge, LID helps to improve

the quality of receiving surface waters and stabilize the

flow rates of nearby streams.

Rain garden under construction






SWM Approaches: Low-Impact Development (LID)

LID strategies include:

Green roofs, which can be below, at, or above grade; in all cases, plants are

not planted in the ground but rather in growing media on the roof itself.

Living walls (pictured) are vertical gardens that can include any type of

vegetative covering of a standard wall.

Rain gardens (previous slide) are landscape features designed to treat

stormwater runoff from hard surface areas such as roofs, roads, and parking

lots. They consist of depressed garden spaces where runoff can pond and

infiltrate into deep constructed soils and then into the native soils below.

Permeable pavement, also known as pervious or porous paving, is a type of

hard surfacing that allows rainfall to percolate to an underlying reservoir base

where rainfall is either infiltrated to underlying soils or removed by a

subsurface drain.






SWM Approaches: Detention Systems

On-site stormwater detention (OSD) systems collect rain and

then release it slowly to prevent downstream flooding.

• Detention systems often use ponds, which allow solids to

settle before controlled release.

• Ponds require maintenance; pose drowning, insect

breeding, and contamination hazards; and release sun-

warmed waters into colder fisheries and other locations.

• A detention system could also include underground tanks

or oversized pipes and barrels and/or a green roof, which

can store water in its growing medium.

• Some communities have mandated or rewarded green

roofs as part of their overall SWM strategy.

• A site with a permeable paving layer above an

underground granular base behaves like a detention

pond but eliminates the area required for one as well as

the hazards and maintenance attached to it.

Michael Rivera, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons





https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Detention_Pond_along_ACT.jpg



SWM Approaches: Detention Ponds

Stormwater detention ponds are one

stormwater detention option. They reduce

downstream flooding and erosion by controlling

the peak flow, the frequency of peak flow, and the

velocity of stormwater.

Detention ponds trap and settle much of the solid

material carried by the stormwater as sediment,

which improves water quality and helps reduce

contaminant loads into rivers or lakes.

Aquatic vegetation planted in the ponds can serve

as a biological filter to retain fine sediment and

the contaminants bound to this sediment.

The ponds can also provide habitat for certain

species.Aaron Volkening, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr




https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

https://www.flickr.com/photos/87297882@N03/8234340708



Retention systems or strategies catch rainwater

and store it permanently on-site for reuse in

irrigation, firefighting, and nonpotable uses such as

toilet flushing and car washing.

• Retention systems also employ ponds as well

as tanks, oversized pipes, and barrels.

• The ponds pose similar concerns to detention

ponds.

• Detention and retention systems may also

include constructed or engineered wetlands

(image), which control flow and runoff quality.

• Systems involving surface storage and

vegetation (irrigation, wetlands, etc.) also

release stormwater slowly through

evapotranspiration.

NYS Stormwater, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr

SWM Approaches: Retention Systems





https://www.flickr.com/photos/131402048@N04/16751781570/in/photostream/



SWM Approaches: Infiltration Systems

Infiltration systems optimize the opportunity for rainwater to reenter

the ground immediately and recharge the groundwater in a manner

similar to the natural hydrologic cycle that existed prior to

development.

The decision regarding whether to use infiltration strategies, including

permeable pavements, is guided by municipal policy, design criteria,

and experience. Site constraints are often the most influential factors.

In addition to permeable paved areas, infiltration systems may consist

of:

• landscaped areas, naturalized areas, or rain gardens (upper

image)

• infiltration trenches (lower image); from an engineering

perspective, permeable paved areas are infiltration trenches

with paving over them to support pedestrians and vehicles

• grassed filter strips, and

• infiltration basins. NYS Stormwater, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr

1

2





https://www.flickr.com/photos/131402048@N04/16938257261/in/photostream/



SWM Approaches: Infiltration/Exfiltration Systems

Infiltration systems can be further classified as:

1) Full Exfiltration: All water infiltrates into the

granular base and exfiltrates into the adjacent

soils. This is the most common application.

Overflows, if any, are managed by drainage swales

or bioretention areas. Exfiltration may be enhanced

by sheet flow: the grading of the subgrade to allow

the water to flow directionally across the site.

2) Partial Exfiltration: Some water is allowed to

leave the site through perforated pipes. The

remainder exfiltrates into the subsoil as in full

exfiltration.

