Pinnacle Star or Pole Star The Moon and other satellites Pointer Stars Asteroids and Meteoroids...

. . .

Chapter1: Earth in the Solar System

What do you see in the Sky?

Stars Planets Objects that are twinkling or flickering. Eg., Sun

Objects that are glowing but not twinkling/ flickering.

Stars emit a large amount of heat and light Don’t have their own heat and light. Instead they are lit by the light of stars.

Constellations like Ursa Major or Big Bear, Saptarshi or Small Bear

8 Planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

North Star or Pole Star The Moon and other satellites Pointer Stars Asteroids and Meteoroids

Stars are big heavenly bodies Planets are called 'Wanderers' because they revolve around the sun in fixed orbit.

There are many stars which we cannot see with our naked eyes

Planets can be seen with the help of the telescope.

The Solar System

The Sun, 8 Planets, Satellites and some other celestial bodies known as asteroids and meteoroids make the

Solar System. It’s a solar family with the Sun as its head.

Important Terms and Explanations

Celestial Bodies

The sun, the moon, and all those objects shining in the sky

‘Sol’ Sun God in Roman mythology Constellation A huge group of stars forming various patterns in the sky. E.g., Ursa Major,

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Saptarshi

Stars Big and hot, made up of gases. Have their own heat and light, emitting them in huge amounts. E.g., Sun

Nebula Stars are formed from the clouds of gas and dust in space, called nebula and have their own heat and light.

Pole Star Also called the North Star. Can be used to determine directions. Always remain in the same position in the sky. Can be located using Saptarshi. Facing North, one can see it through an imaginary line joining the two pointer stars and extended further.

Satellites A celestial body that moves around a particular planet, in the same way as the planets move around the sun.

Man-made Satellites

An artificial body – designed by scientists to gather information about the universe or for communication. Carried by a rocket and placed in the orbit around the earth. Some Indian Satellites in Space are INSAT, IRS, EDUSAT.

Inner Planets or Lesser Planets

Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. They are very Close to the Sun. Made up of rocks.

Outer Planets or Gas Giants

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. They are very far from the Sun and huge planets. Made up of gases and liquids. These two types of Planets are separated by the asteroid belts.

Mercury Closest to the Sun and the smallest planet. Takes only about 88 days to complete one revolution along its orbit.

Venus Also known as the ‘Earth’s Twin’, ‘Morning star’ and ‘Evening Star’. It is similar in size, mass, density and volume with earth but it has no oceans and is surrounded by a heavy atmosphere composed mainly of carbon dioxide and water vapour.

The Sun

Centre of the Solar system. Made up of extremely hot gases. Provides the pulling force that binds the solar system. The ultimate source of heat and light for the solar system. About 150 Million Km away from the Earth.

Distance : Light of the Sun takes about 8 min. to reach the earth. (Light’s Speed = 300,000 km/s)

Planets Do not have their own heat and light. Instead lit by the light of the stars. The term derived from the Greek Word ‘Planetai’ meaning ‘Wanderers’.

8 Planets

In order of their distance from the Sun: 1) Mercury 2) Venus 3) Earth 4) Mars 5) Jupiter 6) Saturn 7) Uranus 8) Neptune.

(To easily remember: “My Very Efficient Mother Just Served Us Nuts”

Orbits The elongated paths around the Sun in which all the eight planets move respectively.



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Earth

3rd nearest planet to the Sun and the densest. 5th in size slightly flattened at the poles, hence its size is described as ‘Geoid’ meaning an ‘earth-like shape’. A Unique Planet: Because it has life-supporting water and air, which is probably only planet. A Blue Planet : Its two-thirds surface is covered by water. One orbit around Sun = 365 days. One spin on its axis = 1 day. No. of Moons = 1

Moon

Only satellite of the earth. Also called Earth’s companion. Diameter = only one quarter that of the earth. 3,84,400 km away from us. Neil Armstrong – the first man to step on the Surface on 29, July, 1969. Only one side of the moon visible always: Because The moon moves around the earth in about 27 days. It takes exactly the same time to complete the spin. Surface: It has mountains, planes and depressions on it, which cast shadows on the surface.

Mars Also called ‘Red Planet’. Its atmosphere is made up of carbon dioxide with small amounts of other gases.

Jupiter Largest planet in the Solar system surrounded by an atmosphere composed of Hydrogen and Helium.

Saturn Second largest and the most beautiful, owing to the rings around it. The only planet which is less dense than water. Has the highest number of moons.

Asteroids A numerous tiny bodies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, which also move around the Sun. About 40,000 known asteroids are there. Ceres is the largest.

Meteoroids Small pieces of rocks which move around the Sun. Sometimes come near the earth and tend to drop upon it, creating hallows, or due to friction with the air, get heated up and burnt halfway.

Pluto Aug, 2006 – considered to be a dwarf planet, like Ceres, 2003 and UB313 by the International Astronomical Union.

Galaxy A huge system of billions of stars and clouds of dust and gases. Our solar system is a part of Milkyway galaxy. In ancient India, it was imagined to be a river of light flowing

in the sky. Thus, it was named Akash Ganga. Universe Millions of such galaxies make the universe. Rings The Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus have rings around them. These are belts of small debris. Protection from the radiation.

The Earth’s magnetic field and the atmosphere protects us from the harmful radiation of the sun and other stars. The Earth’s atmosphere also protects us from meteors, most of which burn up before they strike the surface.

Tilted Axis The Earth’s axis is tilted by 23.5 degree, because of which we have the seasons like Summer, Winter, Autumn and the Spring.

Revolution Speed

The Earth revolves around the sun at a speed of 30 km/s.

Earth’s Temperature

Ranges from 127 degree F. to 236 degree F.

Water in 3 States

Earth is the only planet which has water in all its 3 states – solid, liquid and gas.

The Sun Fuelled by nuclear fusion reaction. It can fit 1.3 million earths inside its sphere. It’s been burning for more than 4.5 billion years. It is the gravitational force of the sun that keeps all the planets in their orbit.



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Where are we in the Universe?

Chapter 2. Globe: Latitudes and Longitudes

Globe: A true model of the Earth or the miniature form of the

Earth. On it, countries, continents and oceans are shown in their

correct size. A globe is a three-dimensional representation of the

Earth.

Axis: Two points on the globe through which an imaginary line

passes are two poles: North Pole and South Pole. The line is the

Axis.

Anti-Clock wise Rotation: The globe moves around this line

(imaginary) from west to east in A.C wise direction around its

own axis.

Equator and Latitudes:

- Another imaginary circular line running horizontally on the globe divides it into two equal parts. The line

is called the Equator. Northern half is northern Hemisphere and the Southern half is Southern Hemisphere.

All parallel circles from the equator up to the poles are called parallels of latitude.

- Lines of latitude are measured from the center of the earth and usually measured in degrees. 1 degree =

70 miles or 113 Km. As we move away from the equator, the size of the parallels of latitude decreases.

Important parallels of Latitude:

1) Tropic of Cancer (23.50 N) in the Northern Hemisphere.

2) Tropic of Capricorn (23.50 S) in the Southern Hemisphere.

3) Arctic Circle at 66. 50 N of the Equator.

4) Antarctic Circle at 66. 50 S of the Equator.

Heat Zones of the Earth: The latitude of a region has a great

effect on its climate and weather.



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1) Torrid Zone or Tropical Zone: Lies between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. The word

‘torrid’ means hot. This hottest zone of the earth receives direct sunlight throughout the year. Also known

as the Tropical zone. Receives abundant rainfall and has abundant green plants and trees and varied animal

life.

2) Temperate Zone or Moderate Zone: Between the tropic of cancer and Arctic Circle in the North and

the Tropic of Capricorn and Antarctic Circle in the South are two zones of moderate temperature called

Temperate zones. ‘Temperate’ means moderate. This zone never receives sun rays vertically. Instead,

slanted rays fall on this zone.

3) Frigid Zone: The area that lies to the North of the Arctic circle and to the South of the Antarctic circle is

called Frigid Zone. The sun never rises much above the Horizon here and these areas are frozen for most of

the year and are the coldest region of the world.

Longitudes and Meridians:

- Describes the location of a place on the earth – east or west of a north to south running imaginary

line called the Prime Meridian.

- The meridians of longitude are lines running north – South through the poles.

- Longitude is the number of degrees east or west of the Prime Meridian (zero degree) which passes

through Greenwich (England)

- Lines of longitude are measured from the centre of the earth.

- The Prime meridian (00 Longitude) and the 180th meridian is a great circle that divides the earth into

the EASTERN and the WESTERN Hemisphere.

The 1800 Longitude line is also referred to as the International Date Line.

The meridians are numbered up to 180 degree to the east and west of the line of 0 degree longitude

or the Prime Meridian.

The value of the meridian is followed by the letter ‘E’ or ‘W’.

180 degree East and 180 degree West meridians are the same. There are 360 meridians in total.

Meridians are not parallel. They come together at the poles. The parallels and meridians form a

mesh or a grid.

Longitude and Time:

- As the earth turns, the sun appears to move across the sky. Global

time system is also oriented to the sun. Everyday the sun

rises in the East and sets in the West. This movement is

caused by the rotation of earth from west to east.

Therefore places to the East of a given longitude will have

sunrise first.

- The Earth takes 24 hours to cover 360 meridians. This

means that it covers 360/24 = 15 degree meridians in 1

hour. . . or one meridian in 4 min (60 min/15). Based on

this calculation, the difference in time of different places

is calculated.



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- Greenwich England was chosen to be the location for Universal Time, because it is located along the

Prime Meridian. This meridian is known to be Greenwich Mean Time. For e.g. Chicago is GMT

minus 6 hrs. . . So when it is 7 pm in Greenwich (7-6=1), it is 1 pm in Chicago.

- It is the time in any of the 24 time zones (each an hour apart) into which the earth is divided.

The Indian Standard Time is the time observed throughout India and Sri Lanka. The IST is calculated on

the basis of 82 1/20 E. longitude which is just west of the town Mirzapur, near

Allahabad (U.P). The longitudinal difference between Mirzapur and Greenwich is

5 hr 30 mins. As the Standard Meridian of India is towards the east of the Prime

Meridian, the IST is 5 + 30 hrs ahead of GMT.



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Chapter 3. MOTIONS OF THE EARTH Key words: Rotation – Revolution – Orbital plane – Circle of illumination – Earthday – Inclination of the

earth’s axis and the orbital plane – Leap Year – Elliptical orbit – Seasons – summer, winter, spring,

Autumn – Summer Solstice – Winter Solstice – Equinox.

Two types of motions:

Rotation The movement of the earth on its axis.

Revolution The movement of the earth around the sun in a fixed path or orbit is called Revolution.

Inclination of the earth’s axis and the orbital

plane

66 1/20 angle with Orbital Plane: The axis of the

earth which is an imaginary line, makes an angle

of 66 1/20 with its orbital plane.

Orbital Plane: The plane formed by the orbit is

known as the orbital plane.

The Earth day: The Earth’s 24 hours period of

rotation around its axis is known as the earth day.

Revolution: The second motion of the earth

around the sun in its orbit is called revolution. It

takes 365 days 6 hours to revolve around the sun.

Elliptical orbit: The earth moves around the sun in

an elliptical orbit.

Inclination never changes: Throughout its orbit,

the earth is inclined in the same direction.

Circle of

Illumination:

Due to the spherical shape of the earth, the one half facing the sun experiences day

while the other half away from the sun experiences night. The circle that divides the

day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.

The circle does not coincide with the axis.

Leap Year 6 hours saved every year are added to make one day (24 hours) over a span of four

years. This surplus day is added to the month of February every fourth year, due to

which this month every 4th year is of 29 days instead of 28 days. Such a year with

366 days is called a Leap Year.

Seasons A year is usually divided into summer, winter, Autumn and spring. Seasons change

because of the change in the position of the earth around the sun.



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Figure: Revolution of the earth and Seasons

June 21st –

Summer

Solstice

The Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun. The rays fall directly on

the tropic of cancer. North pole is inclined towards the Sun. Since a large

portion of the Northern Hemisphere is getting light from the Sun, it is

summer in the regions north of the equator.

The longest day and shortest night at these places occur on 21st June (in N.

Hemisphere)

Conditions reversed in the Southern Hemisphere. It is winter season there.

The nights are longer than the days. This position of the earth is called the

summer solstice.

December 22nd

– Winter

Solstice

The tropic of Capricorn receives direct rays of the sun as the South Pole tilts towards

it. Therefore, it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere with longer days and shorter

nights. The reverse happens in the N. Hemisphere. This position of the earth is

called winter solstice.

March 21st &

Sept 23rd –

Equinox

Direct rays of the sun fall on the equator. At this position neither of the poles is

tilted towards the sun; So whole earth experiences equal days and equal nights.

This is called an EQUINOX.

Autumn &

Spring

On 23rd Sept. it is autumn season in the N. Hemisphere and spring season in

the S. Hemisphere.

The opposite is the case on 21st March, when it is spring in the Northern

Hemisphere and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere.

Poles – 6 On 21st June, the Northern Hemisphere and the North pole is inclined



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months day & 6

months night.

towards the sun and the places beyond the Arctic Circle experiences

continuous daylight for about six months.

On the reverse, S. Hemisphere as well as South pole experiences night.

Likewise, on 22nd December, the S. Hemisphere as well as South pole is

inclined to sun, and the places beyond the Antarctic circle experiences

continuous daylight for about 6 months, and on the reverse, at this time N.

pole experiences night.

Symbols &

Abbreviations The Sexagesimal system of angular measurement

Unit Value Symbol Abbreviations

Degree 1⁄360 circle ° deg

Arcminute 1⁄60 degree ′ (prime) arcmin, amin,

Arcsecond 1⁄60 arcminute ″ (double prime) arcsec, asec, as

Chapter 4. MAPS

Key words Map – Physical, Political, Thematic – Components of maps – distance, direction and

symbol – Scale – small scale map, Large scale map – Cardinal directions – Intermediate

directions – compass

Symbols – Conventional symbols, sketch, Plan

Map A map is a representation or a drawing of the earth’s surface or a part of it drawn on a flat

surface according to a scale.

Physical maps: maps showing natural features of the earth such as mountains, plateaus,

plains, rivers, oceans etc., are called physical or relief maps.

Political maps: Maps showing cities, towns and villages, and different countries and

states of the world with their boundaries are called political maps.

Thematic maps: Some maps focus on specific information, such as road maps, rainfall

maps, maps showing distribution of forests, industries etc. are known as thematic maps.

3 Components

of map

1. Distance:

Maps are drawn to reduced scales. Reduction is done very carefully so that the

distance b/w the places is real.

Scale is the ratio b/w the actual distance on the ground and the distance shown on

the map.

- Small scale map: When large areas like continents or countries are to be shown

on a paper, then we use a small scale. For e.g.,. 5cm on the map shows 500 km on

the ground. It is called a small scale map

- Large Scale map: When a small area like your village or town is to be shown area like



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your village or town is to be shown on paper, then we use a large scale i.e., 5 cm on the

map shows 500 meters only on the ground. It is called a large scale map.

- Large scale maps give more information than SSM.

2. Direction:

Most maps contain an arrow marked with the letter ‘N’ at the upper right hand

corner, which shows north direction. It is called North Line.

- 4 Cardinal Directions: 4 major ones: North, South, East, West

- 4 Intermediate Directions: NE, NW, SE, SW

3. Symbols:

Features such as Buildings, roads, bridges, trees, railway lines or a well are shown

by using certain letters, shades, colours, pictures, and lines. This is characterised

as the universal language understood by all.

There is an International Agreement regarding the use of these symbols. These are

called Conventional symbols. E.g. Blue= water bodies, Brown = Mountains,

Yellow = Plateau, Green = plain.

Sketch It is a drawing mainly based on memory and spot observation and not to scale.

Plan A plan is a drawing of a small area on a large scale. We may sometimes want to know,

for e.g.,. the length and breadth of a room, which can’t be shown in a map. At that time,

we can refer drawings drawn to scale called a plan.

Chapter 5. MAJOR DOMAINS OF THE EARTH

Key words Life sustaining elements – Lithosphere – Atmosphere – Hydrosphere – Biosphere.

Continents – Ocean basins – sea level – Mt. Everest (8,848 m) – Mariana Trench in

the Pacific Ocean (11,022m)

7 Continents – Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America, Australia,

Antarctica – Ural mountains – Eurasia - Sahara Desert – River Nile – Isthmus of

Panama – The Andes Mountain range – The Amazon – Island continent – South Polar

Region – Maitri and Dakshin Gangotri – 3 movements of ocean water – the waves,

the tides, and the ocean currents.

4 Major oceans – the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian Ocean, Arctic ocean. – ‘S’ – shaped

Atlantic ocean – Indented coastline – Berring Strait.

5 layers in the atmosphere – the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the

thermosphere, the exosphere. Nitrogen – Oxygen – Carbon dioxide, Argon – Wind –

Oxygen cylinders - Global temperature or G.W.

Land,

Water, Air

The earth is the only planet which has life. Human beings can live here because the life

sustaining elements of land, water, air are present on the earth.

A The surface of the earth is a complex zone in which three main components of the



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Complex

Zone

environment meet, overlap and interact.

The solid portion of the earth on which we live is called the Lithosphere. The

gaseous layers that surround the earth is the Atmosphere, where Oxygen, Nitrogen,

Carbon dioxide and other gases are found. Hydrosphere comprises water in all its

forms, i.e., ice, water and water vapour. The Biosphere is the narrow zone of contact

b/w the land, water and air.

LITHOSPHERE

Lithosphere The solid portion of the earth. It comprises the rocks of the earth’s crust and the

thin layers of soil that contain nutrient elements which sustain organisms.

Two – major divisions of the earth’s surface : Continents and Ocean Bodies. All

the oceans of the world are connected with one another.

Sea Level The level of sea water remains the same everywhere. Elevation of land is

measured from the level of the sea, which is taken as Zero.

For e.g., The highest mountain Mt. Everest is 8,848 m. above the sea level. The

greatest depth of 11,022 m. is recorded at Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean.

Therefore depth of sea is much more than the highest point.

7 Continents These are separated by large water bodies. Greater part of the land mass lies in

the Northern Hemisphere.

1. ASIA:

- Largest continent. Covers about one third of the total area of the earth. It lies in the

Eastern Hemisphere. The tropic of Cancer passes through this continent.

- Ural mountains separate Asia from Europe. The combined landmasses of Europe and

Asia is called the Eurasia.

2. EUROPE:

- Much smaller than Asia. The continent lies to the west of Asia. The Arctic Circle

passes through it. Bound by water bodies on three sides.

3. AFRICA:

- Second largest after Asia. The equator or 00 latitude runs through almost the middle of



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the continent. A large part of Africa lies in the North Hemisphere. It is the only

continent through which the Tropic of Cancer, the Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn

pass.

- The Sahara Desert – the world’s largest hot desert is located in Africa. The continent

is bound on all sides by oceans and seas.

- The Nile – World’s longest river flows through Africa.

4. NORTH AMERICA:

- Third largest Continent. It is linked to South America by a very narrow Strip of land

called the Isthmus of Panama. 3 oceans surround this continent.

5. SOUTH AMERICA:

- Lies mostly in the Southern Hemisphere. Surrounded by Atlantic ocean in the East

and Pacific ocean in the West. The Andes, world’s longest mountain range, runs

through its length from north to South. It has the world’s largest river, the Amazon.

6. ASTRALIA:

- The smallest continent that lies entirely in the Southern Hemisphere. Surrounded on

all sides by the oceans and seas. It is called an ‘Island Ocean’.

7. ANTARCTICA:

- Completely in the Southern Hemisphere. The South pole lies almost at the centre of

this continent. It is located in the South Polar Region. Hence covered with thick ice

sheets. There are no permanent human settlements. Many countries have research

centres/ stations in Antarctica. India’s research stations are: Maitri and Dhakshina

Gangotri.

Strait It is a narrow passage of water connecting two large water bodies like seas and

oceans. It most commonly refers to a channel of water that lies between

two land masses, but it may also refer to a navigable channel through a body of

water that is otherwise not navigable, for example because it is too shallow, or

because it contains an unnavigable reef or archipelago.

E.g. 1) Palk strait = b/w India and SL 2) Torres Strait = New Guinea and

Australia 3) Sunda Strait = Sumatra and Java 4) Dover Strait = Great Britain

and France 5) Panama canal = N and S America. 6) Gibraltar Strait = Europe

and Africa 7) Drake Passage = S. America and Antarctica 8) Cook Strait =

North island and South island of New Zealand 9) Berring Strait = Pacific

ocean and Antarctic ocean

Isthmus A narrow strip of land joining two landmasses.

E.g. 1) Isthmus of Panama that connects North and South America (Panama

canal passes thru it connecting Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean),

Isthmus of Kra in Southern Thailand (Thai canal or Kra canal) passes thru it

connecting Gulf of Thailand and Indian Ocean)

Isthmus of Suez (in Egypt) linking Africa and Asia landmasses (Suez artificial

waterway connects the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in



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November 1869, it allows ship transport between Europe and Asia without

navigation around Africa.

HYDROSPHERE

71:29 The earth is called the Blue planet. More than 71% of the earth is covered with

water and 29% with land.

As running water in oceans and rivers and in lakes, ice in glaciers underground

water and the water vapour in atmosphere all comprise the Hydrosphere.

Water More than 97% of the Earth’s water is found in the oceans and is too salty for

human use. A large proportion of the rest of the water is in the form of ice-sheets

and glaciers or under the ground and a very small percentage is available as fresh

water for human use. Hence, despite being a “blue planet” we face a shortage of

water!

Oceans Major part of hydrosphere. They are all interconnected. Three Chief movements

of ocean waters are the waves, tides and the ocean currents.

4 major oceans are: 1) The Pacific Ocean 2) The Atlantic Ocean 3) The Indian

Ocean and 4) Arctic Ocean

Pacific ocean is the largest, spread over one – third of the earth. Mariana Trench,

the deepest part of the earth lies in it. It is circular in shape. Asia, Australia, N.

and S. Americas surround it.

The Atlantic ocean is the 2nd largest ocean in the world. It is ‘S’ shaped. It is

flanked by the North and South Americas on the western side, and Europe and

Africa on the Eastern side. The coastline of Atlantic ocean is highly indented.

This irregular and indented coastline provides ideal location for natural harbours

and parts, from the point of view of commerce, it is the busiest ocean.

The Indian Ocean is the only ocean named after a country, i.e., India. The shape

of ocean is almost triangular. In the North, it is bounded by Asia, in the west by

Africa and in the east by Australia.