Architectsea, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons





https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:High_Point_Seattle_03.jpg



SWM Approaches: Swales and Erosion Protection

Swales, also known as infiltration swales, biofilters, grassed swales, or in-line

biorentention, are vegetated open channels specifically designed to attenuate

and treat stormwater runoff for a defined water volume. Like open ditches, they

convey larger stormwater volumes from a source to a discharge point, but

unlike ditches, they intentionally promote slowing, cleansing, and infiltration

along the way. A sloped base to facilitate this water movement distinguishes

bioswales from rain gardens.

The swale in this image replaced a storm sewer, and by slowing runoff and

eliminating silting, improved a nearby stream to the point that salmon have

returned to spawn after a multiyear absence.

Erosion prevention and sediment control, also known as stormwater runoff

control, is not one technology, but rather a suite of methods that can be used

both to prevent soils from eroding from a piece of land and to capture any that

do erode. These individual techniques, or erosion BMPs, are each applicable

to different situations and must be chosen carefully for each project.






Floodwater Management Issues

Flooding is becoming an ever-increasing

problem in many areas as storms become

more and more frequent and ferocious and

urban development becomes more

concentrated.

Floods are actually the most common disaster

in the U.S. as well as one of the most harmful,

killing 25 people in 2017 and creating more

than $3 billion of damage to property and

crops.

Coastal flooding from higher seas and larger

storm surges is also increasing. For many East

Coast cities, water has reached flood levels 20

days a year as opposed to 5 days a year prior

to 2001.






Large-Scale Wastewater Management Approaches

In addition to the combined sewer and aging

infrastructure issues identified in previous

slides, one of the largest issues related to

wastewater management/treatment is the

energy required. Approximately 3% to 4% of

the national energy output is required for this

task. This also represents a significant cost.

Other issues include insufficiently trained staff,

dealing with the sludge that is removed from

the water, and the amount of space required

for these plants including the areas near them

that can be rendered undesirable because of

odors.






Large-Scale Wastewater Management Approaches

Currently, wastewater plants often create activated sludge

treatment plants in order to deal with sludge disposal/treatment.

These plants are not only expensive to construct but also require

substantial land areas for primary and secondary process settling

tanks and aeration basins.

It is beyond the scope of this course to examine water treatment

plan technologies and approaches in detail, but the next few slides

will describe some of the smaller-scale wastewater management

approaches currently used to reduce loads on larger plants. Any

plan that necessitates revising large plants could/should involve

implementing these measures throughout the community as well.

John Rostron, CC BY-SA 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons





https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Beckton_STP,_Activated_Sludge_Tank_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1481906.jpg



Medium-Scale Wastewater Management Approaches: Graywater

Graywater is relatively clean (free from human

waste) water that comes from sinks, baths and

showers, dishwashers, and laundry equipment.

Graywater and captured rainwater can be

redirected to toilets and landscape irrigation.

Treatment of graywater may be required, and it

is ideal to store only treated (filtered) water.

Methods of treatment include UV treatment,

filtration, ozonation, and chlorination. These

treatment methods require specific equipment

and knowledge and are not appropriate at all

scales. A multiunit residential project, however,

would be a good scale.






Medium-Scale Wastewater Management Approaches: Graywater

Another approach to cleansing graywater is

through a graywater garden. Graywater

gardens are constructed gardens planted with

appropriate plants that are watered and

nourished with graywater from a nearby

structure. They can be scaled from the single

home up to medium-sized commercial facilities

and multiunit residential projects.

The use of graywater in this manner lowers the

costs of central treatment while recharging the

groundwater.

SuSanA Secretariat, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons





https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Greywater_treatment_garden_(3212483887).jpg



Water Pollution Issues

Sources of pollution can be classified as follows:

• Point sources of pollution refer to localized pollution (i.e., contamination originating from one, single point).

• Examples are sources designed to store and dispose toxic substances: landfills, lagoons, open dumps; saltwater intrusion;

dumping of damaged containers with toxic substances in waters; accidental spills; spills from oil tankers; leakage from

(underground) petroleum tanks; leakage from sewer and septic systems; and releases and spills from industries.

• Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution, unlike pollution from industrial and sewage treatment plants, comes from many

diffuse sources. For example, NPS pollution is caused by rainfall or snowmelt moving over and through the ground.

As the runoff moves, it picks up and carries away natural and human-made pollutants, finally depositing them into

lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal waters, and even our underground sources of drinking water.

• Examples are excess fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides from agricultural lands and residential areas; oil, grease, and

toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production; sediment from improperly managed construction sites, crop and

forest lands, and eroding stream banks; salt from irrigation practices and acid drainage from abandoned mines; bacteria

and nutrients from livestock, pet wastes, and faulty septic systems; and atmospheric deposition.






Water Pollution Issues

Water contains naturally occurring substances—mainly bicarbonates, sulphates, sodium, chlorides, calcium,

magnesium, and potassium. They are absorbed into surface and groundwater from:

• soil, geologic formations, and terrain in a catchment area (river basin)

• surrounding vegetation and wildlife; precipitation and runoff from adjacent land; and biological, physical and

chemical processes in the water, and

• human activities in the region.

Human-induced toxic contamination of surface water and groundwater is caused by improper, unregulated disposal of

toxic chemicals and drugs and residuals from numerous industries, including mining and agriculture. Percolation of

fertilizers and pesticide residuals are the main pollutants caused by agriculture. Incorrectly disposing of toxic cleaning

products is the main cause of pollution at residences and industries. In addition, leaking and infiltration of pollutants at

designated storage facilities cause groundwater contamination.

Among the offending compounds are nitrates, pesticides, and herbicides used by the agricultural industry, solvents and

chemicals used by industries and pharmaceuticals, and endocrine disruptors. Still unknown is the cumulative effect of

more than one of these compounds.






Water Pollution Management Approaches

Water quality can be managed in large part by a number of pollution prevention activities such as:

• the use of nontoxic cleaning products; look for an ECO type of logo on products and read labels; properly dispose of

cleaning products

• the proper disposal of products that contain toxic chemicals, pesticides, paints, solvents, gasoline, and flammable

liquids (i.e., do not dump in the sewer system) and proper disposal of pharmaceutical products and batteries

• the prevention of pollutant runoff from entering storm sewers (e.g., cleaning the car at a “auto spa”)

• the minimization/elimination of road salts in wintertime

• the reduction of urban runoff by replacing impervious paved surfaces like the driveway and backyard terrace with

partially permeable material, and

• the protection and maintenance of private and municipal wells. Maintain good hygiene around the well. This includes

keeping adequate distance between the well and contaminating activities (such as cattle, pesticides, fertilizers, car

workshop, sewer system, disposal pits), no ponding of water around the wells, and regular monitoring (water quality

testing).






Water Pollution Management Approaches

Treatment approaches for small drinking-water systems include the following:

• Point-of-use (POU) devices treat water intended for direct consumption (e.g., pumped in units with separate faucets,

typically installed under the kitchen sink).

• Point-of-entry (POE) systems treat all water entering a single home, business, or other facility.

These treatment approaches utilize some of the treatment technologies of central systems. By treating only a portion of

the flow, the central plants can achieve cost savings that could enable them to provide customized protection to their

clients at an affordable cost. This approach might also be an option where central treatment is simply not available.






Water Conservation Approaches

Conserving water in homes reduces the amount of wastewater and thus

the load on central treatment plants. There are many low-cost

approaches to managing and conserving water in a home.

• Fixing leaking faucets, toilet bowls, and pipes and insulating hot

water pipes so hot water isn’t wasted waiting for it to heat up

• Utilizing low-flow devices and equipment; water-saving devices on

toilets, dual-flow and high-efficiency toilets, and low-flow

showerheads and faucets can reduce water use by as much as 35%,

thereby saving money in energy, water, and wastewater charges.

Horizontal axis washing machines save up to 40% of the water used

by a conventional model.

• Washing only full laundry loads

• Using a bucket, sponge, and a trigger nozzle on the hose when

washing cars (saves 75% of the water needed)

• Watering lawns in the early morning or late in the evening

• Turning off the tap while brushing teeth

• Shortening showers by one minute

Creating awareness of these water-saving tips is an

important part of any larger-scale water and wastewater

management strategy.







A good water management plan ensures that rainfall from frequent small

events (about 75% of rain events) is infiltrated into the ground or reused within

the watershed.

When water is infiltrated where it falls, it ensures a replenished water table

and limits the use of the stormwater system. Traditional development with a

higher percentage of impervious surfaces causes flooding, loss of aquatic

habitat, and increase in NPS water pollution in downstream receiving waters.