The Arctic ocean is located within the Arctic circle and surrounds the North pole.

It is connected with the Pacific ocean by a narrow stretch of shallow water known

as Berring Strait. It is bounded by northern coasts of North America and Eurasia.



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ATMOSPHERE

The Earth is surrounded by a layer of gas called the atmosphere. It provides us with the air we

breathe and protects us from the harmful effects (radiation) of Sun’s rays.

Division of

Atmosphere

The atmosphere extends up to a height of about 1,600 km. the atmosphere is

divided into five layers based on composition, temperature and other properties.

These layers starting from earth’s surface are called 1) The Troposphere 2) The

Stratosphere 3) The Mesosphere 4) The Thermosphere and 5) the Exosphere.

The atmosphere is composed of 78% of Nitrogen, 21 % of Oxygen and 1 %

other gases like Carbon di-oxide, Argon etc..

Density Varies with height. It is maximum at the sea level and decreases rapidly as we

go up. The climbers experience problems in breathing due to this decrease in the

density o fair. The temperature also decreases as we go upwards.

Wind The atmosphere exerts pressure on the earth. Some areas experience high pressure and

some areas low pressure. Air moves from high pressure to low pressure. Moving air is

known as wind.



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BIOSPHERE

Domain of

Life

The biosphere is the narrow zone of contact between the land, water, and air. It

is in this zone that life, that is unique to this planet, exists.

The organisms in the Biosphere may broadly be divided into the plant kingdom

and the animal kingdom.

Interaction The three domains of the earth interact with each other and affect each other in

some way or the other. For e.g. natural calamities, discharge of waste material

into lakes and rivers, emission from industries, thermal power plants and

vehicles.



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CO2 Carbon dioxide is an important constituent of air. But increase in the amount of

CO2 leads to increase in Global temperatures. This is termed as Global

Warming.

Need of the

hour

There is, thus, a need to limit the use of resources of the earth to maintain the

balance of nature between the domains of the lithosphere, the atmosphere and

the hydrosphere.

Chapter 6. MAJOR LANDFORMS OF THE EARTH

The Earth has an infinite variety of landforms, which is a result of two reasons or processes:

1) Internal process leads to the upliftment and sinking of the earth’s surface at several places.

2) External Process: is the continuous wearing down and rebuilding of the land surface.

Erosion and

Deposition

The wearing away of the earth’s surface is called erosion. The surface is being

lowered by the process of erosion and rebuilt by the process of deposition.

These two processes are carried out by running water, ice and wind.

Three groups

of landforms

(depending on elevation and slope) 1) Mountains 2) Plateaus 3) Plains

1. MOUNTAINS

Any natural elevation of the earth’s surface. In some mountains, there are permanently frozen rivers

of ice. They are called Glaciers.

There are some mountains which cannot be seen as they are under the sea!.

Range:

Mountains may be arranged in a line called range. Many mountain systems consist of a series of parallel

ranges extending over hundreds of kilometers. E.g. the Himalayas in India, the Alphs in Europe and Andes

in South America.

4 Types of Mountains:

Folded (Complex)

Mountains

Fault-Block Mountains Volcanic Mountains Upward (Dome)

Mountains

Fold mountains occur

when two plates collide:

shortening occurs along

thrust faults and the crust

is overthickened due to

compressional force.

Oldest Fold mountains.

E.g. Aravali range (India),

Appalachians (N.A), Ural

Mountains (Russia)

Young Fold mountains:

Fault-Block mountains are

caused by faults in the

crust - a seam where rocks

can move past each other.

When rocks on one side of

a fault rise relative to the

other, it can form a

mountain.

Horsts or Block Mts: The

uplifted blocks.

Graben: Lowered or

Formed due to

volcanic activities.

E.g. Mt.

Khilimanjaro in

Africa

Mt. Fujiyama in

Japan.

nearly circular

folded mountains.

Not found in

mountain belts,

instead they are

individual, isolated

structures that tend

to occur in areas of

essentially flat-lying

sedimentary rocks.



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E.g. Himalayas in India

and Alps in Europe

dropped blocks.

E.g. Rhine Valley and the

Vosges Mt. in Europe

Uses of

Mountains

1. A storehouse of water: Many rivers have their sources in glaciers in the mountains.

2. Water from the mountains is also used for irrigation and generation of Hydro

electricity. The river valleys and terraces are ideal for cultivation of crops.

3. Mountains have a variety of Flora and Fauna.

4. The forests provide fuel, fodder, shelter and other products like gum, raisins etc.

5. This scenic beauty attracts tourists.

6. Several sports like paragliding, hang gliding, river rafting and skiing are popular in

the mountains.

Youngest

and

Oldest

Mts.

The Himalayan mountains began forming in the late Cretaceous-Tertiary

Period (70million years) and continue to increase in elevation even today. That makes

them among the youngest of mountain chains on the earth.

Compare the Himalayan mountains with the Appalachian mountains (300 million

years). The Appalachian are "old fold mountains" having been formed hundreds of

millions of years ago. And, although they reached a height taller than Mt. Everest, the

Appalachian mountains have eroded so that they are less than 10,000 feet tall today.

Mt

Everest Vs

Mauna

Kea

Mauna Kea is almost double the height of Mt. Everest (from base ocean-floor to

summit)!

An altitude of 8,848 meters (29,028 ft) makes Mt. Everest Earth’s highest mountain

or “the highest altitude”.

Mauna Kea rises over 10,205 meters (33,465 ft) above the Pacific ocean floor

making it taller than Everest.



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Farthest

mountain

from

earth’s

center

We all know which mountain is the highest above mean sea level: Mt. Everest at

29,028 feet above SL.

How many of us know which Mountain’s Summit is Farthest from the Center of

the Earth?

That is Chimbarazo, not Mt. Everest (29,028 ft a/s/l).

We have to understand that the Earth is not a perfect sphere. The Earth is actually

bulging along the Equator and flattened at the poles. This is caused by the spinning

of the Earth on its axis (as the Earth rotates, centrifugal force is greatest at the

equator so it causes a slight outward bulge there, giving that region a larger

circumference and diameter). This type of shape is described as an oblate spheroid,

or oblate ellipsoid.

The equatorial diameter of Earth is 15 kilometers (9.3 miles) longer than the

Earth’s pole to pole diameter. Thus, a tall mountain right on the Equator would be

much farther from the center of the Earth than a tall mountain that is far from the

Earth’s equator.

Chimborazo is located 1 degree south of the Equator in Ecuador

Mt. Everest is at 28 degrees north of the Equator (see image below)

Chimborazo’s Summit at 20,564’ above sea level

Chimborazo is the mountain farthest from the Earth’s center



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Everest

Climbers

Edmund Hillary (New Zealand) and Tensing Norgay Sherpa (India): 1st man to

climb on 29th May 1953.

Junko Tabei (Japan) was the first woman to reach the summit on 16/may/1975

Bachendri Pal: 1st Indian woman to climb the Mountain on 23/May/1984

2. PLATEAUS

A plateau is any elevated flat land. It is a flat – topped table land standing above the surrounding

area.

Its height varies from few hundred to several thousand meters. Plateaus, like mountains, may be

young or old. The Deccan plateau in India is one of the oldest plateaus. The East African plateau in

Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda and the Western Plateau of Australia are other examples.

The Tibetan Plateau is the highest plateau in the world with a height of 4,000 to 6,000 meters above

the mean sea level.

Uses of

Plateaus

They are rich in mineral deposits. Many of the mining areas in the world are located

in the plateau areas.

The African plateau is famous for gold and diamond mining. In India, a huge

reserves of iron, coal and manganese are found in the Chhotanagapur plateau.

Water falls in some plateau areas: In India, the Hudru falls in the Chhotanagapur

plateau on the river Subarnarekha and the Jog falls in Karnataka are examples of

such waterfalls.

The Lava plateaus are rich in black soil that are fertile and good for cultivation.



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3. PLAINS

Plains are large stretches of flat land. They are generally not more than 200 meters above

mean sea level. Some plains are extremely level while some others are slightly rolling and

undulating.

Most of the plains are formed by rivers and their tributaries. The rivers which flow down the

slopes of mountains, carry forward the eroded material like stones, sand and silt and deposit

them along their courses and in their valleys. It is from these deposits that plains are formed.

Uses of Plains: plains are very thickly populated regions of the world, as they are very fertile

and construction of transport network is easy.

Some of the largest plains made by the rivers are formed in Asia and North- America. In

Asia, these plains are formed by the Ganga and the Brahmaputra in India and Yangtze in

China.

Chapter 7. OUR COUNTRY – INDIA

India is the country of vast geographical expanse. In the North, it is bounded by the lofty

Himalayas, the Arabian sea in the west, the Bay of Bengal in the East and the Indian ocean in the

south, wash the shores of the Indian Peninsula.

3.28 million sq. km. - India’s area.

3,200 km - The North – South extent from Kashmir to Kanyakumari

2,900 km – The East – West extent from Arunachal Pradesh to Kuchch.

Diversity of

landforms

The lofty mountains, the Great Indian Desert, the Northern plains, the uneven

plateau surface and the coasts and islands present a diversity of landforms.

Unity of

Diversity

There is a great variety in the climate, vegetation, wildlife as well as in the

language, religion and culture. In this diversity, we find unity that is reflected

in traditions that bind us as one nation.

2nd most populous country in the World after China.

Peninsula A piece of land that is surrounded by water on 3 sides and land on one side.

Locational

Setting

India is located in the Northern and Eastern Hemisphere.

The Tropic of cancer (230 30’ N) passes almost halfway through the country.

From South to North, main land of India extends between 80 4’ N and 370 6’

N latitude.

From West to East, India extends between 680 7’ E and 970 25’ E Longitudes.



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IST The local time of longitude of 820 30’ E has been taken as the IST.

290

Longitudinal

Extent

Due to India’s great longitudinal extent of about 290, there could be a 2 hours

difference in local time of places located at two extreme points of India (10

Longitude = 4 min). That is, the Sun rises 2 hours earlier in the east

(Arunachal Pradesh) than in the West (Gujarat)

India’s

neighbours

Seven countries share land

boundaries with India.

2 Island neighbours: Srilanka

and Maldieves are our island

neighbours lying across the sea

to the south.

Palk Strait = Srilanka is

separated from India by it.

Political Extent of Country:

India comprises 28 States, 7

UTs and 1 NCT of Delhi.

Rajasthan = Biggest in area.

Goa = Smallest in area.

Multi-time

Zones

Large countries which stretch extensively from east to west do not have a

single Standard time for the whole country. The Russia, The USA, and

Canada have 24, 7 and 6 Time Zones respectively.

PHYSICAL DIVISIONS

India is marked by a diversity of physical features such as Mountains, Plateaus, Plains, Coasts,

Rivers and Islands.



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Snow

capped

Himalayas

Sanding as sentinels in the north.

The Himalayan Mountains are divided into

three main parallel ranges.

1) Greater Himalaya or Hemadri: The northern

most range. The world’s highest peaks are located

in this range.

2) Middle Himalaya or Himachal: Lies to the south

of Himadri. Many popular hill stations are situated

here.

3) The Shiwalik: The Southern-most range.

The

Northern

Indian

Plains

Lie to the south of the Himalayas. Generally level and flat. These are formed

by the alluvial soil deposits laid down by the rivers – the Indus, the Ganga, the

Brahmaputra, and their tributaries.

These river plains provide fertile land for cultivation, which is the reason for

high concentration of population in these plains.

The Great

Indian

Desert

Lies in the western part of India. It’s a dry, hot and sandy stretch of land. It

has very little vegetation.

The

Peninsular

Plateau

It lies to the south of Northern plains. Triangular in shape. The relief is highly

uneven.

A region with many hill ranges and valleys.

Aravalli hills, one of the oldest ranges of the world, border it on the north –

west side.

The Vindhyas and the Satpuras are the important ranges. The rivers Narmada

and Tapi flow through these ranges. These are west flowing rivers that drain

into the Arabian Sea.

The Western Ghats or Sahyadris border the plateau in the West. Eastern Ghats

provide the eastern boundary. While the Western Ghats are almost continuous,

the E. Ghats are broken and uneven.

The plateau is rich in minerals like coal and iron-ore.

Coastal

Plains

Lies to the west of the Western Ghats and the east of Eastern Ghats.

The Western Coastal plains are very narrow, whereas, the Eastern coastal plains

are much broader.

Rivers There are a number of east flowing rivers. The rivers Mahanadi, Godavari,

Krishna and Cauvery drain into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers have formed

fertile deltas at their mouth.

The Sundarbun delta: is formed where the Ganga and Brahmaputra flow into

the Bay of Bengal. World’s longest delta. The delta is triangular in shape. It is

an area of land formed at the mouth of the river.



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Alluvial deposits: These are very fine soils, brought by rivers and deposited in

the river basins.

Tributary: A river or a stream which contributes its water to a main river by

discharging it into main river from either side.

Mouth of the River: The point where rivers enter the sea is called its mouth.

Corals: Corals are skeletons of tiny marine animals called polyps. When the

living polyps die, their skeletons are left. Other polyps grow on top of the hard

skeleton which grows higher and higher, thus forming the coral islands.

Islands Two groups of islands also form part of India. Lakshadweep islands are located

in the Arabian Sea. These are coral islands located off the coast of Kerala.

The Andaman and the Nicobar islands

lie to the south-east of the Indian

mainland in the Bay of Bengal.

Tsunami: It is a huge sea wave

generated due to an earthquake on the

sea floor. Tsunami had struck the

Indian coast in 2004.

Physical Features of India



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Concept map of Physical features of India

Chapter 8: INDIA- CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE

Weather = it is all about day to day changes in the atmosphere.

It includes changes in temperature, rainfall and sunshine etc. - it may be hot or cold; sunny or

cloudy; windy or calm.

Broadly, 4 major seasons recognised in India are:

Season Common Name Month

1. Cold Weather Season Winter December - January - February

2. Hot Weather Season Summer March - April - May

3. Southwest Monsoon Season Rainy June - July - August - September

4. Season of Retreating Monsoon Autumn October - November

Cold Weather Season or Winter

sun rays do not fall directly in the region. As a result the temperatures are quite low in northern India.

Hot Weather Season or Summer

sun rays more or less directly fall in this region. Temperature becomes very high. Hot and dry winds called loo, blow during the day.

Southwest Monsoon Season or Rainy

onset and advance of monsoon rain. The winds blow from Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal towards the land. They carry moisture with them. When these winds strike the mountain barriers, rainfall occurs.



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Season of Retreating Monsoon or Autumn

Winds move back from the mainland to the Bay of Bengal. This is the season of the retreating monsoons. The southern parts of India, particularly Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh receive rainfall in this season.

Climate = is about the average weather condition, which have been measured over many years.

climate of India has broadly been described as Monsoon type. Monsoon is taken from the Arabic

word ‘mausim’, which means seasons. Due to India’s location in the tropical region, most of the

rain is brought by monsoon winds.

climate of a place is affected by its location, altitude, distance from the sea, and relief.

Therefore, we experience regional differences in the climate of India.

o Jaisalmer and Bikaner in the desert of Rajasthan are very hot

o Drass and Kargil in J. & K. are freezing cold.

o Coastal places like Mumbai and Kolkata experience moderate climate. (being on the coast,

they are very humid)

o Mawsynram in Meghalaya receives the world’s highest rainfall,

NATURAL VEGETATION

The grasses, shrubs and trees, which grow on their own without interference or help from human

beings are called natural vegetation.

Different types of natural vegetation are dependent on different climatic conditions including rainfall

Due to varied climatic conditions, vegetation of India can be divided into five types –

o Tropical evergreen (rain) forest

o Tropical deciduous forest

o Thorny bushes

o Mountain vegetation and

o Mangrove forests.

Tropical evergreen (rain) forests

- occur in the areas which receive heavy rainfall (more than 200 cm). - They are so dense that sunlight doesn’t reach the ground. - different species of trees shed their leaves at different times of the year, because of which they always appear green and are called evergreen forest. - Andaman - Nicobar Islands, parts of North-Eastern states and the Western Ghats are home of these forests. - Important trees: mahogany, ebony and rosewood, Rubber and Cinchona

Tropical deciduous forest

- we have this type of forest in a large part of our country, where rainfall is between 200 - 70 cm - also called monsoon forests. - less dense - shed their leaves at a particular time of the year. - found in MP, UP, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and in parts of Maharashtra. - Important trees: sal, teak, sandalwood, peepal, neem and shisham.

Thorny bushes - found in dry areas of the country.



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- leaves are in the form of spines to reduce the loss of water. - found in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Eastern slopes of Western Ghats and Gujarat - important trees: Cactus, khair, babool, keekar

Mountain vegetation

- Found at high altitudes in mountainous areas - With increase in height, the temperature falls. Between 1500 metres and 2500 metres most of the trees are conical in shape, hence called coniferous trees. - important trees: Chir, Pine and Deodar.

Mangrove forests.

- survive in saline water. - found mainly in Sunderbans in West Bengal and in Andaman-Nicobar Islands. - well-known species of tree: Sundari, after which Sunderbans have been named.

Flora and Fauna of Mountain Forests:

Flora:

There is a succession of natural vegetation belts as per altitude:

Altitude Name of forest Features 1000m - 2000m Wet temperate

forests Evergreen broad leaf trees like oaks and chestnuts predominate.

1500m - 3000m Temperate forest - contains coniferous trees like Pine, Deodar, Silver Fir, Spruce and Cedar. - Cover mostly the southern slopes of the Himalayas.

3000m - 3600m Temperate Grasslands

-

Above 3600m Alpine Vegetation

- Silver Fir, Junipers, Pines and Birches are common. - At even higher altitudes and with the approach of the snow line the vegetation changes from shrubs and scrubs to alpine and Grasslands. Only mosses, lichens and very small shrubs grow during the very short summer which is called Tundra type of Vegetation.

Fauna: Kashmir Stag, Spotted Deer, Wild Sheep, Antelope, Jack Rabbit, Snow Leopard, Yak, Squirrels,

Red Panda, Sheep and Goats with thick hair etc.

WHY ARE FORESTS NECESSARY?

Plants release oxygen that we breathe and absorb carbon dioxide.

The roots of the plants bind the soil, thereby controlling soil erosion.

Forests provide us with timber for furniture, fuel wood, fodder, medicinal plants and herbs, lac,

honey, gum, etc.

Forests are the natural habitat of wild life.

WILD LIFE

Forests are home to a variety of wild life.

a large variety of reptiles, amphibians, mammals, birds, insects and worms dwell in the forest.

Wild Life Its Habitat



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Tiger Our national animal. Found in various parts of the country. Asiatic lions Gir forest in Gujarat Elephants and one-horned Rhinoceroses

forests of Assam

Elephants Kerala and Karnataka Camels Great Indian desert - Rajasthan wild asses Rann of Kuchchh Wild goats, snow leopards, bears

Himalayan region

India is equally rich in bird life. The peacock is our national bird. Other common birds are parrots,

pigeons, mynah, geese, bulbul and ducks.

There are several bird sanctuaries which have been created to give birds their natural habitat

protecting them from hunters/ poachers.

Due to defortation and hunting, several species of wildlife are becoming extinct.

to protect them many national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves have been set up.

o a bio-reserve helps to maintain the bio-diversity and culture of that area.

o E.g, Pachmari biosphere reserve consists of one National Park named Satpura and two Wild

Life Sanctuaries named Bori and Pachmari.

o Two other examples are - Nilgiri, Nanda Devi.

The Govt. has also started Project Tiger and Project Elephant to protect these animals.

Every year we observe wildlife week in the first week of October, to create awareness of

conserving the habitats of the animal kingdom.

Migratory Birds Some birds such as the Pelican, Siberian Crane, Stork, Flamingo, Pintail Duck and

Curlew migrate to our country in the winter season every year.

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Chapter 1 ENVIRONMENT

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT Land, water, air, plants and animals comprise the natural environment. It covers lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. Lithosphere It is the solid crust or the hard top layer of the earth. It is made up of rocks and minerals and covered by a thin layer of soil. It is an irregular surface with various landforms such as mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys, etc. Landforms are found over the continents and also on the ocean floors. Lithosphere is the domain that provides us forests, grasslands for grazing, land for agriculture and human settlements. It is also a source of mineral wealth. Hydrosphere is the domain of water. It comprises various sources of water and different types of water bodies like rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, etc. It is essential for all living organisms. Atmosphere is the thin layer of air that surrounds the earth. The gravitational force of the earth holds the atmosphere around it. It protects us from the harmful rays and scorching heat of the sun. It consists of a number of gases, dust and water vapour. The changes in the atmosphere produce changes in the weather and climate. Biosphere or the living world is made up of the plant and animal kingdom together .It is a narrow zone of the earth where land, water and air interact with each other to support life. What is an ecosystem ? All plants, animals and human beings depend on their immediate surroundings. Often they are also interdependent on each other. This relation between the living organisms, as well as the

relation between the organisms and their surroundings form an ecosystem. There could be an ecosystem of large rain forest, grassland, desert, mountains, lake, river, ocean and even a small pond. HUMAN ENVIRONMENT Human beings interact with the environment and modify it according to their need. Early humans adapted themselves to the natural surroundings. They led a simple life and fulfilled their requirements from the nature around them. With time needs grew and became more varied. Humans learn new ways to use and change environment. They learn to grow crops, domesticate animals and lead a settled life. The wheel was invented, surplus food was produced, barter system emerged, trade started and commerce developed. Industrial revolution enabled large scale production. Transportation became faster. Information revolution made communication

. CHAPTER 2- Interior of the earth



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The uppermost layer over the earth’s surface is called the crust. It is the thinnest of all the layers. It is about 35 kms on the continental masses and only 5 km. on the ocean floors. The main mineral constituents of the continental mass are silica and alumina. It is thus called sial(si-silica and al-alumina).The oceanic crust mainly consists of silica and magnesium; it is therefore called sima (si-silica and ma-magnesium) Just beneath the crust is the mantle which extends up to a depth of 2900 km. below the crust. The innermost layer is the core with a radius of about 3500 km. It is mainly made up of nickel and iron and is called nife(ni– nickel and fe– ferrous i.e. iron). The central core has very high temperature and pressure. ROCKS AND MINERALS The earth’s crust is made up of various types of rocks. Any natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the Earth’s crust is called a rock. Rocks can be of different colour, size and texture. There are three major types of rocks: A) Igneous rocks B) Sedimentary rocks C) Metamorphic rocks.