Capturing the small events reduces the wear-and-tear on watercourses that

degrades or eliminates fish habitat. Small events are manageable, and the

water captured can be reused within the watershed.

Capturing and reusing rainwater also ensures wastewater plants will not

receive it, become overloaded during storms, and be forced to release

untreated water into nearby watercourses.







Xeriscaping is an approach to gardening that

focuses on using plants that reduce or eliminate the

need for watering.

The benefits of xeriscaping are many. Foremost is

reduced water consumption, which lowers the

demand on treating water supplies and costs.

Mulching and efficient drip irrigation, if required,

reduce landscape maintenance. Appropriate plant

selection will reduce fertilizer and pesticide use.

Reducing pesticide and fertilizer use improves the

quality of any water runoff or percolation and, once

again, reduces the load on central water treatment.

Multiple small-scale conservation activities such as

these can together have a huge impact on overall

community usage.






REVIEW QUESTION

What are riparian zones and why are they important?






ANSWER

Riparian zones are the transitional areas between

the land and the water of streams, lakes, rivers,

and springs. They are vital to the health of all other

aquatic ecosystems; they filter out pollutants from

land runoff and prevent erosion, supply shelter and

food for many aquatic animals, and provide shade

that helps to regulate the temperature of the water

body.






What is meant by the term low-impact development

(LID) and what are some of the approaches and

techniques it uses?

REVIEW QUESTION






Low-impact development (LID) is a stormwater

management strategy that is integrated with

engineered, small-scale hydrologic controls to more

closely mimic predevelopment hydrology.

This method of development emphasizes conservation

and use of on-site natural features, and it often

integrates rain gardens, vegetated swales, green roofs,

living walls, and permeable pavements into LID

solutions.

ANSWER






EMERGING WATER-RELATED ISSUES AND IMPACTS

B137, CCO 1.0 via Wikimedia Commons




https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MB_Rising_Above_sign.JPG




While the current issues and approaches highlighted in the previous

sections indicate that water management is already a complex and

significant process that affects all levels of planning and building design,

there are even more water-related issues that are emerging or becoming

increasingly important.

Each community will have its own specific set of circumstances based on

climate, hydrology, topography, politics, population density, agriculture, and

industry. Some communities will remain immune from water strife while

many, many others will struggle with water-related issues for some time.

What follows is a synopsis of emerging issues currently facing certain

communities, and which may be faced by more communities in the future.

Learning from the actions of others in dealing with these issues is important

to informing a resilient, adaptable water management strategy.

U.S. Coast Guard, Public domain via Wikimedia Commons




https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:KatrinaNewOrleansFlooded_edit2.jpg




The adjacent report notes that water crises have the fifth largest impact on society. This means

that they hold a greater risk than famine or epidemic. The leading crisis noted in the report is

weapons of mass destruction followed by extreme weather events, natural disasters, and

failure of climate change mitigation and adaptation. The likelihood of extreme weather events is

ranked as the highest risk, followed by natural disasters. Extreme weather events affect water

management.

The implication of this list is that there will be an increase in importance of weather-related

water issues. These include increased stormwater, flooding, tidal surges, and rising seas in

addition to drought in some areas.

As a result of current changes to weather events, the Federal Emergency Management

Agency (FEMA) is continuously redrawing its flood maps. All of Florida is now considered a

flood zone. An analysis of water withdrawals from basins around the world noted that 2.7 billion

people (33% of the global population) are already living in areas of severe water shortage for at

least one month per year and that for almost half of the water basins analyzed, more than 40%

of the renewable water supply was being depleted. Analyzing water withdrawals,

replenishment, and availability is critical to any large-scale planning initiative.




https://www.fema.gov/flood-map-revision-processes



Emerging Water-Related Issues

Some of the water issues, such as disappearing

sources, that we face today are the result of water

planning misjudgements of the past.

Water planning has too often been based on short-term

economics and solutions that failed to recognize their

long-term impacts. Numerous rivers have been

disrupted and overallocated and in some instances

have dried up their downstream lakes as a result.*

Many underground aquifers have been overdrawn.*

Many, if not most, waterbodies including estuaries,

coastal zones, and oceans have been polluted, and

ecosystems have been degraded.

*The Ogallala Aquifer in the Midwest has dropped as much as 150 feet in

some places, and the Colorado River no longer reaches the ocean.CC BY 3.0 via freeaussiestock





http://freeaussiestock.com/free/Northern_Territory/slides/finke_river.htm



Population Concentration

We have already noted the water issues that emerged in Los

Vegas were largely due to a rapid population concentration in

that that city. Similar issues are anticipated for Phoenix, another

dry community that also relies on water from Lake Mead. Any

community that experiences population growth will have an

increased water demand that could strain its existing sources.

A 2015 census report entitled “Population Trends in Incorporated

Places: 2000 to 2013” states that the percentage of city dwellers

was highest in the Midwest and the West. It goes on to say that

this could be explained by the limited access to water outside

these cities. In other words, people in drier areas move to the city

to be assured of water. The city is then tasked with finding water,

possibly from an area outside its boundaries where no one

wanted to live because there is no water there.




https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2015/demo/p25-1142.html



Population Concentration

It may seem a reasonable idea to limit population in cases where the city simply cannot meet demand, but this is not

usually feasible. Not only does our population constantly grow and thus create demand, but also increased population

concentration in existing centers represents increased revenue, new businesses, and more employment opportunities

that most communities are reluctant to pass up.

In 1998, Okotoks, Alberta, became one of the first municipalities in the world to establish growth targets linked to the

carrying capacity of its watershed. In addition to limiting population growth, they established a build-out municipal

boundary and a set of targets and initiatives to ensure they could do this in an environmentally, economically, socially,

and fiscally responsible manner.

However, in 2012, external growth pressures in the region forced the town, after three years of public consultation, to

transition from the finite growth model to one of continued managed growth. This decision was grounded in

sustainability and resiliency and the desire to manage the physical form while being adaptable to inevitable changes

and external forces.






Rising Sea Levels and Sinking Coastlines

A number of coastal cities are already experiencing the impacts of

rising sea levels. San Francisco is one of them. In their case, the

coastline is also sinking at the same time. Some estimates

suggest that by 2100, this combination of factors could “lose” as

much as 165 square miles of land to the ocean.

Recent research has noted that almost the entire eastern

coastline from parts of Maine and Massachusetts to Florida is

also sinking as seas rise.

These phenomena are due to three factors: the land under the ice

cap rises as the ice melts, and this causes other parts of the world

to sink; groundwater extraction lowers the land; and of course, the

water from the melting ice raises the sea.






Increased Storm Surges

A storm surge is defined as a temporary rise in sea level due to high winds or low atmospheric pressure. Even a small

rise in sea level can have a significant impact on the magnitude and reach of storm surges.

Sea level rise extended the storm surge reach of Hurricane Sandy by 27 square miles; this affected 83,000 homes and

added over $2 billion in storm damage.

It is predicted that storms and thus storm surges will continue to increase in frequency and ferocity as sea levels rise.

This implies that storm surges will become an even more critical major planning factor for coastal communities.

Emmanuel Boutet, Public domain via Wikimedia Commons





https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Surge-en.svg



Deterring Development in Inappropriate Locations

There are many areas planned for development that are

situated in areas of danger from freshwater flooding, sea level

rise, and/or storm surges. Many of these areas were identified

before some of the emerging issues came to the forefront, and

other areas have become floodplains since planning

commenced.

Researchers determined that an area the size of Colorado

could lie within various 100-year floodplains in the U.S. by

2100. This study did not even account for any further

exacerbations resulting from climatic shifts, so in all likelihood,

the results would likely be even worse.

Communities should reexamine their planning policies and

ordinances and eliminate development in these areas and

others where water shortages might occur.






Fair Bluff, North Carolina

This community of 1,000 has been hit by two unprecedented hurricanes in recent years: Hurricane Matthew in 2016

and Hurricane Florence in 2018. Town officials wish to relocate the ruined downtown to higher ground, but there are no

available funds. Not only is the downtown currently vacant, but also the overall population has dropped by 50% to just

450. It is anticipated that if the town is hit by another hurricane, it will have to be abandoned totally, thus becoming the

first U.S. ghost town resulting from water issues related to climate change.

Throughout the entire state, communities are now implementing new zoning ordinances that will prevent construction in

100-year flood areas. A study by Zurich Insurance suggests that the state must become more aggressive about buying

out vulnerable properties and also notes that Wilmington, a coastal city only 66 miles from Fair Bluff that was also hit

hard by Florence, can now expect 70 days of sunny-day flooding each year!