IGNEOUS ROCKS When the molten magma cools, it becomes solid. Rocks thus formed are called igneous rocks. They are also called primary rocks. There are two types of igneous rocks: a) intrusive rocks b) extrusive rocks Lava is actually fiery red molten magma coming out from the interior of the earth on its surface. When this molten lava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools down and becomes solid. Rocks formed in such a way on the crust are called extrusive igneous rocks. They have a very fine grained structure. For example, basalt. The Deccan plateau is made up of basalt rocks. Sometimes the molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’s crust. Solid rocks so formed are called intrusive igneous rocks. Since they cool down slowly they form large grains. Granite is an example of such a rock. Grinding stones used to prepare paste/powder of spices and grains are made of granite. Rocks roll down, crack, and hit each other and are broken down into small fragments. These smaller particles are called sediments. These sediments are transported and deposited by wind, water, etc. These loose sediments are compressed and hardened to form layers of rocks. These types of rocks are called sedimentary rocks. For example, sandstone is made from grains of sand. These rocks may also contain fossils of plants, animals and other microorganisms that once lived on them. Igneous and sedimentary rocks can change into metamorphic rocks under great heat and pressure For example, clay changes into slate and limestone into marble.



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One type of rock changes to another type under certain conditions in a cyclic manner. This process of transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the rock cycle. When the molten magma cools it solidifies to become igneous rock. These igneous rocks are broken down into small particles that are transported and deposited to form sedimentary rocks. When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure they change into metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic rocks which are still under great heat and pressure melt down to form molten magma. This molten magma again can cool down and solidify into igneous rocks

Rocks are made up of different minerals. Minerals are naturally occurring substances which have certain physical properties and definite chemical composition. Minerals are very important to humankind. Some are used as fuels. For example, coal, natural gas and petroleum. They are also used in industries – iron, aluminium, gold, uranium, etc, in medicine, in fertilisers, etc

CHAPTER 3 OUR CHANGING EARTH The lithosphere is broken into a number of plates known as the Lithospheric plates.These plates

move around very slowly – just a few millimetres each year.The movement of these plates causes changes on the surface of the earth. The earth movements are divided on the basis of the forces which cause them. The forces which act in the interior of the earth are called as Endogenic forces and the forces that work on the surface of the earth are called as Exogenic forces. Endogenic forces sometimes produce sudden movements and at the other times produce slow movements. Sudden movements like earthquakes and volcanoes cause mass destruction over the surface of the earth.

VOLCANO A volcanois a vent (opening) in the earth’s crust through which molten material erupts suddenly Similarly, when the Lithospheric plates move, the surface of the earth vibrates. The vibrations can travel all round the earth. These vibrations are called earthquakes.The place in the crust where the movement starts is called the focus. The place on the surface above the focus is called the epicentre. Vibrations travel outwards from the epicentre as waves. Greatest damage is usually closest to epicentre and the strength of the earthquake decreases away from the centre.



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MAJOR LAND FORMS The landscape is being continuously worn away by two processes – A) Weathering and B) Erosion. Weathering is the breaking up of the rocks on the earth’s surface. Erosion is the wearing away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind and ice. The eroded material is carried away or transported by water, wind, etc. and eventually deposited. This process of erosion and deposition create different landforms on the surface of the earth. Work of a River The running water in the river erodes the landscape. When the river tumbles at steep angle over very hard rocks or down a steep valley side it forms a waterfall. As the river enters the plain it twists and turns forming large bends known as meanders. Due to continuous erosion and deposition along the sides of the meander, the ends of the meander loop come closer and closer. In due course of time the meander loop cuts off from the river and forms a cut-off lake, also called an ox-bow lake. At times the river overflows its banks. This leads to the flooding of the neighbouring areas. As it floods, it deposits layers of fine soil and other material called sediments along its banks. This leads to the formation of a flat fertile floodplain. The raised banks are called levees. As the river approaches the sea, the speed of the flowing water decreases and the river begins to break up into a number of streams called distributaries. The river becomes so slow that it begins to deposit its load. Each distributary forms its own

mouth. The collection of sediments from all the mouths forms a delta.

Work of Sea Waves The erosion and deposition of the sea waves gives rise to coastal landforms. Seawaves continuously strike at the rocks. Cracks develop. Over time they become larger and wider. Thus, hollow like caves are formed on the rocks. They are called sea caves. As these cavities become bigger and bigger only the roof of the caves remain, thus forming sea arches. Further, erosion breaks the roof and only walls are left. These wall like features are called stacks. The steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above sea water is called sea cliff. The sea waves deposit sediments along the shores forming beaches.

Work of Ice Glaciers are “rivers” of ice which too erode the landscape by bulldozing soil and stones to expose



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the solid rock below. Glaciers carve out deep hollows. As the ice melts they get filled up with water and become beautiful lakes in the mountains. The material carried by the glacier such as rocks big and small, sand and silt gets deposited. These deposits form glacial moraines. Work of wind An active agent of erosion and deposition in the deserts is wind. In deserts you can see rocks in the shape of a mushroom, commonly called mushroom rocks. Winds erode the lower section of the rock more than the upper part. Therefore, such rocks have narrower base and wider top. When the wind blows, it lifts and transports sand from one place to another. When it stops blowing the sand falls and gets deposited in low hill – like structures. These are called sand dunes When the grains of sand are very fine and light, the wind can carry it over very long distances. When such sand is deposited in large areas, it is called loess. Large deposits of loess are found in China. CHPATER 4 AIR Our earth is surrounded by a huge blanket of air called atmosphere. All living beings on this earth depend on the atmosphere for their survival. It provides us the air we breathe and protects us from the harmful effects of the sun’s rays, it is this mass of air that has made the temperature on the earth liveable. COMPOSITION OF THEATMOSPHERE The air we take in while breathing is actually a mixture of many gases. Nitrogen and oxygen are two gases which make up the bulk of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, helium, ozone, argon and hydrogen are found in lesser quantities. Tiny dust particles are also present in the air

Nitrogen is the most plentiful gas in the air. When we inhale, we take some amount of nitrogen into our lungs and exhale it. But plants need nitrogen for their survival. They can not take nitrogen directly from the air. Bacteria, that live in the soil and roots of some plants, take nitrogen from the air and change its form so that plants can use it. Oxygen is the second most plentiful gas in the air. Humans and animals take oxygen from the air as they breathe. Green plants produce oxygen during photosynthesis. In this way oxygen content in the air remains constant. If we cut trees then this balance gets disturbed. Carbon dioxide is another important gas. Green plants use carbon dioxide to make their food and release oxygen. Humans or animals release carbon dioxide. The amount of carbon dioxide released by humans or animals seems to be equal to the amount used by the plants which make a perfect balance. However, the balance is upset by burning of fuels, such as coal and oil. They add billions of tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere each year. As a result, the increased volume of carbon dioxide is affecting the earth’s weather and climate. STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE Our atmosphere is divided into five layers starting from the earth’s surface. These are Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere and Exosphere. Troposphere: This layer is the most important layer of the atmosphere. Its average height is 13 km. The air we breathe exists here. Almost all the weather phenomena like rainfall, fog and hailstorm occur in this layer. Stratosphere: Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere. It extends up to a height of 50 km. This layer is almost free from clouds and associated weather phenomenon, making conditions most ideal for flying aeroplanes. One important feature of



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stratosphere is that it contains a layer of ozone gas. It protects us from the harmful effect of the sun rays. Mesosphere: This is the third layer of the atmosphere. It lies above the stratosphere. It extends up to the height of 80 km. Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from the space. Thermosphere: In thermosphere temperature rises very rapidly with increasing height. Ionosphere is a part of this layer. It extends between 80-400 km. This layer helps in radio transmission. In fact, radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer. Exosphere: The upper most layer of the atmosphere is known as exosphere. This layer has very thin air. Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into space from here.

WEATHER ANDCLIMATE Weather is this hour-to-hour, day to day condition of the atmosphere. A hot or humid weather may make one irritable. A pleasant, breezy weather may make one cheerful and even plan for an outing. Weather can change dramatically from day to day. However, the average weather condition of a place for a longer period of time represents the climateof a place. Temperature



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The temperature you feel everyday is the temperataure of the atmosphere. The degree of hotness and coldness of the air is known as temperature. An important factor that influences the distribution of temperature is insolation. Insolation is the incoming solar energy intercepted by the earth. The amount of insolation decreases from the equator towards the poles. So, the temperature decreases in the same manner. Temperature in cities is much higher than that of villages. The concrete and metals in buildings and the asaphalt of roads get heated up during the day. This heat is released during the night. Also, the crowded high rise buildings of the cities trap the warm air and thus raise the temperature o the cities. Air Pressure Air above us presses us with a great force on our bodies.But we don’t feel this pressure as the air presses us from all directions and our body exerts a counter pressure. Air pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the weight of air on the earth’s surface. As we go up the layers of atmosphere, the pressure falls rapidly. The air pressure is highest at sea level and decreases with height. Horizontally the distribution of air pressure is influenced by temperature of air at a given place. In areas where temperature is high the air gets heated and rises. This creates a low-pressure area. Low pressure is associated with cloudy skies and wet weather. In areas having lower temperature, the air is cold. It is therefore heavy. Heavy air sinks and creates a high pressure area. High pressure is associated with clear and sunny skies. The air always moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.

Wind The movement of air from high pressure area to low pressure areas is called wind. Winds can be broadly divided into three types. 1) Permanent winds The trade winds, westerlies and easterlies are the permanent winds. These blow constantly throughout the year in a particular direction. 2) Seasonal winds– These winds change their direction in different seasons. For example monsoons in India 3) Local winds – These blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a small area. For example, land and sea breeze. It is called loo. Moisture When water evaporates from land and different water bodies, it becomes water vapour. Moisture in the air at any time, is known as humidity. When the air is full of water vapour we call it a humid day. As the air gets warmer, its capacity to hold the water vapour increases and so it becomes more and more humid. On a humid day, clothes take longer to dry and sweat from our body does not evaporate easily, making us feel very uncomfortable. When the water vapour rises, it starts cooling. The water vapour condenses causing formation of droplets of water. Clouds are just masses of such water droplets. When these droplets of water become too heavy to float in air, then they come down as precipitation. Jet planes flying in the sky



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their engines condenses. We see trails of this condensed moisture for some time when there is no air movement to disturb it. Precipitation that comes down to the earth in liquid form is called rain. Most of the ground water comes from rainwater. Plants help preserve water. When trees on hill sides are cut, rainwater flows down the bare mountains and can cause flooding of low lying areas. On the basis of mechanism, there are three types of rainfall: the convectional rainfall, the orographic rainfall and the cyclonic rainfall.

Chapter 5 Water

leave a white trail behind them. The moisture from

The sun’s heat causes evaporation of water vapour. When the water vapour cools down, it condenses and forms clouds. From there it may fall on the land or sea in the form of rain, snow or sleet. The process by which water continually changes its form and circulates between oceans, atmosphere and land is known as the water cycle The major sources of fresh water are the rivers, ponds, springs and glaciers. The ocean bodies and the seas contain salty water. The water of the oceans is salty or saline as it contains large amount of dissolved salts. Most of the salt is sodium chloride or the common table salt that you eat.

DISTRIBUTION OF WATERBODIES Three-fourth of the earth surface is covered by water. The following table gives the distribution of water in percentage-

OCEANCIRCULATION Unlike the calm waters of ponds and lakes, ocean water keeps moving continuously. It is never still. The movements that occur in oceans can be broadly categorised as: A) Waves B) Tides



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C) Currents.

When the water on the surface of the ocean rises and falls alternately, they are called waves During a storm, the winds blowing at very high speed form huge waves. These may cause tremendous destruction. An earthquake, a volcanic eruption or underwater landslides can shift large amounts of ocean water. As a result a huge tidal wave called tsunami, that may be as high as 15m., is formed. The largest tsunami ever measured was 150m. high. These waves travel at a speed of more than 700 km. per hour. The tsunami of 2004 caused wide spread damage in the coastal areas of India. The Indira point in the Andaman and Nicobar islands got submerged after the tsunami. Tides The rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water twice in a day is called a tide. It is high tide when water covers much of the shore by rising to its highest level. It is low tide when water falls to its lowest level and recedes from the shore. The strong gravitational pull exerted by the sun and the moon on the earth’s surface causes the tides. The water of the earth closer to the moon gets pulled under the influence of the moon’s gravitational force and causes high tide. During the full moon and new moon days, the sun, the moon and the earth are in the same line and the tides are highest. These tides are called spring tides. But when the moon is in its first and last quarter, the ocean waters get drawn in diagonally opposite directions by the gravitational pull of sun and earth resulting in low tides. These tides are called neap tides. High tides help in navigation. They raise the water level close to the shores. This helps the ships to arrive at the harbour more easily. The high tides also help in fishing. Many more fish come closer to the shore during the high tide. This enables fishermen to get a plentiful catch. The rise and fall of water due to tides is being used to generate electricity.

OCEANCURRENTS Ocean currents are streams of water flowing constantly on the ocean surface in definite directions. The ocean currents may be warm or cold

Generally, the warm ocean currents originate near the equator and move towards the poles. The cold currents carry water from polar or higher latitudes



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current is cold current while the Gulf Stream is a warm current. The ocean current influence the temperature conditions of the area. Warm currents bring about warm temperature over land surface. The areas where the warm and cold currents meet provide the best fishing grounds of the world. Seas around Japan and the eastern coast of North America are such examples. The areas where a warm and cold current meet also experience foggy weather making it difficult for navigation.

Chapter 6 Natural Vegetation and wild Life There is a close relationship between height of land and the character of vegetations. With the change in height, the climate changes and that changes natural vegetation. The growth of vegetation depends on temperature and moisture. It also depends on factors like slope and thickness of soil. The type and thickness of natural vegetation varies from place to place because of the variation in these factors. Natural vegetation is generally classified in to three broad categories as follows:

to tropical or lower latitudes. The Labrador Ocean (a) Forests: Which grow where temperature and rainfall are plentiful to support a tree cover. Depending upon these factors, dense and open forests are grown (b) Grasslands: Which grow in the region of moderate rain. (c) Shrubs: Thorny shrubs and scrubs grow in the dry region The changes in the type of natural vegetation occur mainly because of the changes of climatic condition. KINDS OF FORESTS Tropical Evergreen Forests These forests are also called tropical rainforests These thick forests occur in the regions near the equator and close to the tropics. These regions are hot and receive heavy rainfall throughout the year. As there is no particular dry season, the trees do not shed their leaves altogether. This is the reason they are called evergreen. The thick canopies of the closely spaced trees do not allow the sunlight to penetrate inside the forest even in the day time. Hardwood trees like rosewood, ebony, mahogany are common here. The tropical evergreen forest in Brazil is so enormous that it is like the lungs of the earth.Anaconda, one of the world’s largest snakes is found in the tropical rainforest. It can kill and eat a large animal such as a crocodile. Tropical Deciduous Forests Tropical deciduous are the monsoon forests found in the large part of India, northern Australia and in central America .These regions experience seasonal changes. Trees shed their leaves in the dry season to conserve water. The hardwood trees found in these forests are sal, teak, neem and shisham. Hardwood trees are extremely useful for making furniture, transport and constructional materials. Tigers, lions, elephants, langoors and monkeys are the common animals of these forests. Temperate Evergreen Forests



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The temperate evergreen forests are located in the mid latitudinal coastal region They are commonly found along the eastern margin of the continents, e.g., In south east USA, South China and in South East Brazil. They comprise both hard and soft wood trees like oak, pine, eucalyptus, etc. Temperate Deciduous Forests As we go towards higher latitudes, there are more temperate deciduous forests.These are found in the north eastern part of USA, China, New Zealand, Chile and also found in the coastal regions of Western Europe. They shed their leaves in the dry season. The common trees are oak, ash, beech, etc. Deer, foxes, wolves are the animals commonly found. Birds like pheasants Mediterranean Vegetation We have learnt that most of the east and north east margins of the continents are covered by temperate evergreen and deciduous trees. The west and south west margins of the continents are different. They have Mediterranean vegetation It is mostly found in the areas around the Mediterranean sea in Europe, Africa and Asia, hence the name. This kind of vegetation is also found outside the actual Mediterranean region in California in the USA, south west Africa, south western South America and South west Australia. These regions are marked for hot dry summers and mild rainy winters. Citrus fruits such as oranges, figs, olives and grapes are commonly cultivated here because people have removed the natural vegetation in order to cultivate what they want to. There isn’t much wildlife here.

Coniferous Forests In the higher latitudes (50° – 70°) of Northern hemisphere the spectacular Coniferous forests are found .These are also called as Taiga. These forests are also seen in the higher altitudes. These are the trees which are found in

the Himalayas in abundance. They are tall, softwood evergreen trees. The woods of these trees are very useful for making pulp, which is used for manufacturing paper and newsprint. Match boxes and packing boxes are also made from softwood. Chir, pine, cedar are the important variety of trees in these forests. Silver fox, mink, polar bear are the common animals found here the common animals found here GRASSLANDS Tropical grasslands: These occur on either side of the equator and extend till the tropics. This vegetation grows in the areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall. The grass can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 metres in height. Savannah grasslands of Africa are of this type. Elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards are common in tropical grasslands. Temperate grasslands: These are found in the midlatitudinal zones and in the interior part of the continents. Usually, grass here is short and nutritious.Wild buffaloes, bisons, antilopes are common in the temperate region. Thorny bushes: These are found in the dry desert like regions. Tropical deserts are located on the western margins of the continents. The vegetation cover is scarce here because of scanty rain and scorching heat. TUNDRA VEGETATION The growth of natural vegetation is very limited here. Only mosses, lichens and very small shrubs are found here. It grows during the very short summer. This is called Tundra type of vegetation. This vegetation is found in the polar areas of Europe, Asia and North America. The animals have thick fur and thick skin to protect themselves from the cold climatic conditions. Seal, walruses, musk-oxen, Arctic owl, Polar bear and snow foxes are some of the animals found here.



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Chapter 7 Settlements are places where people build their homes.The early settlements grew near the river valleys as water was available and land was fertile. With the development of trade, commerce and manufacturing, human settlements became larger. Settlement flourished and civilizations developed near river valleys. Settlements can be permanent or temporary. Settlements which are occupied for a short time are called temporary settlements.People who practice hunting, gathering, shifting cultivation and transhumance live in temporary settlements. However more and more settlements today are permanent settlements. In these settlements, people build homes to live in.

There are two different pictures of settlements – the rural and the urban settlements. The villages are rural settlement where people are

engaged in activities like agriculture, fishing, forestry, crafts work and trading etc. Rural settlements can be compact or scattered. A compact settlement is a closely built area of dwellings, wherever flat land is available .In a scattered settlement dwellings are spaced over an extensive area. This type of settlement is mostly found in hilly tracts, thick forests, and regions of extreme climate (Fig. 7.3). In rural areas, people build houses to suit their environment. In regionsof heavy rainfall, they have slanting roofs of heavy rainfall, they have slanting roofs. Places where water accumulates in the rainy season the houses are constructed on a raised platform or stilts .Thick mud walled houses with thatched roofs are very common in areas of hot climate. Local materials like stones, mud, clay, straw etc are used to construct houses. The towns are small and the cities are larger urban settlements. In urban areas the people are engaged in manufacturing, trading, and services

TRANSPORT Transport is the means by which people and goods move. In the early days invention of the wheel made transport easier. With the passage of time different means of transport developed but even today people use animals for transport.Aeroplanes have made travel faster. Now it takes only 6-8 hours to travel from India to Europe. Modern means of transport thus saves time and energy. The four major means of transport are roadways, railways, waterways and airways. ROADWAYS The most commonly used means of transport especially for short distances are roads. They can be metalled (pucca) and unmetalled(kutcha) The plains have a dense network of roads. Roads have also been build in terrains like deserts, forests and even high mountains. Manali-Leh



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highway in the Himlayan Mountains is one of the highest roadways in the world. Roads built underground are called subways/under paths. Flyovers are built over raised structures. RAILWAYS The railways carry heavy goods and people over long distances quickly and cheaply. The invention of the steam engine and the Industrial Revolution helped in speedy development of rail transport. Diesel and electric engines have largely replaced the steam engines. In places super fast trains have been introduced to make the journey faster. The railway network is well developed over the plain areas. Advanced technological skills have enabled laying of railway lines in difficult mountain terrains also. But these are much fewer in number. Indian railway network is well developed. It is the largest in Asia.

WATERWAYS Since early days waterways were used for transportation. Waterways are the cheapest for carrying heavy and bulky goods over long distances. They are mainly of two types – A) Inland waterways and B) Sea routes. Navigable rivers and lakes are used as inland waterways. Some of the important inland waterways are the Ganga-Brahmaputra river system, the Great Lakes in North America and the river Nile in Africa. Sea routes and oceanic routes are mostly used for transporting merchandise and goods from one country to another. These routes are connected with the ports AIRWAYS This is the fastest way of transport developed in the early twentieth century. It is also the most

expensive due to high cost of fuels. Air traffic is adversely affected by bad weather like fog and storms. It is the only mode of transport to reach the most remote and distant areas especially where there are no roads and railways. Helicopters are extremely useful in most inaccessible areas and in time of calamities for rescuing people and distributing food, water, clothes and medicines. Some of the important airports are Delhi, Mumbai, New York, London, Paris, Frankfurt and Cairo COMMUNICATION Communication is the process of conveying messages to others. With the development of technology humans have devised new and fast modes of communication. The advancement in the field of communication has brought about an information revolution in the world. Different modes of communication are used to provide information, to educate as well as to entertain. Through newspapers, radio and television we can communicate with a large number of people. They are therefore called mass media. The satellites have made communication even faster. Satellites have helped in oil exploration, survey of forest, underground water, mineral wealth, weather forecast and disaster warning.. Wireless telephonic communications through cellular phones have become very popular today. Internet not only provides us with worldwide information and interaction but has also made our lives more comfortable.



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Chapter 8

HUMAN ENVIRONMENT TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL REGIONS In Chapters 8, 9 and 10, you will learn about the life of people in the different natural regions of the world. LIFE IN THEAMAZON BASIN

The tropical region lies very close to the equator; between 10°N and 10°S. So, it is referred to as the equatorial region. The river Amazon flows through this region. It flows from the mountains to the west and reaches the Atlantic Ocean to the east. The place where a river flows into another body of water is called the river’s mouth. Numerous tributaries join the Amazon River to form the Amazon basin. The river basin drains portions of Brazil, parts of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Columbia and a small part of Venezuela.