Key recommendations in the report include to:

• use economic motivators as levers for action

• assess and address systemic issues holistically rather than in isolation, and

• imagine how bad an event could be and plan for things to be even worse!




https://www.zurichna.com/en/knowledge/articles/2019/04/hurricane-florence-building-resilience-for-the-new-normal



Norfolk, Virginia, Zoning Ordinance Rewrite

Flooding and sea level rise have already

had an impact on community planning in

Norfolk, Virginia, which, in March 2018,

introduced a totally rewritten zoning

ordinance that was focused on those

issues.

In their own words:

“The new zoning ordinance encourages and

supports development that makes Norfolk more

resilient, both physically and economically,

recognizes the four established character

districts, is user friendly, and supports

streamlined development processes. It allows

us to take a proactive and innovative

approach to address flooding and position the

Mermaid City as the coastal community of the

21st century and a model for other coastal

communities to follow.”







Although the ordinance rewrite focuses on responding

to the long-term challenges of sea level rise, it was also

an opportunity to address other issues as well. For

example, it discusses making neighborhoods more

vibrant by mixing commercial and residential uses and

allowing more live-work and accessory housing units.

It introduces a resilience quotient that all development

must meet. The point-based system addresses three

elements: risk reduction, stormwater management, and

energy resilience.

The intent is that this system will make all development

more resilient as well as allow developers to choose

which measures should be incorporated in any

development. There is a universal requirement that any

new or expanding development must situate its ground

floor 1.5 to 3 feet (45 to 90 cm) above flood level.







Additional aspects of the new ordinance include preserving the character of

certain districts. Downtown, traditional, suburban, and coastal districts each

have their own standards that address their historic and planned development

character.

The new zoning ordinance also incorporates a streamlined approval process

that makes every step clear and eliminates surprises for both applicants and

residents.

The entire rewrite process, which involved extensive community participation,

was implemented through a resilience lens. The extensive flooding issues

that were initially a liability became an opportunity to improve the overall

community for the long term.

There are a number of communities around the world developing resilience

strategies. Their approaches and projects can inform resilient water

management planning.




http://www.100resilientcities.org/strategies



Increasing Water Inequalities

NASA has observed that all over the world, wet areas are getting

wetter and dry areas are getting drier. People in drier areas draw

more water from aquifers, and once that water is removed, it

evaporates and is redistributed as rainfall in wetter areas. It noted

that parts of the northern Amazon, Africa, the upper Missouri River

basin in the United States, and other locations in the tropics have

become wetter, and that parts of the Middle East, North Africa,

India, China, and the Southwestern United States have become

drier. California showed significant water losses.

As global temperatures continue to rise and arid areas experience

even less rain, communities will rely even more heavily on

groundwater. Earlier research has already noted that aquifers

around the world are losing water.






Disappearing Water Sources

We have already noted the rapid disappearance of the

Colorado River and Lake Mead.

In addition to surface water disappearances, NASA

has identified the fact that 21 of the 37 largest

underground aquifers in the world are being depleted

faster than they can be replenished and that 13 others

are in a state they labeled “most troubled.”

In the U.S., NASA identified California’s Central Valley

Aquifer and an aquifer on the southeast coast of

Florida as being used at an unsustainable rate. The

U.S. Government Accountability Office expects 40 of

50 states to have at least one region exposed to some

form of water shortage within the next 10 years.






Increased Drought in Some Areas

There are a number of areas that are experiencing long-term drought;

in the U.S., the most notable is the state of California. The lack of

snowpack in the Cascades and Sierra Mountains is held largely

responsible for this drought.

Droughts contribute to the cycle of water redistribution as more and

more water is drawn from the underground aquifers in affected areas

and not replenished during these periods.

The California Water Boards have reported that water usage has also

spiked back to predrought levels.* Its chairwoman stated that it seems

everyone has forgotten how to conserve and that they must remain

aware, so the board will redouble its efforts to (re)educate. She

attributed this increased usage to a return to lawn watering during hot

periods as well as reduced media coverage of the droughts’ impacts.

*Water reduction was just 0.8% in January 2018

as compared to 20.7% in January 2017.




https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/conservation_portal/conservation_reporting.html



Increased Freshwater Flooding

As noted earlier, because of constantly shifting

flood conditions, FEMA is redrawing its flood

maps constantly; they now suggest that about

13 million people are exposed to the risk of a

100-year flood. A new study by the Nature

Conservancy, however, states that this figure is

actually far too low—41 million are exposed to

this risk, and this number is expected to rise.

South Dakota, Nebraska, and New Mexico are

expected to have a 500% increase in flood

exposure by 2100, and California, Florida, and

Texas are expected to have a 300% to 400%

increase. Exposure areas are concentrated

along the Pacific Coast, around the Great

Lakes, and across the inland West.






Increasing Costs and Energy Usage for Processing

The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has

estimated that already nearly 4% of national energy usage

is devoted to moving and treating water and wastewater.

Municipalities often devote 30% to 40% of their energy

costs and as much as 10% of their annual budgets to

process and pump water.

California’s pumping, treating, and heating of water

accounts for not only 10% of its greenhouse gas emissions

but also 20% of its electrical energy and 30% of business

and home use of natural gas. Urban water use accounts

for 70% of this usage.

These figures translate into major expenses for every

community.Ironically, it also takes an enormous amount of water to produce

the energy to treat water.

Wusel007, Public domain via Wikimedia Commons





https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hydroelectric_power_plant_Glendo_Sp.JPG



Increasing Costs from Flooding

Increases in flooding lead to increased costs

related to both repairing flood damage and

mitigating the impact of future floods.

In August 2018, Houston passed its largest bond

bill ever to raise $2.5 billion to mitigate and prevent

floods. The money will be used to fund about 230

projects over a decade or so and to access

another $2 billion in matching federal funds.

Projects include widening of bayous and channels,

excavating stormwater detention basins, voluntary

home buyouts, and engineering studies, but the

funds will not be sufficient to fund a third new

reservoir or a coastal barrier.

Flooding in Houston after Tropical Storm Allison

NOAA Employee, Public domain via Wikimedia Commons





https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Allison_Flood_Houston.jpg



Rising Costs from Privatization

Some municipalities have sold their water

utilities to private interests in the expectation

that private interests can deliver energy and

cost efficiencies better than public utilities. The

results have produced controversy because in

a number of cases, water costs to the

consumer have increased. Food & Water

Watch suggests that turning water over to

private management results in almost a 60%

rise in cost to the consumer.

There are some who argue that this is perhaps

the most effective way to encourage

conservation and to bring water costs to a

more realistic level. A recent survey confirmed

that water costs in the U.S. are among the

lowest internationally and are, for example,

only 50% of the costs in Europe.






New Funding Options

In recognition of the costs to rebuild infrastructure and to

process water, the EPA initiated the Water Infrastructure

Finance and Innovation Act (WIFIA) program in 2018. This

program can provide as much as $5.5 billion in loans, which

in turn can further leverage the same amount in matching

funds.

These funds can be used for:

• drinking water treatment and distribution projects

• wastewater conveyance and treatment projects

• enhanced energy efficiency projects at drinking water and

wastewater facilities

• desalination, aquifer recharge, alternative water supply,

and water recycling projects, and

• drought prevention, reduction, or mitigation projects.






Creation of Water Utilities

Some municipalities have created stormwater utilities similar to

water and sewer utilities. The legal rationale for a stormwater

utility is that rain that falls on a private property is the

responsibility of the property owner, and removal of runoff from

private property through a municipal drainage system should be

paid for by the property owner to the local utility.

The fee charged by the utility depends on the amount of water

discharged by each property. Fees are based on impervious

area (including the building) and gross site area or an additional

intensity-of-use factor.

Permeable paving plays a significant role in meeting these

requirements and/or reducing/eliminating these fees and can

even allow a larger building footprint.

Please remember the test password CONSERVE.

You will be required to enter in order to proceed with the online test.






Additional Taxes

While most communities to date have relied on federal

and state funding to address water issues, the City of

San Francisco in 2016 introduced Measure AA, the San

Francisco Bay Clean Water, Pollution Prevention, and

Habitat Restoration Program, a tax devoted to shoreline

projects to protect and restore San Francisco Bay. This

measure, which added just $12 a year to most tax bills,

was passed by taxpayers with a 70% majority.

San Francisco anticipates significant impact from sea

level rise by 2030, and the funds from this tax are

expected to be used to implement measures now in

order to avoid the higher costs of dealing with that issue

at the last minute. Additional funds will also be required.