CLIMATE

The Amazon Basin stretches directly on the equator and is characterized by hot and wetclimate throughout the year. Both day and nights are almost equally hot and humid. The skin feelssticky. It rains almost everyday, that too withoutmuch warning. The day temperatures are high with very high humidity. At night the temperaturegoes down but the humidity remains high

RAIN FORESTS As it rains heavily in this region, thick forests grow. The forests are in fact so thick that the dense “roof” created by leaves and branches does not allow the sunlight to reach the ground. The ground remains dark and damp. Only shade tolerant vegetation may grow here. Orchids, bromeliads grow as plant parasites. The rainforest is rich in fauna. Birds such as toucans humming birds, bird of paradise with their brilliantly coloured plumage,oversized bills for eating make them different from birds we commonly see in India. These birds also make loud sounds in the forests. Animals like monkeys, sloth and ant-eating tapirs are found here .Various species of reptiles and snakes also thrive in these jungles. Crocodiles, snakes, pythons abound. Anaconda and boa constrictor are some of the species. Besides, the basin is home to thousands of species of insects. Several species of fishes including the flesh eating Piranha fish is also found in the river. This basin is thus extraordinarily rich in the variety of life found there.

PEOPLE OF THE RAINFORESTS People grow most of their food in small areas after clearing some trees in the forest. While men hunt and fish along the rivers, women take care of



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the crops. They mainly grow tapioca, pineapple and sweet potato. As hunting and fishing are uncertain it is the women who keep their families alive by feeding them the vegetables they grow. They practice “slash and burn agriculture”. The staple food is manioc, also known as cassava that grows under the ground like the potato. They also eat queen ants and egg sacs. Cash crops like coffee, maize and cocoa are also grown. The rainforests provide a lot of wood for the houses. Some families live in thatched houses shaped like beehives. There are other large apartment-like houses called “Maloca” with a steeply slanting roof. Life of the people of the Amazon basin is slowly changing. In the older days the heart of the forest, could be reached only by navigating the river. In 1970 the Trans Amazon highway made all parts of the rainforest accessible. Aircrafts and helicopters are also used for reaching various places. The indigenous population was pushed out from the area and forced to settle in new areas where they continued to practice their distinctive way of farming. The developmental activities are leading to the gradual destruction of the biologically diverse rainforests. It is estimated that a large area of the rainforest has been disappearing annually in the Amazon basin. You can see that this destruction of forests has a much wider implication.The topsoil is washed away as the rains fall and the lush forest turns into a barren landscape.

LIFE IN THEGANGA-BRAHMAPUTRA BASIN

The tributaries of rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra together form the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin in the Indian subcontinent The basin lies in the subtropical region that is situated between 10°N to 30°N latitudes. The tributaries of the River Ganga like the Ghaghra, the Son, the Chambal, the Gandak, the Kosi and the tributaries of Brahmaputra drain it. The plains of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra, the mountains and the foothills of the Himalayas and the Sundarbans delta are the main features of this basin. Ox-bow lakes dot the plain area. The area is dominated by monsoon climate. The monsoon brings rains from mid-June to mid-September. The summers are hot and the winters cool. The basin area has varied topography. The environment plays a dominant role in the distribution of the population. The mountain areas with steep slopes have inhospitable terrain. Therefore less number of people live in the mountain area of the Ganga Brahmaputra basin. The plain area provides the most suitable land for human habitation. The soil is fertile. Agriculture is the main occupation of the people where flat land is available to grow crops. The density of population of the plains is very high. The main crop is paddy Since cultivation of paddy requires sufficient water, it is grown in the areas where the amount of rainfall is high. Wheat, maize, sorghum, gram and millets are the other crops that are grown. Cash crops like sugarcane and jute are also grown. Banana plantations are seen in some areas of the plain. In West Bengal and Assam tea is grown in plantations .Silk is produced through the cultivation of silk worms in arts of Bihar and Assam. In the mountains and



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hills, where the slopes are gentle, crops are grown on terraces.

The vegetation cover of the area varies according to the type of landforms. In the Ganga and Brahmaputra plain tropical deciduous trees grow, along with teak, sal and peepal. Thick bamboo groves are common in the Brahmaputra plain. The delta area is covered with the mangrove forests. In parts of Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, coniferous trees like pine, deodar and fir can be seen because the climate is cool and the slopes are steep. There is a variety of wildlife in the basin. Elephants, tigers, deer and monkeys are common. The one-horned rhinoceros is found in the Brahmaputra plain. In the delta area, Bengal tiger, crocodiles and alligator are found. Aquatic life abounds in the fresh river waters, the lakes and the Bay of Bengal Sea. The most popular varieties of the fish are the rohu, catla and hilsa. Fish and rice is the staple diet of the people living in the area. Terraces are built on steep slopes to create flat surfaces on which crops are grown. The slope is removed so that water does not run off rapidly.

The Ganga-Brahmaputra plain has several big towns and cities. The cities of Allahabad, Kanpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, Patna and Kolkata all with the population of more than ten lakhs are located along the River Ganga . The wastewater from

these towns and industries is discharged into the rivers. This leads to the pollution of the rivers. All the four ways of transport are well developed in the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin. In the plain areas the roadways and railways transport the people from one place to another. The waterways, is an effective means of transport particularly along the rivers. Kolkata is an important port on the River Hooghly. The plain area also has a large number of airports. Tourism is another important activity of the basin. Taj Mahal on the banks of River Yamuna in Agra, Allahabad on the confluence of the Rivers Ganga and Yamuna, Buddhists stupas in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, Lucknow with its Imambara, Assam with Kaziranga and Manas with wild life sanctuaries and Arunachal Pradesh with a distinct tribal culture are some of the places worth a visit Chapter 9

LIFE IN THE GRASSLANDS

A forest can be defined as the place where trees are the main type of vegetation, grassland can be defined as a region where grasses form the dominant type of plant life. Grasslands make up almost a quarter of the total land surface. The types of plants that grow here greatly depend on what the climate and soil are like. As climate plays an important role in the formation of grasslands, it is generally used as a basis to divide the world’s grasslands into two broad categories: A) Those that occur in the temperate region B) Those that occur in the tropical regions THE PRAIRIES The temperate grasslands of North America are known as the Prairies .It is a region of flat, gently sloping or hilly land. For the most part, prairies are treeless but, near the low lying plains, flanking river valleys, woodlands can be found. Tall grass, upto two metres high, dominates, the landscape. It is actually a “sea of grass.” The prairies are bound by the Rocky Mountains in the West and the Great Lakes in the East. The prairies cover parts of United States of America and parts of Canada. In the USA, the area is drained by the tributaries of Mississippi and the Canadian prairies are drained by the tributaries of Saskatchewan



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CLIMATE Being located in the heart of a continent, the climate is of continental type with extreme temperatures. The summers are warm with temperatures of around 20°C, while in winter -20°C has been recorded in Winnipeg, Canada. In winters a thick blanket of snow covers this region. The annual rainfall is moderate and is ideal for the growth of grass. Due to the absence of the north-south barrier, a local wind “Chinook” blows here.

FLORA ANDFAUNA Prairies are practically tree-less. Where water is available, trees such as willows, alders and poplars grow. Places that receive rainfall of over 50 cm, are suitable for farming as the soil is fertile. Though the major crop of this area is maize, other crops including potatoes, soybean,

cotton and alfa-alfa is also grown. Areas where rainfall is very little or unreliable, grasses are short and sparse. These areas are suitable for cattle rearing. Large cattle farms called ranches are looked after by sturdy men called cowboys Bisonor the American buffalo is the most important animal of this region . It nearly got extinct due to its indiscriminate hunting and is now a protected species. The other animals found in this region are rabbits, coyotes, gophers and Prairie dog

PEOPLE The people of this region are very hardworking. They have successfully harnessed technology to utilise their rich natural resources. Two of the most developed countries in the world - the USA and Canada are located in this region. Scientific methods of cultivation and use of tractors, harvesters and combines has made North America a surplus food producer. The Prairies are also known as the “Granaries of the world,” due to the huge surplus of wheat production Dairy farming is another major industry. The dairy belt extends from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Coast in the east. Dairy farming and extensive agriculture both promote setting up of food processing industries. Large mineral deposits particularly coal and iron and a good network of roads, railways and canals in this region have made it the most industrialised region in the world. THE VELDS



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The temperate grasslands of South Africa are called the velds. Velds are rolling plateaus with varying heights ranging from 600 m to 1100 m. It is bound by the Drakensburg Mountains on the east. To its west lies the Kalahari desert. On the northeastern part, “high velds” are located that attain a height of more than 1600 m, in some places. The tributaries of rivers Orange and Limpopo drain the region

CLIMATE The velds have a mild climate due to the influence of the Indian Ocean. Winters are cold and dry. Temperatures vary between 5°C and 10°C and July is the coldest month. Summers are short and warm. Johannesburg records about 20°C temperature in the summer.The velds receive rainfall mainly in the summer months from November to February. This is mainly because of the warm ocean currents that wash the shores of the velds. If the rainfall is scanty in the winter months from June till August, drought may occur. FLORA AND FAUNA

The vegetation cover is sparse. Grasses dominate the landscape. Red grass grows in bush velds. In the high velds acacia and maroola are seen to be growing. The animals of the velds are primarily lions, leopards, cheetah and kudu PEOPLE Velds are known for cattle rearing and mining. The soils are not very fertile in the velds due to the presence of discontinuous grasses exposing barren surface. However where the land is fertile crops are grown. The main crops are maize, wheat, barley, oats and potato. Cash crops like tobacco, sugarcane and cotton are also grown. Sheep rearing is the most important occupation of the people. Sheep is bred mainly for wool and has given rise to the wool industry in the velds. Merino sheep is a popular species and their wool is very warm. Dairy farming is the next important occupation. Cattle are reared in the warmer and wetter regions and the dairy products like butter, cheese are produced for both domestic supply and also for export. The velds have rich reserve of minerals. Iron and steel industry has developed where coal and iron are present. Gold and diamond mining are major occupations of people of this region. Johannesburg is known for being the gold capital of the world. Kimberley is famous for its diamond mines Mining of diamond and gold in South Africa led to the establishment of trade ties with Britain and gradually South Africa became a British Colony. This mineral rich area has a well-developed network of transport Chapter 10 LIFE IN THE DESERTS Water means life to plants, animals and people. It is difficult for anyone to live in places where there is no water to drink, where there is no grass for their cattle to feed on and where there is no water to help the crops to grow. These are the desert areas of the world. These are characterised by low rainfall, scanty vegetation and extreme temperatures. Depending on the temperatures there can be hot deserts or cold deserts. The people inhabit these lands



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wherever little water is available to practise agriculture. SAHARA DESERT Sahara desert covering a large part of North Africa. It is the world’s largest desert.It has an area of around 8.54 million sq. km.India has an area of 3.2 million sq. km.The Sahara desert touches eleven countries. These are Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan, Tunisia and Western Sahara

Climate The climate of the Sahara desert is scorching hot and parch dry. It has a short rainy season. The sky is cloudless and clear. Here, the moisture evaporates faster than it accumulates. Days are unbelievably hot. The temperatures during the day may soar as high as 50°C, heating up the sand and the bare rocks, which in turn radiates heat making everything around hot. The nights may be freezing cold with temperatures nearing

zero degrees.

Flora and Fauna Vegetation Vegetation in the Sahara desert includes cactus, date palms and acacia. In some places there are oasis – green islands with date palms surrounding them. Camels, hyenas, jackals, foxes, scorpions, many varieties of snakes and lizards are the prominent animal species living there. People The Sahara desert despite its harsh climate has been inhabited by various groups of people, who pursue different activities. Among them are the Bedouins and Tuaregs. These groups are nomadic tribes rearing livestock such as goats, sheep, camels and horses. These animals provide them with milk, hides from which they make leather for belts, slippers, water bottles; hair is used for mats, carpets, clothes and blankets. They wear heavy robes as protection against dust storms and hot winds. The oasis in the Sahara and the Nile Valley in Egypt supports settled population. Since water is available, the people grow date palms. Crops such as rice, wheat, barley and beans are also grown. Egyptian cotton, famous worldwide is grown in Egypt. The discovery of oil – a product in great demand throughout the world, in Algeria, Libya and Egypt is constantly transforming the Sahara desert. Other minerals of importance that are found in the area include iron, phosphorus, manganese and uranium The cultural landscape of the Sahara is undergoing change. Gleaming glass cased office buildings tower over mosques and superhighways crisscross the ancient camel paths. Trucks are replacing camels in the salt trade. Tuaregs are seen acting as guides to foreign tourists. More and more nomadic herdsmen are taking to city life finding jobs in oil and gas operations.



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THECOLDDESERT- LADAKH

Ladakh is a cold desert lying in the Great Himalayas, on the eastern side of Jammu and Kashmir. The Karakoram Range in the north and the Zanskar mountains in the south enclose it. Several rivers flow through Ladakh, Indus being the most important among them. The rivers form deep valleys and gorges. Several glaciers are found in Ladakh, for example the Gangri glacier. The altitude in Ladakh varies from about 3000m in Kargilto more than 8,000m in the Karakoram. Due to its high altitude, the climate is extremely cold and dry. The air at this altitude is so thin that the heat of the sun can be felt intensely. The day temperatures in summer are just above zero degree and the night temperatures well below –30°C. It is freezing cold in the winters when the temperatures may remain below –40°C for most of the time. As it lies in the rain shadow of the Himalayas, there is little rainfall, as low as 10 cm every year. The area experiences freezing winds and burning hot sunlight. Flora and Fauna

Due to high aridity, the vegetation is sparse. There are scanty patches of grasses and shrubsfor animals to graze. Groves of willows and poplars are seen in the valleys. During the summers, fruit trees such as apples, apricots and walnuts bloom. Several species of birds are sighted in Ladakh. Robins, redstarts, Tibetan snowcock, raven and hoopoe are common. Some of these are migratory birds. The animals of Ladakh are wild goats, wild sheep, yak and special kinds of dogs. The animals are reared to provide for the milk, meat and hides. Yak’s milk is used to make cheese and butter. The hair of the sheep and goat is used to make woollens People The people here are either Muslims or Buddhists. In fact several Buddhists monasteries dot the Ladakhi landscape with their traditional ‘gompas’. In the summer season the people are busy cultivating barley, potatoes, peas, beans and turnip. The climate in winter months is so harsh that people keep themselves engaged in festivities and ceremonies The women are very hard working. They work not only in the house and fields, but also manage small business and shops. Leh, the capital of Ladakh is well connected both by road and air. The National Highway 1A connects Leh to Kashmir Valley through the Zoji la Pass. The finest cricket bats are made from the wood of the willow trees. The Chiru or the Tibetan antelope is an endangered species. It is hunted for its wool known as shahtoosh, which is light in weight and extremely warm. Tourism is a major activity with several tourists streaming in from within India and abroad. Visits to the gompas, treks to see the meadows and glaciers, witnessing ceremonies and festivities are important activities. Life of people is undergoing change due to modernisation. But the people of Ladakh have over the centuries learned to live in balance and harmony with nature Due to scarcity of resources like water and fuel, they are used with reverence and care. Nothing is discarded or wasted.



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NCERT CLASS 8 Chapter 1 Resources

Water, electricity, rickshaw, vegetable and textbook have something in common. They have all been used by you, so they have utility. Utility or usability is what makes an object or substance a resource.

Value means worth. Some resources have economic value, some do not. For example, metals may have an economic value, a beautiful landscape may not. But both are important and satisfy human needs. Some resources can become economically valuable with time. Your grandmother’s home remedies have no commercial value today. But if they are patented and sold by a medical firm tomorrow, they could become economically valuable.

Time and technology are two important factors that can change substances into resources. Both are related to the needs of the people. People themselves are the most important resource. It is their ideas, knowledge, inventions and discoveries that lead to the creation of more resources. Each discovery or invention leads to many others. The discovery of fire led to the practice of cooking and other processes while the invention of the wheel ultimately resulted in development of newer modes of transport. The technology to create hydroelectricity

has turned energy in fast flowing water into an important resource. TYPES OFRESOURCES Resources are generally classified into A) Natural B) Human made C) Human. Natural Resources Resources that are drawn from Nature and used without much modification are called natural resources. The air we breathe, the water in our rivers and lakes, the soils, minerals are all natural resources. Many of these resources are free gifts of nature and can be used directly. In some cases tools and technology may be needed to use a natural resource in the best possible way. Natural resources are classified into different groups depending upon their level of development and use; origin,stock and distribution. On the basis of their development and use resources can be classified into two groups, A) Actual resources B) Potentialresources. Actual resourcesare those resources whose quantity is known. These resources are being used in the present. The rich deposits of coal in Ruhr region of Germany and petroleum in the West Asia, the dark soils of the Deccan plateau in Maharashtra are all actual resources. Potential resourcesare those whose entire quantity may not be known and these are not being used at present. These resources could be used in the future. The level of technology we have at present may not be advanced enough to easily utilise these resources. The uranium found in Ladakh is an example of potential resource that could be used in the future. High speed winds were a potential resource two hundred years ago. Today they are an actual resource and wind farms generate energy using windmills like in Netherlands. You will find some in Nagercoil in Tamil Nadu and on the Gujarat coast. Based on their origin, resources can be abiotic or biotic. Abiotic resources are non-living while biotic resources are living. Soils, rocks and minerals are abiotic but plants and animals are biotic resources. Natural resources can be broadly categorised into renewable and non-renewableresources. Renewable resources are those which get renewed or replenished quickly. Some of these are unlimited and are not affected by human activities, such as solar and wind energy.



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Non-renewable resourcesare those which have a limited stock. Once the stocks are exhausted it may take thousands of years to be renewed or replenished. Since this period is much more than human life spans, such resources are considered non-renewable.Coal, petroleum and natural gas are some examples. On the basis of their distribution resources can be ubiquitous or localised. Resources that are found everywhere like the air we breathe, are ubiquitous. But those which are found only in certain places are localised, like copper and iron ore. The distribution of natural resources depends upon number of physical factors like terrain, climate and altitude. The distribution of resources is unequal because these factors differ so much over the earth. Human Made Resources Sometimes, natural substances become resources only when their original form has been changed. Iron ore was not a resource until people learnt to extract iron from it. People use natural resources to make buildings, bridges, roads, machinery and vehicles, which are known as human made resources. Technology is also a human made resource. Human Resources People can make the best use of nature to create more resources when they have the knowledge, skill and the technology to do so. That is why human beings are a special resource. People are human resources. Education and health help in making people a valuable resource. Improving the quality of people’s skills so that they are able to create more resources is known as human resource development.

CONSERVING RESOURCES Using resources carefully and giving them time to get renewed is called resource conservation. Balancing the need to use resources and also conserve them for the future is called sustainable development. There are many ways of conserving resources. Each person can contribute by reducing consumption, recycling and reusing thing. Ultimately it makes a difference because all our lives are linked. The future of our planet and its people is linked with our ability to maintain and preserve the life support system that nature provides. Therefore it is our duty to ensure that • all uses of renewable resources are sustainable • the diversity of life on the earth is conserved • the damage to natural environmental system is minimized



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NCERT CLASS 8 Chapter 2 Land soil water and natural vegetation LAND Land is among the most important natural resources. It covers only about thirty per cent of the total area of the earth’s surface and all parts of this small percentage are not habitable. The uneven distribution of population in different parts of the world is mainly due to varied characteristics of land and climate. The rugged topography, steep slopes of the mountains, low-lying areas susceptible to water logging, desert areas, thick forested areas are normally sparsely populated or uninhabited. Plains and river valleys offer suitable land for agriculture. Hence, these are the densely populated areas of the world. logging, desert areas, thick forested areas are normally sparsely populated or uninhabited.

. LAND USE Land is used for different purposes such as agriculture, forestry, mining, building houses, roads and setting up of industries. This is commonly termed as Land use The use of land is determined by physical factors such as topography, soil, climate, minerals and availability of water. Human factors such as population and technology are also important determinants of land use pattern Land can also be divided on the basis of private land and community land. Private land is owned by individuals whereas, community land is owned by the community for common uses like collection of fodder, fruits, nuts or medicinal herbs. These community lands are also called common property resources.

CONSERVATION OF LAND RESOURCE Growing population and their ever growing demand has led to a large scale destruction of forest cover and arable land and has created a fear of losing this natural resource. Therefore, the present rate of degradation of land resources must be checked. Afforestation, land reclamation, regulated use of chemical pesticide and fertilisers and checks on overgrazing are some of the common methods used to conserve land. SOIL The thin layer of grainy substance covering the surface of the earth is called soil. It is closely linked to land. Landforms determine the type of soil. Soil is made up of organic matter, minerals and weathered rocks found on the earth. This happens through the process of weathering. The right mix of minerals and organic matter make the soil fertile SOIL PROFILE



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FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION

The major factors of soil formation are the nature of the parent rock and climatic factors. Other factors are the topography, role of organic material and time taken for the composition of soil formation. All these differ from place to place. Climate Temperature, Rainfall influence rate of weathering and humus Time Determines thickness of soil profile Soil Flora, Fauna and Micro-organism Affect the rate of humus formation Relief Altitude and slope, determine accumulation of soil Parent Rock Determines colour, texture, chemical properties mineral, content, permeability Top soil with humus and vegetation Sub soil with sand, silt and clay Weathered rock material Parent rock DEGRADATION OF SOIL ANDCONSERVATION MEASURES Soil erosion and depletion are the major threats to soil as a resource. Both human and natural factors can lead to degradation of soils. Factors which lead to soil degradation are deforestation, overgrazing, overuse of chemical feritilisers or pesticides, rain wash, landslides and floods. Some methods of soil conservation are- Mulching: The bare ground between plants is covered with a layer of organic matter like straw. It helps to retain soil moisture. Contour barriers: Stones, grass, soil are used to build barriers along contours. Trenches are made in front of the barriers to collect water.

Rock dam: Rocks are piled up to slow down the flow of water. This prevents gullies and further soil loss Terrace farming: These are made on the steep slopes so that flat surfaces are available to grow crops. They can reduce surface run-off and soil erosion. Intercropping: Different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at different times to protect the soil from rain wash. Contour ploughing: Ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill slope to form a natural barrier for water to flow down the slope

Shelter belts: In the coastal and dry regions, rows of trees are planted to check the wind movement to protect soil cover. WATER

Water is a vital renewable natural resource. Three fourth’s of the earth’s surface is covered with water. It



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is therefore appropriately called the ‘water planet’ The ocean water is however saline and not fit for human consumption. Fresh water accounts for only about 2.7 per cent. Nearly 70 per cent of this occurs as ice sheets and glaciers in Antarctica, Greenland and mountain regions. Due to their location they are inaccessible. Only 1 per cent of freshwater is available and fit for human use. It is found as ground water, as surface water in rivers and lakes and as water vapour in the atmosphere. Fresh water is therefore, the most precious substance on earth. Water can neither be added nor subtracted from the earth. Its total volume remains constant. Its abundance only seems to vary because it is in constant motion, cycling through the oceans, the air, the land and back again, through the processes of evaporation, precipitation and run-off. This is referred to as the ‘water cycle Increasing population, rising demands for food and cash crops, increasing urbanisation and rising standards of living are the major factors leading to shortages in supply of fresh water either due to drying up of water sources or water pollution.

PROBLEMS OF WATER AVAILABILITY There is scarcity of water in many regions of the world. Most of Africa, West Asia, South Asia, parts of western USA, north-west Mexico, parts of South America and entire Australia are facing shortages in fresh water supply. Countries located in climatic zones most susceptible to droughts face great problems of water scarcity. Thus, water shortage may be a consequence of variation in seasonal or annual precipitation or the scarcity is caused by overexploitation and contamination of water sources.

CONSERVATION OF WATER RESOURCES Access to clean and adequate water sources is a major problem facing the world today. Steps have to be taken to conserve this dwindling resource. Discharge of untreated or partially treated sewage, agricultural chemicals and industrial effluents in water bodies are major contaminants. They pollute water with nitrates, Most of these chemicals being non-biodegradable reach human bodies through water. Water pollution can be controlled by treating these effluents suitably before releasing them in water bodies. Forest and other vegetation cover slow the surface runoff and replenish underground water. Water harvesting is another method to save surface runoff. Water is used for irrigating fields. The canals should be properly lined to minimise losses by water seepage. Sprinklers effectively irrigate the area by checking water losses through seepage and evaporation. In dry regions with high rates of evaporation, drip or trickle irrigation is very useful. The valuable water resource can therefore be conserved by adopting these means of conservation.

Natural vegetation and wildlife It exist only in the narrow zone of contact between the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere that we call biosphere. In the biosphere living beings are inter-related and interdependent on each other for survival. This life supporting system is known as the ecosystem.Vegetation and wildlife are valuable resources. Plants provide us with timber, give shelter to animals, produce oxygen we breathe, protects soils so essential for growing crops, act as shelter belts, help in storage of underground water, give us fruits, nuts, latex, turpentine oil, gum, medicinal plants and also the paper that is so essential for your studies. There are innumerable uses of plants and you can add some more.



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Wildlife includes animals, birds, insects as well as the aquatic life forms. They provide us milk, meat, hides and wool. Insects like bees provide us honey, help in pollination of flowers and have an important role to play as decomposers in the ecosystem. The birds feed on insects and act as decomposers as well. Vulture due to its ability to feed on dead livestock is a scavenger and considered a vital cleanser of the environment. So animals big or small, all are integral to maintaining balance in the ecosystem.

DISTRIBUTION OF NATURALVEGETATION In areas of heavy rainfall, huge trees may thrive. The forests are thus associated with areas having abundant water supply. As the amount of moisture decreases the size of trees and their density reduces. In the regions of moderate rainfall short stunted trees and grasses grow forming the grasslands of the world. In dry areas of low rainfall, thorny shrubs and scrubs grow. In such areas plants have deep roots and leaves have thorny and waxy surface to reduce loss of moisture by transpiration. Tundra vegetation of cold Polar Regions comprise of mosses and lichens. Forests are broadly classified as evergreen and deciduous depending on when they shed their leaves. Evergreen forests do not shed their leaves simultaneously in any season of the year. Deciduous forests shed their leaves in a particular season to conserve loss of moisture through transpiration. These forests are further classified as tropical or temperate based on their location in different latitudes.

CONSERVATION OFNATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE

Forests are our wealth. Plants give shelter to the animals and together they maintain the ecosystem. Changes of climate and human interferences can cause the loss of natural habitats for the plants and animals. Many species have become vulnerable or endangered and some are on the verge of extinction. Deforestation, soil erosion, constructional activities, forest fires, tsunami and landslides are some of the human made and natural factors which together accelerate the process of extinction of these great natural resources. One of the major concerns is the increasing incidents of poaching that result in a sharp decline in the number of particular species. The animals are poached for collection and illegal trade of hides, skins, nails, teeth, horns as well as feathers. Some of these animals are tiger, lion, elephant, deer, black buck, crocodile, rhinoceros, snow leopard, ostrich and peacock. These can be conserved by increasing awareness.

National parks, wildlife sanctuaries, biosphere reserves are made to protect our natural vegetation and wildlife. Conservation of lakes, and wetlands is necessary to save the precious resource from depletion



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There is a balance in the environment if the relative number of species is not disturbed. Human activities in several parts of the world have disturbed the natural habitats of many species. Awareness programmes like social forestry and Vanamohatasava should be encouraged at the regional and community level. Many countries have passed laws declaring that the trades as well as killing of birds and animals are illegal. In India, killing of lions, tigers, deers, great Indian bustards and peacocks have been banned An international convention CITES has been established that lists several species of animals and birds in which trade is prohibited. Conservation of plants and animals is an ethical duty of every citizen

NCERT CLASS 8 Chapter 3- Mineral & Power Resources A naturally occurring substance that has a definite chemical composition is a mineral. Minerals are not evenly distributed over space. They are concentrated in a particular area or rock formations. Some minerals are found in areas which are not easily accessible such as the Arctic ocean bed and Antarctica.

Minerals are formed in different types of geological environments, under varying conditions.They are created by natural processes without any human interference. They can be identified on the basis of their physical properties such as colour, density, hardness and chemical property such as solubility.

Types of Minerals There are over three thousand different minerals. On the basis of composition, minerals are classified mainly as metallic and non-metallic minerals. Metallic minerals contain metal in raw form. Metals are hard substances that conduct heat and electricity and have a characteristic lustre or shine. Iron ore, bauxite, manganese ore are some examples.

Metallic minerals may be ferrous or non-ferrous. Ferrous minerals like iron ore, manganese and chromites contain iron. A non-ferrous mineral does not contain iron but may contain some other metal such as gold, silver, copper or lead. Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals. Limestone, mica and gypsum are examples of such minerals. The mineral fuels like coal and petroleum are also non-metallic minerals. Minerals can be extracted by mining, drilling or quarrying

The process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the earth’s surface is called mining. Minerals that lie at shallow depths are taken out by removing the surface layer; this is known as open-cast mining. Deep bores, called shafts, have to be made to reach mineral deposits that lie at great depths.This is shaft mining. Petroleum and natural gas occur far below the earth’s surface. Deep wells are bored to take them out, this is called drilling (Fig 3.4). Minerals that lie near the surface are simply dug out, by the process known as quarrying.



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Distribution of minerals Minerals occur in different types of rocks Generally, metallic minerals are found in igneous and metamorphic rock formations that form large plateaus. Iron-ore in north Sweden, copper and nickel deposits in Ontario, Canada, iron, nickel, chromites and platinum in South Africa are examples of minerals found in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rock formations of plains and young fold mountains contain non-metallic minerals like limestone Mineralfuels such as coal and petroleum are also found in the sedimentary strata. Asia China and India have large iron ore deposits. The continent produces more than half of the world’s tin.

ASIA China and India have large iron ore deposits. The continent produces more than half of the world’s tin. China, Malaysia and Indonesia are among the world’s leading tin producers. China also leads in production of lead, antimony and tungsten. Asia also has deposits of manganese, bauxite, nickel, zinc and copper. EUROPE Europe is the leading producer of iron-ore in the world. The countries with large deposits of iron ore are Russia, Ukraine, Sweden and France. Minerals deposits of copper, lead, zinc, manganese and nickel are found in eastern Europe and European Russia.

North America The mineral deposits in North America are located in three zones: A) The Canadian region north of the Great

Lakes, B) The Appalachian region and C) The mountain ranges of the west. Iron ore, nickel, gold, uranium and copper are mined in the Canadian Shield Region, coal in the Appalachians region. Western Cordilleras have vast deposits of copper, lead, zinc, gold and silver.



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SOUTH AMERICA Brazil is the largest producer of high grade iron-ore in the world. Chile and Peru are leading producers of copper. Brazil and Bolivia are among the world’s largest producers of tin. South America also has large deposits of gold, silver, zinc, chromium, manganese, bauxite, mica, platinum, asbestos and diamond. Mineral oil is found in Venezuela, Argentina, Chile, Peru and Columbia. AFRICA Africa is rich in mineral resources. It is the world’s largest producer of diamonds, gold and platinum. South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zaire produce a large portion of the world’s gold. The other minerals found in Africa are copper, iron ore, chromium, uranium, cobalt and bauxite. Oil is found in Nigeria, Libya and Angola. AUSTRALIA Australia is the largest producer of bauxite in the world. It is a leading producer of gold, diamond, iron ore, tin and nickel. It is also rich in copper, lead, zinc and manganese. Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie areas of western Australia have the largest deposits of gold. Antarctica The geology of Antarctica is sufficiently well known to predict the existence of a variety of mineral deposits, some probably large. Significant size of deposits of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains and iron near the Prince Charles Mountains of East Antarctica is forecasted. Iron ore, gold, silver and oil are also present in commercial quantities. DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA Iron: India has deposits of high grade iron ore. The mineral is found mainly in Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka. Bauxite: Major bauxite producing areas are Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Mica:Mica deposits mainly occur in Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. India is the largest producer and exporter of mica in the world. Copper: It is mainly produced in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

Manganese: India’s manganese deposits lie in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Limestone: Major limestone producing states in India are Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. Gold: Kolar in Karnataka has deposits of gold in India. These mines are among the deepest in the world which makes mining of this ore a very expensive process. Salt: It is obtained from seas, lakes and rocks. India is one of the world’s leading producers and exporters of salt. USES OF MINERALS Minerals are used in many industries. Minerals which are used for gems are usually hard. These are then set in various styles for jewellery. Copper is another metal used in everything from coins to pipes. Silicon, used in the computer industry is obtained from quartz. Aluminum obtained from its ore bauxite is used in automobiles and airplanes, bottling industry, buildings and even in kitchen cookware. CONSERVATION OF MINERALS Minerals are a non-renewable resource. It takes thousands of years for the formation and concentration of minerals. The rate of formation is much smaller than the rate at which the humans consume these minerals. It is necessary to reduce wastage in the process of mining. Recycling of metals is another way in which the mineral resources can be conserved Power resources Conventional Sources Conventional sources of energy are those which have been in common use for a long time. Firewood and fossil fuels are the two main conventional energy sources.



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Firewood It is widely used for cooking and heating. In our country more than fifty per cent of the energy used by villagers comes from fire wood. Remains of plants and animals which were buried under the earth for millions of years got converted by the heat and pressure into fossil fuels. Fossil fuel such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are the main sources of conventional energy. The reserves of these minerals are limited. The rate at which the growing world population is consuming them is far greater than the rate of their formation. So, these are likely to be exhausted soon. Coal This is the most abundantly found fossil fuel. It is used as a domestic fuel, in industries such as iron and steel, steam engines and to generate electricity. Electricity from coal is called thermal power. The coal which we are using today was formed millions of years ago when giant ferns and swamps got buried under the layers of earth. Coal is therefore referred to as Buried Sunshine. The leading coal producers of the world are China, USA, Germany, Russia, South Africa and France. The coal producing areas of India are Raniganj, Jharia, Dhanbad and Bokaro in Jharkhand. Coal This is the most abundantly found fossil fuel. It is used as a domestic fuel, in industries such as iron and steel, steam engines and to generate electricity. Electricity from coal is called thermal power.

Petroleum

The petrol that keeps your car running as well as the oil that keeps your cycle from squeaking, both began as a thick black liquid called Petroleum. It is found between the layers of rocks and is drilled from oil fields located in off-shore and coastal areas. This is then sent to refineries which process the crude oil and produce a variety of products like diesel, petrol, kerosene, wax, plastics and lubricants. Petroleum and its derivatives are called Black Gold as they are very valuable. The chief petroleum producing countries are Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Qatar. The other major producers are USA, Russia, Venezuela, and Algeria. The leading producers in India are Digboi in Assam, Bombay High in Mumbai and the deltas of Krishna and Godavari rivers Natural Gas Natural gas is found with petroleum deposits and is released when crude oil is brought to the surface. It can be used as a domestic and industrial fuel. Russia, Norway, UK and the Netherlands are the major producers of natural gas. In India Jaisalmer, Krishna Godavari delta, Tripura and some areas off shore in Mumbai have natural gas resources. Very few countries in the world have sufficient natural gas reserves of their own. The sharp increase in our consumption of fossil fuels has led to their depletion at an alarming rate. This has led to the tapping of various nonconventional sources of energy that are cleaner alternatives to fossil fuels. Hydel Power Rain water or river water stored in dams is made to fall from heights. The falling water flows through pipes inside the dam over turbine blades placed at the bottom of the dam. The moving blades then turn the generator to produce electricity. This is called hydro electricity. The water discharged after the generation of electricity is used for irrigation. One fourth of the world’s electricity is produced by hydel power. The leading producers of hydel power in the world are Paraguay, Norway, Brazil, and



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China. Some important hydel power stations in India are Bhakra Nangal, Gandhi Sagar, Nagarjunsagar and Damodar valley projects.

Non Conventional Sources of energy The increasing use of fossil fuels is leading to its shortage. It is estimated that if the present rate of consumption continues, the reserves of these fuel will get exhausted. Moreover, their use also causes environmental pollution. Therefore, there is need for using non-conventional sources such as solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy which are renewable.

Solar energy Sun’s heat and light energy can be felt by us every day. Solar energy trapped from the sun can be used in solar cells to produce electricity. Many of these cells are joined into solar panels to generate power for heating and lighting purpose. The technology of utilising solar energy benefits a lot of tropical countries that are blessed with abundant sun shine. Solar energy is also used in solar heaters, solar cookers, solar dryers besides being used for community lighting and traffic signals. Wind Energy Wind is an inexhaustible source of energy. Wind mills have been used for grinding grain and lifting water since times immemorial. In modern time wind mills, the high speed winds rotate the wind mill which is connected to a generator to produce electricity. Wind farms having clusters of such wind mills are located in coastal regions and in mountain passes where strong and steady winds blow. Windfarms are found in Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, UK, USA and Spain are noted for their wind energy production. Nuclear Power Nuclear power is obtained from energy stored in the nuclei of atoms of naturally occurring radio active elements like uranium and thorium. These fuels undergo nuclear fission in nuclear reactors and emit power. The greatest producers of nuclear power are USA and Europe. In India Rajasthan and Jharkhand have large deposits of Uranium. Thorium is found in large quantities in the Monozite sands of Kerala. The nuclear power stations in India are located in Kalpakkam in Tamilnadu, Tarapur in Maharastra, Ranapratap Sagar near Kota in Rajasthan, Narora in Uttar Pradesh and Kaiga in Karnataka.

Geothermal Energy Heat energy obtained from the earth is called geothermal energy. The temperature in the interior



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of the earth rises steadily as we go deeper. Some times this heat energy may surface itself in the form of hot springs. This heat energy can be used to generate power. Geothermal energy in the form of hot springs has been used for cooking, heating and bathing for several years. USA has the world’s largest geothermal power plants followed by New Zealand, Iceland, Philippines and Central America. In India, geothermal plants are located in Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh and Puga Valley in Ladakh. TIDAL ENERGY Energy generated from tides is called tidal energy. Tidal energy can be harnessed by building dams at narrow openings of the sea. During high tide the energy of the tides is used to turn the turbine installed in the dam to produce electricity. Russia, France and the Gulf of Kachchh in India have huge tidal mill farms.

Biogas Organic waste such as dead plant and animal material, animal dung and kitchen waste can be converted into a gaseous fuel called biogas. The organic waste is decomposed by bacteria in biogas digesters to emit biogas which is essentially a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide. Biogas is an excellent fuel for cooking and lighting and produces huge amount of organic manure each year. Energy is everywhere but we can see that harnessing this energy is both difficult as well as costly. Each one of us can make a difference by not wasting energy..

NCERT CLASS 8 Chapter 4 AGRICULTURE

Primary activities include all those connected with extraction and production of natural resources. Agriculture, fishing and gathering are examples. Secondary activities are concerned with the processing of these resources. Manufacturing of steel, baking of bread and weaving of cloth are examples of this activity. Tertiary activities provide support to the primary and secondary sectors through services. Transport, trade, banking, insurance and advertising are examples of support to the primary and secondary sectors through services Agriculture is a primary activity. It includes growing crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers and rearing of livestock. In the world, 50 per cent of persons are engaged in agricultural activity. Two-thirds of India’s population is still dependent on agriculture. Favourable topography of soil and climate are vital for agricultural activity. The land on which the crops are grown is known as arable land.



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FARM SYSTEM Agriculture or farming can be looked at as a system. The important inputs are seeds, fertilisers, machinery and labour. The outputs from the system include crops, wool, dairy and poultry products

TYPES OF FARMING Farming is practiced in various ways across the world. Farming can be classified into two main types. A) Subsistence farming B) Commercial farming Subsistence Farming This type of farming is practiced to meet the needs of the farmer’s family. Traditionally, low levels of technology and household labour are used to produce the small output. Subsistence farming can be further classified – a) Intensive subsistence and b) Primitive subsistence farming. In intensive subsistence agriculture the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour.Climate with large number of days with sunshine and fertile soils permit growing of more than one crop annually on the same plot. Rice is the main crop. Other crops include wheat, maize, pulses and oilseeds. Intensive subsistence agriculture is prevalent in the thickly populated areas of the monsoon regions of south, southeast and east Asia Primitive subsistence agriculture It includes shifting cultivation and nomadic herding. Shifting cultivation is practiced in the thickly forested areas of Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of southeast Asia and Northeast India. These are the areas of heavy rainfall and quick regeneration of

vegetation. A plot of land is cleared by felling the trees and burning them. The ashes are then mixed with the soil and crops like maize, yam, potatoes and cassava are grown. After the soil loses its fertility, the land is abandoned and the cultivator moves to a new plot. Shifting cultivation is also known as ‘slash and burn’ agriculture

Shifting cultivation is known by different names in different parts of the world Jhumming North-East India Milpa- Mexico Roca- Brazil. Ladang- Malaysia

Nomadic herding It is practiced in the semi-arid and arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India, like Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir. In this type of farming, herdsmen move from place to place with their animals for fodder and water, along defined routes. This type of movement arises in response to climatic constraints and terrain. Sheep, camel, yak and goats are most commonly reared. They provide milk, meat, wool, hides and other products to the herders and their families. Commercial Farming In commercial farming crops are grown and animals are reared for sale in market. The area cultivated and the amount of capital used is large. Most of the work is done by machines. Commercial farming includes commercial grain farming, mixed farming and plantation agriculture In commercial grain farming crops are grown for commercial purpose. Wheat and maize are common commercially grown grains. Major areas where commercial grain farming is practiced are temperate grasslands of North America, Europe and Asia. These areas are sparsely populated with large farms spreading over hundreds of hectares. Severe winters restrict the growing season and only a single crop can be grown. In mixed farming the land is used for growing food and fodder crops and rearing livestock. It is practiced in Europe, eastern USA, Argentina, southeast Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Plantations A type of commercial farming where single crop of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton are grown. Large amount of labour and capital are required. The produce may be processed on the farm itself or in nearby factories. The development of a transport network is thus essential for such farming. Major plantations are found in the tropical regions of



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the world. Rubber in Malaysia, coffee in Brazil, tea in India and Sri Lanka are some examples.

Major Crops

A large variety of crops are grown to meet the requirement of the growing population. Crops also supply raw materials for agro based industries. Major food crops are wheat, rice, maize and millets. Jute and cotton are fibre crops. Important beverage crops are tea and coffee Rice: Rice is the major food crop of the world. It is the staple diet of the tropical and sub-tropical regions. Rice needs high temperature, high humidity and rainfall. It grows best in alluvial clayey soil, which can retain water. China leads in the production of rice followed by India, Japan, Sri Lanka and Egypt. In favourable climatic conditions as in West Bengal and Bangladesh two to three crops a year are grown. Wheat: Wheat requires moderate temperature and rainfall during growing season and bright sunshine at the time of harvest. It thrives best in well drained loamy soil. Wheat is grown extensively in USA, Canada, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, Australia and India. In India it is grown in winter. Millets: They are also known as coarse grains and can be grown on less fertile and sandy soils. It is a hardy crop that needs low rainfall and high to moderate temperature and adequate rainfall. Jowar, bajra and ragi are grown in India. Other countries are Nigeria, China and Niger. Maize: Maize requires moderate temperature rainfall and lots of sunshine. It needs well-drained fertile soils. Maize is grown in North America, Brazil, China, Russia, Canada, India, and Mexico. Cotton: Cotton requires high temperature, light rainfall, two hundred and ten frost-free days and bright sunshine for its growth. It grows best on black and alluvial soils. China, USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil and Egypt are the leading producers of cotton. It is

one of the main raw materials for the cotton textile industry. Jute: Jute was also known as the ‘Golden Fibre’. It grows well on alluvial soil and requires high temperature, heavy rainfall and humid climate. This crop is grown in the tropical areas. India and Bangladesh are the leading producers of jute. Coffee: Coffee requires warm and wet climate and well drained loamy soil. Hill slopes are more suitable for growth of this crop. Brazil is the leading producer followed by Columbia and India.

Tea: Tea is a beverage crop grown on plantations. This requires cool climate and well distributed high rainfall throughout the year for the growth of its tender leaves. AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT Agricultural Development refers to efforts made to increase farm production in order to meet the growing demand of increasing population. This can be achieved in many ways such as increasing the cropped area, the number of crops grown, improving irrigation facilities, use of fertilisers and high yielding variety of seeds. Mechanisation of agriculture is also another aspect of agricultural development. The ultimate aim of agricultural development is to increase food security.

Organic Farming In this type of farming, organic manure and natural pesticides are used instead of chemicals. No genetic modification is done to increase the yield of the crop.