San Francisco Bay

NASA/JPL/NIMA, Public domain via Wikimedia Commons





https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:San_Francisco_Bay_JPLLandsat.jpg



Need for Increased Efficiencies

The United States Geological Survey (USGS) reports that the total

amount of water used in the U.S. is dropping even though the

population is growing. This is partly due to increased efficiencies in all

sectors of water usage.

However, water usage in the U.S. is still high (80 to 100 gallons/day/

person compared to China at 13 gallons/day/person) and by most

estimates is still the highest globally, along with Canada. It is roughly

double that of Spain and three times that of Germany. This suggests

that there is considerable opportunity (and need) to achieve even

greater efficiencies in both countries and that every water strategy

should explore those opportunities and methods used in efficient

countries.

System leaks are a major issue that should be addressed. The EPA

notes that $97 billion is needed for water loss control, that the

average water loss in systems is 16%, and that up to 75% of that is

recoverable.




https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441



Shifting Populations and Property Values

The impact of sea level rise has already been felt in Miami. In

parts of that city (the Shorecrest neighborhood), officials are

considering abandoning land and letting it go back to the sea.

This means a relocation of its residents.

The need of coastal dwellers to relocate away from the flooding

areas has already shifted property values in low-income

communities, which are on higher ground away from the coast.

House prices in these areas have risen by an average of 135% in

the last five years and thus displaced many low-income

homeowners and renters. The phenomenon is sometimes

referred to as climate gentrification.

As well, coastal flooding has reduced waterfront property values

in New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut by $7 billion since

2005.South Beach flood

Maxstrz, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr





https://www.flickr.com/photos/13748835@N00/3598665615



W

REVIEW QUESTION

What is a storm surge and what

impact can it have?






W

ANSWER

A storm surge is defined as a temporary rise in

sea level due to high winds or low atmospheric

pressure. In Hurricane Sandy, storm surges

extended the impact of sea level rise by 27

square miles, thus affecting 83,000 homes

and adding over $2 billion in storm damage.






REVIEW QUESTION

There are at least nine scales at which water

management plans should be implemented and

integrated.

Can you name seven or more of them?






Water management plans should incorporate

approaches at the country, state/province, county,

watershed, subwatershed, region, district,

neighborhood, site, and building scales.

Planning at all these levels must be coordinated

and integrated with all other levels to form one,

cohesive and effective plan.

ANSWER






SUMMARY AND RESOURCES






Summary

At a time when the world has a water scarcity or accessibility crisis, water management issues have become

increasingly important in community planning. In addition to the steadily growing problem of sustaining an adequate

freshwater supply, communities are now dealing with major issues such as increased flooding, increased drought, sea

level rise, tidal surges, and identifying more sustainable, environmentally beneficial, and economic approaches to

treating wastewater.

The magnitude and frequency of these challenges in concert with the steady concentration of population in urban

centers, an ever-increasing consumption of water, and rising costs has resulted in the need to examine current water

management approaches and usage patterns in order to assess whether they are resilient enough to be effective well

into the future no matter which issues may become dominant.

Water management planning traditionally used past weather and water usage figures to determine future water needs.

Many water solutions of the past were short-term reactions to crises, which resulted in the degradation or elimination of

viable water sources and/or interfered with the water resources of others. Water planning today is not only well

coordinated between authorities and integrated into land use planning, but it also uses a long-term planning horizon and

examines all environmental impacts in order to identify more sustainable solutions.

Plans also now consistently prioritize conservation as opposed to simply identifying supply sources and quantities.






Summary

Communities are now planning how to live with a new water reality. This includes introducing natural features such as

rainwater gardens, vegetated swales, wetlands, and reefs; utilizing more permeable surfaces; designing buildings that

can withstand flooding and/or store rainwater; utilizing water as a major design feature; adding new land areas and

parks; and allowing certain land to become submerged into the ocean.

Resilient water policies and strategies are now recognized as an important means by which a community can

strengthen its economic outlook and health and provide increased amenities in one, integrated strategy. When they are

well integrated with all other aspects of community planning, both the short-term performance and long-term outlook are

improved significantly, and the community is beautified as a result.






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https://blog.epa.gov/2014/02/03/challenges-and-combined-sewer-overflows/



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Planning Resilient Water Management Strategies Part I

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