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NCERT CLASS 8 Chapter 5 INDUSTRIES Secondary activities or manufacturing change raw materials into products of more value to people. These represent the two stages of the manufacturing process. The paper made from pulp and cloth made from cotton have had value added to them at each stage of the manufacturing process. In this way the finished product has more value and utility than the raw material that it is made from. Industry refers to an economic activity that is concerned with production of goods, extraction of minerals or the provision of services. Thus we have iron and steel industry (production of goods), coal mining industry (extraction of coal) and tourism industry (service provider). CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES Industries can be classified on the basis of raw materials, size and ownership. Raw Materials Industries may be agro based, mineral based, marine based and forest based depending on the type of raw materials they use. Agro based industries use plant and animal based products as their raw materials. Food processing, vegetable oil, cotton textile, dairy products and leather industries are examples of agro-based industries. Mineral based industries They are primary industries that use mineral ores as their raw materials. The products of these industries feed other industries. Iron made from iron ore is the product of mineral based industry. This is used as raw material for the manufacture of a number of other products, such as heavy machinery, building materials and railway coaches. Marine based industries Use products from the sea and oceans as raw materials. Industries processing sea food or manufacturing fish oil are some examples. Forest based industries utilise forest produce as raw materials. The industries associated with forests are pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, furniture and buildings.



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Size: It refers to the amount of capital invested, number of people employed and the volume of production. Based on size, industries can be classified into small scale and large scale industries. Cottage or household industries are a type of small scale industry where the products are manufactured by hand, by the artisans. Basket weaving, pottery and other handicrafts are examples of cottage industry. Small scale industries use lesser amount of capital and technology as compared to large scale industries that produce large volumes of products. Investment of capital is higher and the technology used is superior in large scale industries.

Ownership: Industries can be classified into private sector, state owned or public sector, joint sector and cooperative sector. Private sector industries are owned and operated by individuals or a group of individuals. The public sector industries are owned and operated by the government, such as Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and Steel Authority of India Limited. Joint sector industries Owned and operated by the state and individuals or a group of individuals. Maruti Udyog Limited is an example of joint sector industry. Co-operative sector industries Owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers or both. Anand Milk Union Limited and Sudha Dairy are a success stories of a co-operative venture Factors affecting relocation of Industries The factors affecting the location of industries are the availability of raw material, land, water, labour, power, capital, transport and market. Industries are situated where some or all of these factors are easily available. Sometimes, the government provides incentives like subsidised power, lower transport cost and other infrastructure so that industries may be located in backward areas. Industrialisation often leads to development and growth of towns and cities.

INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM

An industrial system consists of inputs, processes and outputs. The inputs are the raw materials, labour and costs of land, transport, power and other infrastructureIn case of the textile industry the inputs may be cotton, human labour, factory and transport cost. The processes include ginning, spinning, weaving, dyeing and printing. The output is the shirt you wear. INDUSTRIAL REGIONS Industrial regions emerge when a number of industries locate close to each other and share the benefits of their closeness. Major industrial regions of the world are eastern North America, western and central Europe, eastern Europe and eastern Asia .

Major industrial regions tend to be located in the temperate areas, near sea ports and especially near coal fields. India has several industrial regions like MumbaiPune cluster, Bangalore-Tamil Nadu region, Hugli region, Ahmedabad-Baroda region, Chottanagpur industrial belt, Vishakhapatnam-



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Guntur belt, Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut region and the Kollam-Thiruvanathapuram industrial cluster. DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR INDUSTRIES The world’s major industries are the iron and steel industry, the textile industry and the information technology industry. . The countries in which iron and steel industry is located are Germany, USA, China, Japan and Russia. Textile industry is concentrated in India, Hong Kong, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan. The major hubs of Information technology industry are the Silicon valley of Central California and the Bangalore region of India. Iron and Steel Industry Like other industries iron and steel industry too comprises various inputs, processes and outputs. This is a feeder industry whose products are used as raw material for other industries. The inputs for the industry include raw materials such as iron ore, coal and limestone, along with labour, capital, site and other infrastructure. The process of converting iron ore into steel involves many stages. The raw material is put in the blast furnace where it undergoes smelting It is then refined. The output obtained is steel which may be used by other industries as raw material. Steel is tough and it can easily be shaped, cut, or made into wire. Special alloys of steel can be made by adding small amounts of other metals such as aluminium, nickel, and copper. Alloys give steel unusual hardness, toughness, or ability to resist rust. In India, iron and steel industry has developed taking advantage of raw materials, cheap labour, transport and market. All the important steel producing centres such as Bhilai, Durgapur, Burnpur, Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro are situated in a region that spreads over four states — West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh. Bhadravati and Vijay Nagar in Karnataka, Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, Salem in Tamil Nadu are other important steel centres utilising local resources. India’s steel production increased from one million tonne in 1947 to 30 million tonnes in 2002 Jamshedpur Before 1947, there was only one iron and steel plant in the country – Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO). It was privately owned. After Independence, the government took the initiative and set up several iron and steel plants. TISCO was started in 1907 at Jamshedpur which is the most conveniently situated iron and steel centre in the country

In Jamshedpur, several other industrial plants were set up after TISCO. They produce chemicals, locomotive parts, agricultural equipment, machinery, tinplate, cable and wire. The Indian iron and steel industry consists of large integrated steel plants as well as mini steel mills. It also includes secondary producers, rolling mills and ancillary industries.

Pittsburgh: It is an important steel city of the United States of America. The steel industry at Pittsburgh enjoys locational advantages. Some of the raw material such as coal is available locally, while the iron ore comes from the iron mines at Minnesota, about 1500 km from Pittsburgh Today, very few of the large steel mills are in Pittsburgh itself. They are located in the valleys of the Monogahela and Allegheny rivers above Pittsburgh and along the Ohio River below it.. The Pittsburgh area has many factories other than steel mills. These use steel as their raw material to make many different products such as railroad equipment, heavy machinery and rails.



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COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY Weaving cloth from yarn is an ancient art. Cotton, wool, silk, jute, flax have been used for making cloth. The textile industry can be divided on the basis of raw materials used in them. Fibres are the raw material of textile industry. Fibres can be natural or man-made. Natural fibres are obtained from wool, silk, cotton, linen and jute. Man made fibres include nylon, polyester, acrylic and rayon. The cotton textile industry is one of the oldest industries in the world. Till the industrial revolution in the 18th century, cotton cloth was made using hand spinning techniques (wheels) and looms. In 18th century power looms facilitated the development of cotton textile industry, first in Britain and later in other parts of the

world. Today India, China, Japan and the USA are important producers of cotton textiles. India has a glorious tradition of producing excellent quality cotton textiles.The Muslins of Dhaka, Chintzes of Masulipatnam, Calicos of Calicut and Gold-wrought cotton of Burhanpur, Surat and Vadodara were known worldwide for their quality and design. But the production of hand woven cotton textile was expensive and time consuming Hence, traditional cotton textile industry could not face the competition from the new textile mills of the West, which produced cheap and good quality fabrics through mechanized industrial units. The first successful mechanized textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854. The warm, moist climate, a port for importing machinery, availability of raw material and skilled labour resulted in rapid expansion of the industry in the region. Initially this industry flourished in the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat because of favourable humid climate. But today, humidity can be created artificially.Coimbatore, Kanpur, Chennai, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Kolkata, Ludhiana, Puducherry and Panipat are some of the other important centres.



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Ahmedabad :

It is located in Gujarat on the banks of the Sabarmati river. The first mill was established in 1859. It soon became the second largest textile city of India, after Mumbai. Ahmedabad was therefore often referred to as the ‘Manchester of India’. Favourable locational factors were responsible for the development of the textile industry in Ahmedabad. Ahmedabad is situated very close to cotton growing area. This ensures easy availability of raw material. The climate is ideal for spinning and weaving. The flat terrain and easy availability of land is suitable for the establishment of the mills. The densely populated states of Gujarat and Maharashtra provide both skilled and semi-skilled labour. Well developed road and railway network permits easy transportation of textiles to different parts of the country, thus providing easy access to the market. Mumbai port nearby facilitates import of machinery and export of cotton textiles. But in the recent years, Ahmedabad textile mills have been closed down primarily due to the emergence of new textile centres in the country as well as non upgradation of machines and technology in the mills of Ahmedabad. Osaka : It is an important textile centre of Japan, also known as the ‘Manchester of Japan’. The textile industry developed in Osaka due to several geographical factors. The textile industry at Osaka depends completely upon imported raw materials. Cotton is imported from Egypt, India, China and USA of India. Coimbatore, Kanpur, Chennai, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Kolkata, Ludhiana, Puducherry and Panipat are some of the other important centres. The finished product is mostly exported and has a good market due to good quality and low price.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY The information technology industry deals in the storage, processing and distribution of information. Today, this industry has become global. This is due to a series of technological, political, and socio-economic events. The main factors guiding the location of these industries are resource availability, cost and infrastructure. The major hubs of the IT industry are the Silicon Valley, California and Bangalore, India. Bangalore It is located on the Deccan Plateau from where it gets the name ‘Silicon Plateau’. The city is known for its mild climate throughout the year. There are other emerging information technology hubs in metropolitan centres of India such as Mumbai New Delhi, Hyderabad and Chennai. Other cities such as Gurgaon, Pune, Thiruvanthapuram, Kochi and Chandigarh are also important centres of the IT industry. However, Bangalore has always had a unique advantage, as a city with highest availability of middle and top management talent.



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NCERT CLASS 8 Chapter 6 Human Resource Human Resources People are a nation’s greatest resource. Nature’s bounty becomes significant only when people find it useful.Hence, human resource is the ultimate resource. Healthy, educated and motivated people develop resources as per their requirements. Human resources like other resources are not equally distributed over the world. They differ in their educational levels, age and sex. Their numbers and characteristics also keep changing. DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION The way in which people are spread across the earth surface is known as the pattern of population distribution. More than 90 per cent of the world’s population lives in about 10 per cent of the land surface. The distribution of population in the world is extremely uneven. Almost three-quarters of the world’s people live in two continents Asia and Africa. Sixty per cent of the people stay in just 10 countries. DENSITY OF POPULATION Population density is the number of people living in a unit area of the earth’s surface. It is normally expressed as per square km. The average density of population in the whole world is 51 persons per square km. South Central Asia has the highest density of population followed by East and South East Asia FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION Geographical Factors Topography: People always prefer to live on plains rather than mountains and plateaus because these areas are suitable for farming, manufacturing and service activities. The Ganga plains are the most densely populated areas of the world while mountains like Andes, Alps and Himalayas are sparsely populated. Climate: People usually avoid extreme climates that are very hot or very cold like Sahara desert, polar regions of Russia, Canada and Antarctica. Soil Fertile soils provide suitable land for agriculture. Fertile plains such as Ganga and Brahmaputra in India,

Hwang-He, Chang Jiang in China and the Nile in Egypt are densely populated. Water: People prefer to live in the areas where fresh water is easily available. The river valleys of the world are densely populated while deserts have spare population. Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits are more populated. Diamond mines of South Africa and discovery of oil in the Middle east lead to settling of people in these areas. Social, Cultural and Economic Factors Social: Areas of better housing, education and health facilities are more densely populated e.g., Pune. Cultural: Places with religion or cultural significance attract people. Varanasi, Jerusalem and Vatican city are some examples. Economic: Industrial areas provide employment opportunities. Large number of people are attracted to these areas. Osaka in Japan and Mumbai in India are two densely populated areas POPULATION CHANGE The population change refers to change in the number of people during a specific time.The world population has not been stable. It has increased manifold For an extremely long period of human history, until the 1800s, the world’s population grew steadily but slowly. Large numbers of babies were born, but they died early too. This was as there were no proper health facilities. Sufficient food was not available for all the people. Farmers were not able to produce enough to meet the food requirements of all the people. As a result the total increase in population was very low. In 1804, the world’s population reached one billion. A hundred and fifty five years later, in 1959, the world’s population reached 3 billion. This is often called population explosion. In 1999, 40 years later, the population doubled to 6 billion.



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The main reason for this growth was that with better food supplies and medicine, deaths were reducing, while the number of births still remained fairly high. Births are usually measured using the birth rate i.e. the number of live births per 1,000 people. Deaths are usually measured using the death ratei.e. the number of deaths per 1,000 people. Migrations is the movement of people in and out of an area.Births and deaths are the natural causes of population change. The difference between the birth rate and the death rate of a country is called the natural growth rate. Migration is another way by which population size changes. People may move within a country or between countries. Emigrants are people who leave a country; Immigrants are those who arrive in a country. Countries like the United States of America and Australia have gained in-numbers by in-migration or immigration. Within countries large number of people may move from the rural to urban areas in search of employment, education and health facilities. PATTERNS OF POPULATION CHANGE Rates of population growth vary across the world

Although, the world’s total population is rising rapidly, not all countries are experiencing this growth. Some countries like Kenya have high population growth rates. They had both high birth rates and death rates. Now, with improving health care, death rates have fallen, but birth rates still remain high leading to high growth rates. In other countries like United Kingdom, population growth is slowing because of both low death and low birth rates. POPULATIONCOMPOSITION To understand the role of people as a resource, we need to know more about their qualities. People vary greatly in their age, sex, literacy level, health condition, occupation and income level. It is essential to understand these characteristics of the people. Population composition refers to the structure of the population. The composition of population helps us to know how many are males or females, which age group they belong to, how educated they are and what type of occupations they are employed in, what their income levels and health conditions are. An interesting way of studying the population composition of a country is by looking at the population pyramid, also called an age-sex pyramid. A population pyramid shows

• The total population divided into various age groups, e.g., 5 to 9 years, 10 to 14 years.

• The percentage of the total population, subdivided into males and females, in each of those groups.

The shape of the population pyramid tells the story of the people living in that particular country. The numbers of children (below 15 years) are shown at the bottom and reflect the level of births. The size of the top shows the numbers of aged people (above 65 years) and reflects the number of deaths. The population pyramid also tells us how many dependents there are in a country. There are two groups of dependents — young dependents (aged below 15 years) and elderly dependents (aged over 65 years). Those of the working age are the economically active. The population pyramid of a country in which birth and death rates are both high is broad at the base and rapidly narrows towards the top. This is because although, many children are born, a large percentage of them die in their infancy, relatively few become adults and there are very few old people. This situation is typified by the pyramid shown for Kenya



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In countries where death rates (especially amongst the very young) are decreasing, the pyramid is broad in the younger age groups, because more infants survive to adulthood. This can be seen in the pyramid for India.

Such populations contain a relatively large number of young people and which means a strong and expanding labour force. In countries like Japan, low birth rates make the pyramid narrow at the base.

Decreased death rates allow numbers of people to reach old age. Skilled, spirited and hopeful young people endowed with a positive outlook are the future of any nation. We in India are fortunate to have such a resource. They must be educated and provided skills and opportunities to become able and productive. Skilled, spirited and hopeful young people endowed with a positive outlook are the future of any nation. We in India are fortunate to have such a resource. They must be educated and provided skills and opportunities to become able and productive



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NCERT CLASS 8 Chapter AGRICULTURE

Primary activities include all those connected with extraction and production of natural resources.Agriculture, fishing and gathering are examples. Secondary activities are concerned with the processing of these resources. Manufacturing of steel, baking of bread and weaving of cloth are examples of this activity. Tertiary activities provide support to the primary and secondary sectors through services. Transport, trade, banking, insurance and advertising are examples of support to the primary and secondary sectors through services. Agriculture is a primary activity. It includes growing crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers and rearing of livestock. In the world, 50 per cent of persons are engaged in agricultural activity. Two-thirds of India’s population is still dependent on agriculture. Favourable topography of soil and climate are vital for agricultural activity. The land on which the crops are grown is known as arable land.

FARM SYSTEM Agriculture or farming can be looked at as a system. The important inputs are seeds, fertilisers, machinery and labour. Some of the operations involved are ploughing, sowing, irrigation, weeding and harvesting.

The outputs from the system include crops, wool, dairy and poultry products

TYPES OF FARMING Farming is practiced in various ways across the world. Farming can be classified into two main types. A) subsistence farming B) commercial farming Subsistence Farming This type of farming is practiced to meet the needs of the farmer’s family. Traditionally, low levels of technology and household labour are used to produce the small output. Subsistence farming can be further classified – a) Intensive subsistence and b) Primitive subsistence farming. In intensive subsistence agriculture the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour.Climate with large number of days with sunshine and fertile soils permit growing of more than one crop annually on the same plot. Rice is the main crop. Other crops include wheat, maize, pulses and oilseeds. Intensive subsistence agriculture is prevalent in the thickly populated areas of the monsoon regions of south, southeast and east Asia Primitive subsistence agriculture It includes shifting cultivation and nomadic herding. Shifting cultivation is practiced in the thickly forested areas of Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of southeast Asia and Northeast India. These are the areas of heavy rainfall and quick regeneration of vegetation. A plot of land is cleared by felling the trees and burning them. The ashes are then mixed with the soil and crops like maize, yam, potatoes and cassava are grown. After the soil loses its fertility, the



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land is abandoned and the cultivator moves to a new plot. Shifting cultivation is also known as ‘slash and burn’ agriculture

Shifting cultivation is known by different names in different parts of the world Jhumming North-East India Milpa- Mexico Roca- Brazil. Ladang- Malaysia

Nomadic herding It is practiced in the semi-arid and arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India, like Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir. In this type of farming, herdsmen move from place to place with their animals for fodder and water, along defined routes. This type of movement arises in response to climatic constraints and terrain. Sheep, camel, yak and goats are most commonly reared. They provide milk, meat, wool, hides and other products to the herders and their families. Commercial Farming In commercial farming crops are grown and animals are reared for sale in market. The area cultivated and the amount of capital used is large. Most of the work is done by machines. Commercial farming includes commercial grain farming, mixed farming and plantation agriculture In commercial grain farming crops are grown for commercial purpose. Wheat and maize are common commercially grown grains. Major areas where commercial grain farming is practiced are temperate grasslands of North America, Europe and Asia. These areas are sparsely populated with large farms spreading over hundreds of hectares. Severe winters restrict the growing season and only a single crop can be grown. In mixed farming the land is used for growing food and fodder crops and rearing livestock. It is practiced in Europe, eastern USA, Argentina, southeast Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Plantations are a type of commercial farming where single crop of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton are grown. Large amount of labour and capital are required. The produce may be processed on the farm itself or in nearby factories. The development of a transport network is thus essential for such farming. Major plantations are found in the tropical regions of the world. Rubber in Malaysia, coffee in Brazil, tea in India and Sri Lanka are some examples.

Major Crops

A large variety of crops are grown to meet the requirement of the growing population. Crops also supply raw materials for agro based industries. Major food crops are wheat, rice, maize and millets. Jute and cotton are fibre crops. Important beverage crops are tea and coffee Rice: Rice is the major food crop of the world. It is the staple diet of the tropical and sub-tropical regions. Rice needs high temperature, high humidity and rainfall. It grows best in alluvial clayey soil, which can retain water. China leads in the production of rice followed by India, Japan, Sri Lanka and Egypt. In favourable climatic conditions as in West Bengal and Bangladesh two to three crops a year are grown. Wheat: Wheat requires moderate temperature and rainfall during growing season and bright sunshine at the time of harvest. It thrives best in well drained loamy soil. Wheat is grown extensively in USA, Canada, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, Australia and India. In India it is grown in winter. Millets: They are also known as coarse grains and can be grown on less fertile and sandy soils. It is a hardy crop that needs low rainfall and high to moderate temperature and adequate rainfall. Jowar, bajra and ragi are grown in India. Other countries are Nigeria, China and Niger. Maize: Maize requires moderate temperature, rainfall and lots of sunshine. It needs well-drained fertile soils. Maize is grown in North America, Brazil, China, Russia, Canada, India, and Mexico. Cotton: Cotton requires high temperature, light rainfall, two hundred and ten frost-free days and bright sunshine for its growth. It grows best on black and alluvial soils. China, USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil and Egypt are the leading producers of cotton. It is one of the main raw materials for the cotton textile industry.



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Jute: Jute was also known as the ‘Golden Fibre’. It grows well on alluvial soil and requires high temperature, heavy rainfall and humid climate. This crop is grown in the tropical areas. India and Bangladesh are the leading producers of jute. Coffee: Coffee requires warm and wet climate and well drained loamy soil. Hill slopes are more suitable for growth of this crop. Brazil is the leading producer followed by Columbia and India.

Tea: Tea is a beverage crop grown on plantations. This requires cool climate and well distributed high rainfall throughout the year for the growth of its tender leaves. AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT Agricultural Development refers to efforts made to increase farm production in order to meet the growing demand of increasing population. This can be achieved in many ways such as increasing the cropped area, the number of crops grown, improving irrigation facilities, use of fertilisers and high yielding variety of seeds. Mechanisation of agriculture is also another aspect of agricultural development. The ultimate aim of agricultural development is to increase food security.

Organic Farming In this type of farming, organic manure and natural pesticides are used instead of chemicals. No genetic modification is done to increase the yield of the crop.



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INDIA– SIZE AND LOCATION LOCATION India is a vast country. Lying entirely in the Northern hemisphere the main land extends between latitudes 8°4'N and 37°6'N and longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E. The Tropic of Cancer (23° 30'N) divides the country into almost two equal parts. To the southeast and southwest of the mainland, lie the Andaman and Nicobar islands and the Lakshadweep islands in Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea respectively.

SIZE The land mass of India has an area of 3.28 million squarekm.India’s total area accounts for about 2.4 per cent of the total geographical area of the world.India is the seventh largest country of the world.

India has a land boundary of about 15,200 km and the total length of the coast line of the mainland including Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep is 7,516.6 km. India is bounded by the young fold mountains in the northwest, north and north east. South of about 22° north latitude, it begins to taper, and extends towards the Indian Ocean, dividing it into two seas, the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on its east.

The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of the mainland is about 30°. Despite this fact the east-west extent appears to be smaller than the north-south extent. From Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh there is a time lag of two hours. Hence, time along the Standard Meridian of India (82°30'E) passing through Mirzapur (in Uttar Pradesh) is taken as the standard time for the whole country. The latitudinal extent influences the duration of the day and night, as one moves from south to north.

INDIA AND THE WORLD The Indian landmass has a central location between the East and the West Asia. India is a southward extension of the Asian Continent. The trans Indian Ocean routes which connect the countries of Europe in the W est and the countries of East Asia provide a strategic central location to India. Note that the Deccan Peninsula protrudes into the Indian Ocean, thus helping India to establish close contact with W est Asia, Africa and Europe from the western coast and with Southeast and East Asia from the eastern coast. No other country has a long coastline on the Indian Ocean as India.India’s contacts with the World have continued through the ages but her relationships



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through the land routes are much older than her maritime contacts. The various passes across the mountains in the north have provided passages to the ancient travellers, while the oceans restricted such interaction for a long time.

INDIA’SNEIGHBOURS India occupies an important strategic position in South Asia. India has 28 states and 7 Union Territories (Figure 1.5). Before 1947, there were two India shares its land boundaries with Pakistan and Afghanistan in the northwest, China (Tibet), Nepal and Bhutan in the north and Myanmar and Bangladesh in the east. Our southern neighbours across the sea consist of the two island countries, namel Sri Lanka and Maldives. Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of sea formed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar while Maldives Islands are situated to the south of the Lakshadweep Islands. India has had strong geographical and historical links with her neighbours.



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NCERT Class 9

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CHAPTER 2 INDIA PHYSICAL DIVISIONS PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA India is a large landmass formed during different geological periods which has influenced her relief. Besides geological formations, a number of processes such as weathering, erosion and deposition have created and modified the relief to its present form. The plausible theory for the geological landforms is the “Theory of Plate Tectonics”. According to this theory, the crust (upper part) of the earth has been formed out of seven major and some minor plates.

The movement of the plates results in the building up of stresses within the plates and the continental rocks above, leading to folding, faultingand volcanic activity. Broadly, these plate movements are classified into three types

While some plates come towards each other and form convergent boundary. Some plates move away from each other and form divergent boundary. In the event of two plates coming together they may either collide and crumble, or one may slide under the other. At times, they may also move horizontally past each other and form transform boundary. The movement of these plates have changed the position and size of the continents over millions of years The oldest landmass, (the Peninsula part), was a part of the Gondwana land. The Gondwana land included India, Australia, South Africa, South America and Antarctica as one single land mass. The convectional currents split the crust into a number of pieces, thus leading to the drifting of the Indo-Australian plate after being separated from the Gondwana land, towards north. The northward drift resulted in the collision of the plate with the much larger Eurasian Plate. Due to this collision, the sedimentary rocks which were accumulated in the geosyncline known as the Tethyswere folded to form the mountain system of western Asia and Himalaya The Himalayan uplift out of the Tethys sea and subsidence of the northern flank of the peninsular plateau resulted in the formation of a large basin. In due course of time this depression, gradually got filled with deposition of sediments by the rivers flowing from



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the mountains in the north and the peninsular plateau in the south. A flat land of extensive alluvial deposits led to the formation of the northern plains of India. The land of India displays great physical variation. The Himalayas and the Northern Plains are the most recent landforms.Himalayan mountains form an unstable zone. The whole mountain system of Himalaya represents a very youthful topography with high peaks, deep valleys and fast flowing rivers. The northern plains are formed of alluvial deposits. The peninsular plateau is composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks with gently rising hills and wide valleys. MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS The physical features of India can be grouped under the following physiographic divisions

(1) The Himalayan Mountains (2) The Northern Plains (3) The Peninsular Plateau (4) The Indian Desert (5) The Coastal Plains (6) The Islands

The Himalayan Mountains The Himalayas, geologically young and structurally fold mountains stretch over the northern borders of India. These mountain ranges run in a west-east direction from the Indus to the Brahmaputra. The Himalayas represent the loftiest and one of the most rugged mountain barriers of the world. They form an arc, which covers a distance of about 2,400 Km. Their width varies from 400 Km in Kashmir to 150 Km in Arunachal Pradesh. The altitudinal variations are greater in the eastern half than those in the western half. The Himalaya consists of three parallel ranges in its longitudinal extent. A number of valleys lie between these ranges A) The northern most range is known as the Great or Inner Himalayas or the ‘Himadri’. It is the most continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks with an average height of 6,000 metres. It contains all the prominent Himalayan peaks The folds of Great Himalayas are asymmetrical in nature. The core of this part of Himalayas is composed of granite. It is perennially snow bound, and a number of glaciers descend from this range. B) The range lying to the south of the Himadri forms the most rugged mountain system and is known as Himachalor lesser Himalaya. The ranges are mainly composed of highly compressed and altered rocks. The altitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500 metres and the average width is of 50 Km. While the Pir Panjal range forms the longest and the most important range, the Dhaula Dharand the Mahabharat ranges are also prominent ones. This range consists of the famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh. This region is well known for its hill stations C) The outer most range of the Himalayas is called the Shiwaliks.They extend over a width of 10-50 Km and have an altitude varying between 900 and 1100 metres. These ranges are composed of unconsolidated sediments brought down by rivers from the main Himalayan ranges located farther north. These valleys are covered with thick gravel and alluvium. The longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalaya and the Shiwaliks are known as Duns. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun are some of the well-known Duns. Besides the longitudinal divisions, the Himalayas have been divided on the basis of regions from west to east. These divisions have been demarcated by river valleys. For example, the part of Himalayas lying between Indus and Satluj has been traditionally known



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as Punjab Himalaya but it is also known regionally as Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya from west to east respectively. The part of the Himalayas lying between Satluj and Kali rivers is known as Kumaon Himalayas. The Kali and Tista rivers demarcate the Nepal Himalayas and the part lying between Tista and Dihang rivers is known as Assam Himalayas. There are regional names also in these broad categories. The Brahmaputra marks the eastern most boundary of the Himalayas. Beyond the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply to the south and spread along the eastern boundary of India. They are known as the Purvachalor the Eastern hills and mountains. These hills running through the north-eastern states are mostly composed of strong sandstones which are sedimentary rocks. Covered with dense forests, they mostly run as parallel ranges and valleys. The Purvachal comprises the Patkai hills, the Naga hills, Manipur hills and the Mizo hills.

The Northern Plain The northern plain has been formed by the interplay of the three major river systems, namely– the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra along with their tributaries. This plain is formed of alluvial soil. The deposition of alluvium in a vast basin lying at the foothills of the Himalaya over millions of years, formed this fertile plain. It spreads over an area of 7 lakh sq. km. The plain being about 2400 Km long and 240 to 320 Km broad, is a densely populated physiographic division, it is agriculturally a very productive part of India. The rivers coming from northern mountains are involved in depositional work.The Northern Plain is broadly divided into three sections. The Western part of the Northern Plain is referred to as the Punjab Plains. Formed by the Indus and its tributaries, the larger part of this plain lies in Pakistan..This section of the plain is dominated by the doabs.

The Ganga plain extends between Ghaggar and Teesta rivers. It is spread over the states of North India, Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, partly Jharkhand and West Bengal to its East, particularly in Assam lies the Brahmaputra plain. The northern plains are generally described as flat land with no variations in its relief. It is not true. These vast plains also have diverse relief features. According to the variations in relief features, the Northern plains can be divided into four regions. The rivers, after descending from the mountains deposit pebbles in a narrow belt of about 8 to 16 km in width lying parallel to the slopes of the Shiwaliks. It is known as bhabar. All the streams disappear in this bhabar belt. South of this belt, the streams and rivers re-emerge and create a wet, swampy and marshy region known as terai. This was a thickly forested region full of wildlife. The forests have been cleared to create agricultural land The largest part of the northern plain is formed of older alluvium. They lie above the flood plains of the rivers and present a terrace like feature. This part is known as bhangar.The soil in this region contains calcareous deposits locally known as kankar. The newer, younger deposits of the flood plains are called khadar. They are renewed almost every year and so are fertile, thus, ideal for intensive agriculture.

The Peninsular Plateau The Peninsular plateau is a tableland composed of the old crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks. It was formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land and thus, making it a part of the oldest landmass. This plateau consists of two broad divisions, namely- A) The Central Highlands B) The Deccan Plateau. The part of the Peninsular plateau lying to the north of the Narmada river covering a major area of the Malwa plateau is known as the Central Highlands. The Vindhyan range is bounded by the Central Highlands on the south and the Aravalis on the northwest. The



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further westward extension gradually merges with the sandy and rocky desert of Rajasthan. The flow of the rivers draining this region, namely the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and Ken is from southwest to northeast, thus indicating the slope. The Central Highlands are wider in the west but narrower in the east. The eastward extensions of this plateau are locally known as the Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand.The Chotanagpur plateau marks the further eastward extension, drained by the Damodar river. The Peninsular plateau is a tableland composed of the old crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks. It was formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land and thus, making it a part of the oldest landmass. The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass that lies to the south of the river Narmada. The Satpura range flanks its broad base in the north while the Mahadev, the Kaimur hills and the Maikal range form its eastern extensions.. The Deccan Plateau is higher in the west and slopes gently eastwards. An extension of the Plateau is also visible in the northeast– locally known as the Meghalaya, Karbi-Anglong Plateau and North Cachar Hills. Three Prominent hill ranges from the west to east are the Garo, the Khasi and the Jaintia Hills. The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats mark the western and the eastern edges of the Deccan Plateau respectively. Western Ghats lie parallel to the western coast. They are continuous and can be crossed through passes only. The Thal, Bhor and the Pal Ghats lie here.The Western Ghats are higher than the Eastern Ghats. Their average elevation is 900– 1600 metres as against 600 metres of the Eastern Ghats. The Eastern Ghats stretch from the Mahanadi Valley to the Nigiris in the south. The Eastern Ghats are discontinuous and irregular and dissected by rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal. The Western Ghats cause orographic rain by facing the rain bearing moist winds to rise along the western slopes of the Ghats. The Western Ghats are known by different local names. The height of the Western Ghats progressively increases from north to south. The highest peaks include the Anai Mudi (2,695metres) and the Doda Betta (2,637 metres). Mahendragiri (1,501 metres) is the highest peak in the Eastern Ghats. Shevroy Hills and the Javadi Hills are located to the southeast of the Eastern Ghats. One of the distinct features of the peninsular plateau is the black soil area known as Deccan Trap. This is of volcanic origin hence the rocks are igneous. Actually these rocks have denuded over time and are responsible for the formation of black soil. The Aravalli Hills lie on the western and

northwestern margins of the peninsular plateau. These are highly eroded hills and are found as broken hills. They extend from Gujarat to Delhi in a southwest-northeast direction. The Indian Desert The Indian desest lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills.. This region receives very low rainfall below 150 mm per year. It has arid climate with low vegetation cover. Streams appear during the rainy season. Soon after they disappear into the sand as they do not have enough water to reach the sea. Luni is the only large river in this region. Barchans (crescent shaped dunes) cover larger areas but longitudinal dunes become more prominent near the Indo-Pakistan boundary. The Coastal Plains

The Peninsular plateau is flanked by stretch of narrow coastal strips, running along the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east. The western coast, sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, is a narrow plain. It consists of three sections. The northernpart of the coast is called the Konkan(Mumbai – Goa), the central stretch is called the Kannad Plain while the southern stretch is referred to as the Malabar coast The plains along the Bay of Bengal are wide and level. In the northern part, it is referred to as the Northern Circar, while the southernpart is known as the Coromandel Coast. Large rivers such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri have formed extensive delta on this coast. Lake Chilika is an important feature along the eastern coast. The Islands



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India has also two groups of islands. The Lakshadweep Islands group lying close to the Malabar coast of Kerala. This group of islands is composed of small coral islands. Earlier they were known as Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindive. In 1973 these were named as Lakshadweep. It covers small area of 32 sq km. Kavaratti island is the administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep. This island group has great diversity of flora and fauna. The Pitti island, which is uninhabited, has a bird sanctuary. Andaman And Nicobar Islands. The elongated chain of islands located in the Bay of Bengal extending from north to south. These are Andaman and Nicobar islands. They are bigger in size and are more numerous and scattered. The entire group of islands is divided into two broad categories – The Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in the south. It is believed that these islands are an elevated portion of submarine mountains. These island groups are of great India’s only active volcano is found on Barren island in Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands.

NCERT CLASS 9

th Chapter 3 DRAINAGE

The term drainage describes the river system of an areaThe area drained by a single river system is called a drainage basin. A closer observation on a map will indicate that any elevated area, such as a mountain or an upland, separates two drainage basins. Such an upland is known as a water divide

DRAINAGE SYSTEMS IN INDIA

The drainage systems of India are mainly controlled by the broad relief features of the subcontinent. Accordingly, the Indian rivers are divided into two major groups: • the Himalayan rivers; and • the Peninsular rivers. Apart from originating from the two major physiographic regions of India, the Himalayan and the



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Peninsular rivers are different from each other in many ways. Most of the Himalayan rivers are perennial. It means that they have water throughout the year. These rivers receive water from rain as well as from melted snow from the lofty mountains. The two major Himalayan rivers, the Indus and the Brahmaputra originate from the north of the mountain ranges. They have cut through the mountains making gorges. The Himalayan rivers have long courses from their source to the sea. They perform intensive erosional activity in their upper courses and carry huge loadsof silt and sand. In the middle and the lower courses, these rivers form meanders,oxbow lakes, and many other depositional features in their floodplains. They also have well-developed deltas

A large number of the Peninsular rivers are seasonal, as their flow is dependent on rainfall. During the dry season, even the large rivers have reduced flow of water in their channels. The Peninsular rivers have shorter and shallower courses as compared to their Himalayan counterparts Most of the rivers of peninsular India originate in the Western Ghats and flow towards the Bay of Bengal.

The Himalayan Rivers The major Himalayan rivers are the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. These rivers are long, and are joined by many large and important tributaries. A river along with its tributaries may be called a river system. The Indus River System The river Indus rises in Tibet, near Lake Mansarowar . Flowing west, it enters India in the Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir . It forms a picturesque gorge in this part. Several tributaries, the Zaskar ,the Nubra,the Shyok and the Hunza, join it in the Kashmir region. The Indus flows through Baltistan and Gilgit and emerges from the mountains at Attock. The Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum join together to enter the Indus near Mithankot in Pakistan. Beyond this, the Indus flows southwards eventually reaching the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi. The Indus plain has a very gentle slope. With a total length of 2900 km, the Indus is one of the longest rivers of the world.



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A little over a third of the Indus basin is located in India in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the Punjab and the rest is in Pakistan. • According to the regulations of the Indus W ater Treaty (1960), India can use only 20 per cent of the total water carried by Indus river system. This water is used for irrigation in the Punjab, Haryana and the southern and western parts of Rajasthan. The Ganga River System The headwaters of the Ganga, called the ‘Bhagirathi’ is fed by the Gangotri Glacier and joined by the Alaknanda at Devaprayag in Uttarakhand. At Haridwar the Ganga emerges from the mountains on to the plains. The main tributaries, which come from the peninsular uplands, are the Chambal, the Betwa and the Son The Ganga is joined by many tributaries from the Himalayas, a few of them being major rivers such as the Yamuna, the Ghaghara, the Gandak and the Kosi. The river Yamuna rises from the Yamunotri Glacier in the Himalayas. It flows parallel to the Ganga and as a right bank tributary, meets the Ganga at Allahabad. The Ghaghara, the Gandak and the Kosi rise in the Nepal Himalaya. They are the rivers, which flood parts of the northern plains every year , causing widespread damage to life and property but enriching the soil for the extensive agricultural lands. The main tributaries, which come from the peninsular uplands, are the Chambal, the Betwa and the Son. These rise from semi arid areas, have shorter courses and do not carry much water in themEnlarged with the waters from its right and left bank tributaries, the Ganga flows eastwards till Farakka in W est Bengal. This is the northernmost point of the Ganga delta. The river bifurcates here; the Bhagirathi-Hooghly (a distributary) flows southwards through the deltaic plains to the Bay of Bengal. The mainstream, flows southwards into Bangladesh and is joined by the Brahmaputra. Further down stream, it is known as the Meghna. This mighty river, with waters from the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra, flows into the Bay of Bengal. The delta formed by these rivers is known as the Sunderban delta

The length of the Ganga is over 2500 km. Ambala is located on the water divide between the Indus and the Ganga river systems. The plains from

Ambala to the Sunderban stretch over nearly 1800 km, but the fall in its slope is hardly 300 metres. In other words, there is a fall of just one metre for every 6 km. Therefore, the river develops large meanders. The Brahmaputra River System

The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet east of Mansarowar lake very close to the sources of the Indus and the Satluj.It is slightly longer than the Indus, and most of its course lies outside India. It flows eastwards parallel to the Himalayas. On reaching the Namcha Barwa (7757 m), it takes a ‘U’ turn and enters India in Arunachal Pradesh through a gorge. Here, it is called the Dihang and it is joined by the Dibang, the Lohit, and many other tributaries to form the Brahmaputra in Assam In Tibet the river carries a smaller volume of water and less silt as it is a cold and a dry area. In India it passes through a region of high rainfall. Here the river carries a large volume of water and considerable amount of silt. The Brahmaputra has a braided channel in its entire length in Assam and forms many riverine islands. Every year during the rainy season, the river overflows its banks, causing widespread devastation due to floods in Assam and Bangladesh. Unlike other north Indian rivers the Brahmaputra is marked by huge deposits of silt on its bed causing the river bed to rise. The river also shifts its channel frequently. The Peninsular Rivers The main water divide in Peninsular India is formed by the Western Ghats, which runs from north to south close to the western coast. Most of the major rivers of the Peninsula such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri flow eastwards and drain into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers make deltas at their mouths. There are numerous small streams flowing west of the W estern Ghats. The Narmada and the Tapi are the only long rivers, which flow west and make esturies.The drainage basins of the peninsular rivers are comparatively small in size. The Narmada Basin The Narmada rises in the Amarkantak hills in Madhya Pradesh. It flows towards the west in a rift valley formed due to faulting. On its way to the sea, the Narmada creates many picturesque locations. The ‘Marble rocks’, near Jabalpur where the Narmada flows through a deep gorge, and the ‘Dhuadhar falls’ where the river plunges



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over steep rocks, are some of the notable ones. All the tributaries of the Narmada are very short and most of these join the main stream at right angles. The Narmada basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The Tapi Basin The Tapi rises in the Satpura ranges, in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. It also flows in a rift valley parallel to the Narmada but it is much shorter in length. Its basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra. The coastal plains between W estern Ghats and the Arabian sea are very narrow. Hence, the coastal rivers are short. The main west flowing rivers are Sabarmati, Mahi, Bharathpuzha and Periyar . The Godavari Basin The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river. It rises from the slopes of the Western Ghats in the Nasik district of Maharashtra. Its length is about 1500 km. It drains into the Bay of Bengal. Its drainage basin is also the largest among the peninsular rivers. The basin covers parts of Maharashtra (about 50 per cent of the basin area lies in Maharashtra), Madhya Pradesh, Odishaand Andhra Pradesh. The Godavari is joined by a number of tributaries such as the Purna, the Wardha, the Pranhita, the Manjra, the W ainganga and the Penganga. The last three tributaries are very large. Because of its length and the area it covers, it is also known as the ‘Dakshin Ganga’. The Mahanadi Basin The Mahanadi rises in the highlands of Chhattisgarh. It flows through Odisha to reach the Bay of Bengal. The length of the river is about 860 km. Its drainage basin is shared by Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha. The Krishna Basin Rising from a spring near Mahabaleshwar , the Krishna flows for about 1400 km and reaches the Bay of Bengal. The Tungabhadra, the Koyana, the Ghatprabha, the Musi and the Bhima are some of its tributaries. The Tungabhadra, the Koyana, the Ghatprabha, the Musi and the Bhima are some of its tributaries. Its drainage basin is shared by Maharasthra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The Kaveri Basin

The Kaveri rises in the Brahmagri range of the Western Ghats and it reaches the Bay of Bengal in south of Cuddalore, in Tamil Nadu. Total length of the river is about 760 km. Its main tributaries are Amravati, Bhavani, Hemavati and Kabini. Its basin drains parts of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu Beside these major rivers, there are some smaller rivers flowing towards the east. The Damoder, the Brahmani, the Baitarni and the Subarnrekha are some notable examples. LAKES India has many lakes. These differ from each other in the size, and other characteristics. Most lakes are permanent; some contain water only during the rainy season, like the lakes in the basins of inland drainage of semi-arid regions. There are some of the lakes which are the result of the action of glaciers and ice sheets, while the others have been formed by wind, river action, and human activities. A meandering river across a flood plain forms cut-offs that later develop into ox-bow lakes. Spits and bars form lagoons in the coastal areas, eg the Chilika lake, the Pulicat lake, the Kolleru lake. Lakes in the region of inland drainage are sometimes seasonal; for example, the Sambhar lake in Rajasthan, which is a salt water lake. Its water is used for producing salt. Most of the fresh water lakes are in the Himalayan region. They are of glacial origin. In other words, they formed when glaciers dug out a basin, which was later filled with snowmelt. The Wular lake in Jammu and Kashmir is the result of the tectonic activity. It is the largest freshwater lake in India. The Dal lake, Bhimtal, Nainital, Loktak and Barapani are some other important fresh water lakes. Lakes are of great value to human beings. A lake helps to regulate the flow of a river . During heavy rainfall, it prevents flooding and during the dry season, it helps to maintain an even flow of water. Lakes can also be used for developing hydel power . They moderate the climate of the surroundings; maintain the aquatic ecosystem, enhance natural beauty, help develop tourism and provide recreation



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NCERT CLASS 9th Chapter 4 CLIMATE Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period of time (more than thirty years). Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time. The elements of weather and climate are the same, i.e. temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation. On the basis of the generalized monthly atmospheric conditions, the year is divided into seasons such as winter, summer or rainy seasons. The world is divided into a number of climatic regions. The climate of India is described as the ‘monsoon’ type. In Asia, this type of climate is found mainly in the south and the southeast. Despite an overall unity in the general pattern, there are perceptible regional variations in climatic conditions within the country. There are two important elements – temperature and precipitation . In general, coastal areas experience less contrasts in temperature conditions. Seasonal contrasts are more in the interior of the country. There is decrease in rainfall generally from east to west in the Northern Plains. These variations have given rise to variety in lives of people – in terms of the food they eat, the clothes they wear and also the kind of houses they live in. CLIMATIC CONTROLS There are six major controls of the climate of any place. They are:

latitude, altitude, pressure and wind system, distance from the sea (continentality), ocean currents and relief features.

Due to the curvature of the earth, the amount of solar energy received varies according to latitude. As a result, air temperature generally decreases from the equator towards the poles. As one goes from the surface of the earth to higher altitudes, the atmosphere becomes less dense and temperature decreases. The hills are therefore cooler during summers. The pressure and wind system of any area depend on the latitude and altitude of the place. Thus it influences the temperature and rainfall pattern. The sea exerts a moderating influence on climate: As the distance from the sea increases, its moderating influence decreases and the people experience extreme weather conditions. This condition is known as continentality (i.e. very hot during summers and very cold during winters).



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Ocean currents along with onshore winds affect the climate of the coastal areas, For example, any coastal area with warm or cold currents flowing past it, will be warmed or cooled if the winds are onshore. Finally, relief too plays a major role in determining the climate of a place. High mountains act as barriers for cold or hot winds; they may also cause precipitation if they are high enough and lie in the path of rain-bearing winds. The leeward side of mountains remains relatively dry. FACTORS AFFECTING INDIA’S CLIMATE Latitude The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country from the Rann of Kuchchh in the west to Mizoram in the east. Almost half of the country, lying south of the Tropic of Cancer, belongs to the tropical area. All the remaining area, north of the Tropic, lies in the sub-tropics. Therefore, India’s climate has characteristics of tropical as well as subtropical climates. Altitude India has mountains to the north, which have an average height of about 6,000 metres. India also has a vast coastal area where the maximum elevation is about 30 metres. The Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from entering the subcontinent. It is because of these mountains that this subcontinent experiences comparative milder winters as compared to central Asia. Pressure and Winds The climate and associated weather conditions in India are governed by the following atmospheric conditions

Pressure and surface winds; Upper air circulation; and Western cyclonic disturbances and Tropical cyclones.

India lies in the region of north easterly winds. These winds originate from the subtropical high-pressure belt of the northern hemisphere. They blow south, get deflected to the right due to the Coriolis force, and move on towards the equatorial low-pressure area. Generally, these winds carry very little moisture as they originate and blow over land. Therefore, they bring little

or no rain. Hence, India should have been an arid land, but, it is not so. Let us see why? The pressure and wind conditions over India are unique. During winter, there is a high-pressure area north of the Himalayas. Cold dry winds blow from this region to the low-pressure areas over the oceans to the south. In summer, a low-pressure area develops over interior Asia as well as over northwestern India. This causes a complete reversal of the direction of winds during summer. Air moves from the high-pressure area over the southern Indian Ocean, in a south-easterly direction, crosses the equator, and turns right towards the low-pressure areas over the Indian subcontinent. These are known as the Southwest Monsoon winds. These winds blow over the warm oceans, gather moisture and bring widespread rainfall over the mainland of India. The upper air circulation in this region is dominated by a westerly flow. An important component of this flow is the jet stream. These jet streams are located approximately over 27°-30° north latitude, therefore, they are known as subtropical westerly jet streams.

Over India, these jet streams blow south of the Himalayas, all through the year except in summer. The western cyclonic disturbances experienced in the north and north-western parts of the country are brought in by this westerly flow. In summer, the subtropical westerly jet stream moves north of the Himalayas with the apparent movement of the sun. An easterly jet stream, called the sub-tropical easterly jetstream blows over peninsular India, approximately over 14°N during the summer month.



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THE INDIAN MONSOON The climate of India is strongly influenced by monsoon winds. The sailors who came to India in historic times were one of the first to have noticed the phenomenon of the monsoon. They benefited from the reversal of the wind system as they came by sailing ships at the mercy of winds.

The monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly between 20° N and 20° S. To understand the mechanism of the monsoons, the following facts are important. (a) The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates low pressure on the landmass of India while the seas around experience comparatively high pressure. (b) The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)in summer, over the Ganga plain (this is the equatorial trough normally positioned

about 5°N of the equator. It is also known as the monsoon trough during the monsoon season).

(c) The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar,approximately at 20°S over the Indian Ocean. The intensity and position of this high-pressure area affects the Indian Monsoon. (d) The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong vertical air currents and the formation of low pressure over the plateau at about 9 km above sea level. (e) The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the presence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsuladuring summer. Apart from this, it has also been noticed that changes in the pressure conditions over the southern oceans also affect the monsoons. Normally when the tropical eastern south Pacific Ocean experiences high pressure, the tropical eastern Indian Ocean experiences low pressure. But in certain years, there is a reversal in the pressure conditions and the eastern Pacific has lower pressure in comparison to the eastern Indian Ocean. This periodic change in pressure conditions is known as the Southern Oscillation or SO. The difference in pressure over Tahiti (Pacific Ocean, 18°S/149°W) and Darwin in northern Australia (Indian Ocean, 12°30’S/131°E) is computed to predict the intensity of the monsoons. If the pressure differences were negative, it would mean below average and late monsoons. A feature connected with the SO is the El Nino phenomenon in which a warm ocean current that flows past the Peruvian Coast, in place of the cold Peruvian current, every 2 to 5 years. The changes in pressure conditions are connected to the El Nino. Hence, the phenomenon is referred to as ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillations)



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THE ONSET OF THE MONSOON AND WITHDRAWAL The Monsoon, unlike the trades, are not steady winds but are pulsatingin nature, affected by different atmospheric conditions encountered by it, on its way over the warm tropical seas. The duration of the monsoon is between 100-120 days from early June to mid-September. Around the time of its arrival, the normal rainfall increases suddenly and continues constantly for several days. This is known as the ‘burst’of the monsoon, and can be distinguished from the pre-monsoon showers. The monsoon arrives at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula generally by the first week of June. Subsequently, it proceeds into two – the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch. The Arabian Sea branch reaches Mumbai about ten days later on approximately the 10th of June. This is a fairly rapid advance. The Bay of Bengal branch also advances rapidly and arrives in Assam in the first week of June. The lofty mountains causes the monsoon winds to deflect towards the west over the Ganga plains. By mid-June the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon arrives over Saurashtra-Kuchchh and the central part of the country. The Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal branches of the monsoon merge over the northwestern part of the Ganga plains. Delhi generally receives the monsoon showers from the Bay of Bengal branch by the end of June (tentative date is 29th of June). By the first week of July, western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and eastern Rajasthan experience the monsoon. By mid-July, the monsoon reaches Himachal Pradesh and the rest of the country

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Withdrawal or the retreat of the monsoon is a more gradual process.

The withdrawal of the monsoon begins in northwestern states of India by early September. By mid-October, it withdraws completely from the northern half of the peninsula. The withdrawal from the southern half of the peninsula is fairly rapid. By early December, the monsoon has withdrawn from the rest of the country. The islands receive the very first monsoon showers, progressively from south to north, from the last week of April to the first week of May. The withdrawal, takes place progressively from north to south from the first week of December to the first week of January. By this time the rest of the country is already under the influence of the winter monsoon. THE SEASONS The monsoon type of climate is characterised by a distinct seasonal pattern. The coastal areas do not experience much variation in temperature though there is variation in rainfall pattern. Four main seasons can be identified in India – the cold weather season, the hot weather season, the advancing monsoon and the retreating monsoon with some regional variations.

The Cold Weather Season (Winter) The cold weather season begins from mid November in northern India and stays till February. December and January are the coldest months in the northern part of India. The temperature decreases from south to the north. The average temperature of Chennai, on the eastern coast, is between 24° - 25° Celsius, while in the northern plains, it ranges between 10° -15° Celsius. Days are warm and nights are cold. Frost is common in the north and the higher slopes of the Himalayas experience snowfall. During this season, the northeast trade winds prevail over the country. They blow from land to sea and hence, for most part of the country, it is a dry season. Some amount of rainfall occurs on the Tamil Nadu coast from these winds as, here they blow from sea to land. In the northern part of the country, a feeble high-pressure region develops, with light winds moving outwards from this area. Influenced by the relief, these winds blow through the Ganga valley from the west and the northwest. The weather is normally marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low humidity and feeble, variable winds. A characteristic feature of the cold weather season over the northern plains is the inflow of cyclonic disturbances from the west and the northwest. These low-pressure systems, originate over the Mediterranean Sea and western Asia and move into India, along with the westerly flow. They cause the much-needed winter rains over the plains and snowfall in the mountains. Although the total amount of winter rainfall locally known as ‘mahawat’is small, they are of immense importance for the cultivation of ‘rabi’crops. The peninsular region does not have a well defined cold season. There is hardly any noticeable seasonal change in temperature pattern during winters due to the moderating influence of the sea. The Hot Weather Season (Summer) Due to the apparent northward movement of the sun, the global heat belt shifts northward. As such, from March to May, it is hot weather season in India. The influence of the shifting of the heat belt can be seen clearly from temperature recordings taken during March-May at different latitudes. In March, the highest temperature is about 38° Celsius, recorded on the Deccan plateau. In April, temperatures in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh are around 42° Celsius. In May, temperature of 45° Celsius is common in the northwestern parts of the country. In peninsular India, temperatures remain lower due to the moderating influence of the oceans. The summer months experience rising temperature and falling air pressure in the northern part of the country. Towards the end of May, an elongated low-pressure area develops in the region extending from the Thar Desert in the northwest to Patna and Chotanagpur plateau in the east and



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southeast. Circulation of air begins to set in around this trough. A striking feature of the hot weather season is the ‘loo’. These are strong, gusty, hot, dry winds blowing during the day over the north and northwestern India.. Dust storms are very common during the month of May in northern India. These storms bring temporary relief as they lower the temperature and may bring light rain and cool breeze. This is also the season for localised thunderstorms, associated with violent winds, torrential downpours, often accompanied by hail. In West Bengal, these storms are known as the ‘Kaal Baisakhi’. Towards the close of the summer season, pre-monsoon showers are common especially, in Kerala and Karnataka. They help in the early ripening of mangoes, and are often referred to as ‘mango showers’. Advancing Monsoon (The Rainy Season) By early June, the low-pressure condition over the northern plains intensifies. It attracts, the trade winds of the southern hemisphere. These south-east trade winds originate over the warm subtropical areas of the southern oceans. They cross the equator and blow in a south in India. As these winds blow over warm oceans, they bring abundant moisture to the subcontinent. These winds are strong and blow at an average velocity of 30 km per hour. With the exception of the extreme north-west, the monsoon winds cover the country in about a month. The inflow of the south-west monsoon into India brings about a total change in the weather. Early in the season, the windward side of the Western Ghats receives very heavy rainfall, more than 250 cm. The Deccan Plateau and parts of Madhya Pradesh also receive some amount of rain in spite of lying in the rain shadow area. The maximum rainfall of this season is received in the north-eastern part of the country. Mawsynram in the southern ranges of the Khasi Hills receives the highest average rainfall in the world. Rainfall in the Ganga valley decreases from the east to the west. Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat get scanty rainfall. Another phenomenon associated with the monsoon is its tendency to have ‘breaks’ in rainfall. Thus, it has wet and dry spells. In other words, the monsoon rains take place only for a few days at a time. They are interspersed with rainless intervals. These breaks in monsoon are related to the movement of the monsoon trough. For various reasons, the trough and its axis keep on moving northward or southward, which determines the spatial distribution of rainfall. When the axis of the monsoon trough lies over the plains, rainfall is good in these parts. On the other hand, whenever the axis shifts closer to the Himalayas, there are longer dry spells in the plains, and widespread rain occur in

the mountainous catchment areas of the Himalayan rivers. These heavy rains bring in their wake, devastating floods causing damage to life and property in the plains. The frequency and intensity of tropical depressions too, determine the amount and duration of monsoon rains. These depressions form at the head of the Bay of Bengal and cross over to the mainland. The depressions follow the axis of the “monsoon trough of low pressure”. The monsoon is known for its uncertainties. Retreating/Post Monsoons (The Transition Season) During October-November, with the apparent movement of the sun towards the south, the monsoon trough or the low-pressure trough over the northern plains becomes weaker. This is gradually replaced by a high-pressure system. The south-west monsoon winds weaken and start withdrawing gradually. By the beginning of October, the monsoon withdraws from the Northern Plains. The months of October-November form a period of transition from hot rainy season to dry winter conditions. The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature. While day temperatures are high, nights are cool and pleasant. The land is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes rather oppressive during the day. This is commonly known as ‘October heat’. In the second half of October, the mercury begins to fall rapidly in northern India. The low-pressure conditions, over northwestern India, get transferred to the Bay of Bengal by early November. This shift is associated with the occurrence of cyclonic depressions, which originate over the Andaman Sea. These cyclones generally cross the eastern coasts of India cause heavy and widespread rain. These tropical cyclones are often very destructive. The thickly populated deltas of the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri are frequently struck by cyclones, which cause great damage to life and property. Sometimes, these cyclones arrive at the coasts of Orissa, West Bengal and Bangladesh. The bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is derived from depressions and cyclones. DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL Parts of western coast and northeastern India receive over about 400 cm of rainfall annually. However, it is less than 60 cm in western Rajasthan and adjoining parts of Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab. Rainfall is equally low in the interior of the Deccan plateau, and east of the Sahyadris A third area of low precipitation is around Leh in Jammu and Kashmir. The rest of the country receives moderate rainfall. Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan region. Owing to the nature of monsoons, the annual rainfall is highly variable from year to year. Variability is high in the regions of low rainfall such as parts of Rajasthan,



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Gujarat and the leeward side of the Western Ghats. As such, while areas of high rainfall are liable to be affected by floods, areas of low rainfall are drought-prone NCERT CLASS 9 Chapter 5 NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE Our country India is one of the twelve mega bio-diversity countries of the world. With about 47,000 plant species India occupies tenth place in the world and fourth in Asia in plant diversity. There are about 15,000 flowering plants in India which account for 6 per cent in the world’s total number of flowering plants. The country has many non-flowering plants such as ferns, algae and fungi. India also has approximately 90,000 species of animals as well as a rich variety of fish in its fresh and marine waters. Natural vegetation refers to a plant community which has grown naturally without human aid and has been left undisturbed by humans for a long time. This is termed as a virgin vegetation. Thus, cultivated crops and fruits, orchards form part of vegetation but not natural vegetation.

The term florais used to denote plants of a particular region or period. Similarly, the species of animals are referred to as fauna. This huge diversity in flora and fauna kingdom is due to the following factors

Land Land affects the natural vegetation directly and indirectly.The nature of land influences the type of vegetation. The fertile level is generally devoted to agriculture. The undulating and rough terrains are areas where grassland and woodlands develop and give shelter to a variety of wild life.

Soil The soils also vary over space. Different types of soils provide basis for different types of vegetation. The sandy soils of the desert support cactus and thorny bushes while wet, marshy, deltaic soils support mangroves and deltaic vegetation. The hill slopes with some depth of soil have conical trees. CLIMATE(Temperature) The character and extent of vegetation are mainly determined by temperature along with humidity in the air, precipitation and soil. On the slopes of the Himalayas and the hills of the Peninsula above the height of 915 metres, the fall in the temperature affects the types of vegetation and its growth, and changes it from tropical to subtropical temperate and alpine vegetation. Photoperiod (Sunlight ) The variation in duration of sunlight at different places is due to differences in latitude, altitude, season and duration of the day. Due to longer duration of sunlight, trees grow faster in summer.

Precipitation In India almost the entire rainfall is brought in by the advancing southwest monsoon (June to September) and retreating northeast monsoons. Areas of heavy rainfall have more dense vegetation as compared to other areas of less rainfall. Forests are renewable resources and play a major role in enhancing the quality of environment. They modify local climate, control soil erosion, regulate stream flow, support a variety of industries, provide livelihood for many communities and offer panoramic or scenic view for recreation. It controls



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wind force and temperature and causes rainfall. It provides humus to the soil and shelter to the wild life. India’s natural vegetation has undergone many changes due to several factors such as the growing demand for cultivated land, development of industries and mining, urbanisation and over-grazing of pastures. The vegetation cover of India in large parts is no more natural in the real sense. Except in some inaccessible regions like the Himalayas, the hilly region of central India and the marusthali, the vegetation of most of the areas has been modified at some places, or replaced or degraded by human occupancy. ECOSYSTEM Plants occur in distinct groups of communities in areas having similar climatic conditions. When the vegetation is altered, the animal life also changes. All the plants and animals in an area are interdependent and interrelated to each other in their physical environment, thus, forming an ecosystem. Human beings are also an integral part of the ecosystem. Human beings utilise the vegetation and wild life. The greed of human beings leads to over utilisation of these resources. They cut the trees and kill the animals creating ecological imbalance. As a result some of the plants and animals have reached the verge of extinction The biomes are identified on the basis of plants. TYPES OF VEGETATION The following major types of vegetation may be identified in our country. (i) Tropical Evergreen Forests (ii) Tropical Deciduous Forests (iii) Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs (iv) Montane Forests (v) Mangrove Forests Tropical Evergreen Forests

These forests are restricted to heavy rainfall areas of the W estern Ghats and the island groups of Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar , upper parts of Assam and Tamil Nadu coast. They are at their best in areas having more than 200 cm of rainfall with a short dry season. The trees reach great heights up to 60 metres or even above. Since the region is warm and wet throughout the year, it has a luxuriant vegetation of all kinds – trees, shrubs, and creepers giving it a multilayered structure. There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves. As such,these forests appear green all the year round. Some of the commercially important trees of this forest are ebony, mahogany, rosewood, rubber and cinchona.

The common animals found in these forests are elephants, monkey, lemur and deer .The one horned rhinoceros are found in the jungles of Assam and West Bengal. Besides these animals plenty of birds, bats, sloth, scorpions and snails are also found in these jungles. Tropical Deciduous Forests These are the most widespread forests of India. They are also called the monsoon forests and spread over the region receiving rainfall between 200 cm and 70 cm. Trees of this forest-type shed their leaves for about



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six to eight weeks in dry summer . On the basis of the availability of water, these forests are further divided into moist and dry deciduous. The moist deciduous is found in areas receiving rainfall between 200 and 100 cm. These forests exist, therefore, mostly in the eastern part of the country – northeastern states, along the foothills of the Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Orissa and Chhattisgarh, and on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats. Teak is the most dominant species of this forest. Bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair , kusum, arjun, mulberry are other commercially important species. The dry deciduous forests are found in areas having rainfall between 100 cm and 70cm. These forests are found in the rainier parts of the peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. There are open stretches in which Teak, Sal, Peepal, Neem grow. A large part of this region has been cleared for cultivation and some parts are used for grazing. In these forests, the common animals found are lion, tiger , pig, deer and elephant. A huge variety of birds, lizards, snakes, and tortoises are also found here. The Thorn Forests and Scrubs In regions with less than 70 cm of rainfall, the natural vegetation consists of thorny trees and bushes. This type of vegetation is found in the north-western part of the country including semi-arid areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti are the main plant species. Trees are scattered and have long roots penetrating deep into the soil in order to get moisture. The stems are succulent to conserve water. Leaves are mostly thick and small to minimize evaporation. These forests give way to thorn forests and scrubs in arid areas In these forests, the common animals are rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger , lion, wild ass, horses and camels. Montane Forests In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to the corresponding change in natural vegetation. As such, there is a succession of natural vegetation belts in the same order as we see from the tropical to the tundra region. The wet temperate type of forests are found between a height of 1000 and 2000 metres. Evergreen broad-leaf trees such as oaks and chestnuts predominate. Between 1500 and 3000 metres, temperate forests containing coniferous trees like pine, deodar , silver fir , spruce and cedar, are found. These forests cover

mostly the southern slopes of the Himalayas, places having high altitude in southern and north-east India At higher elevations, temperate grasslands are common. At high altitudes, generally more than 3,600 metres above sea-level, temperate forests and grasslands give way to the Alpine vegetation. Silver fir, junipers, pines and birches are the common trees of these forests. However , they get progressively stunted as they approach the snow-line. Ultimately through shrubs and scrubs, they merge into the Alpine grasslands. These are used extensively for grazing by nomadic tribes like the Gujjars and the Bakarwals. At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of tundra vegetation. The common animals found in these forests are Kashmir stag, spotted dear , wild sheep, jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard, squirrels, Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair . Mangrove Forests The mangrove tidal forests are found in the areas of coasts influenced by tides. Mud and silt get accumutated on such coasts. Dense mangroves are the common varieties with roots of the plants submerged under water. The deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishana, the Godavari and the Kaveri are covered by such vegetation. In the Ganga Brahamaputra delta, sundari trees are found, which provide durable hard timber. Palm, coconut, keora, agar, also grow in some parts of the delta. Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous animal in these forests. Turtles, crocodiles, gharials and snakes are also found in these forests. It also has several species of monkeys.

India is the only country in the world that has both tigers and lions. The natural habitat of the Indian lion is the Gir for est in Gujarat. Tigers are found in the forests of Madhya Pradesh, the Sundarbans of W est Bengal and the Himalayan region. Leopards too are



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members of the cat family. They are important among animals of prey. WILDLIFE Like its flora, India is also rich in its fauna. It has approximately 90,000 of animal species. The country has about 2,000 species of birds. They constitute 13% of the world’s total. There are 2,546 species of fish, which account for nearly 12% of the world’s stock. It also shares between 5 and 8 per cent of the world’s amphibians, reptiles and mammals. The elephants are the most majestic animals among the mammals. They are found in the hot wet forests of Assam, Karnataka and Kerala. One-horned rhinoceroses are the other animals, which live in swampy and marshy lands of Assam and W est Bengal. Arid areas of the Rann of Kachchh and the Thar Desert are the habitat for wild ass and camels respectively. Indian bison, nilgai (blue bull), chousingha(four horned antelope), gazel and different species of deer are some other animals found in India. It also has several species of monkeys.

The Himalayas harbour a hardy range of animals, which survive in extreme cold. Ladakh’s freezing high altitudes are a home to yak, the shaggy horned wild ox weighing around one tonne, the Tibetan antelope, the bharal (blue sheep), wild sheep, and the kiang (Tibetan wild ass). Further more, the ibex, bear , snow-leopard and very rare red panda are found in certain pockets. In the rivers, lakes and coastal areas, turtles, crocodiles and gharials are found.The latter is the only representative of a variety of crocodile, found in the world today. Bird life in India is colourful. Peacocks, pheasants, ducks, parakeets, cranes and pigeons are some of the birds inhabiting the forests and wetlands of the country selected from large stock provided

We have selected our crops from a biodiverse environment i.e. from the reserve of edible plants. We also experimented and selected many medicinal plants. The animals were by nature as milch animal.

They also provided us draught power, transportation, meat, eggs. The fish provide nutritive food. Many insects help in pollination of crops and fruit trees and exert biological control on such insects, which are harmful. Every species has a role to play in the ecosystem. Hence, conservation is essential. As has been mentioned earlier due to excessive exploitation of the plants and animal resources by human beings, the ecosystem has been disturbed. About 1,300 plant species are endangered and 20 species are extinct. Quite a few animal species are also endangered and some have become extinct. The main causes for this major threat to nature are hunting by greedy hunters for commercial purposes. Pollution due to chemical and industrial waste, acid deposits, introduction of alien species and reckless cutting of the forests to bring land under cultivation and inhabitation, are also responsible for the imbalance. To protect the flora and fauna of the country, the government has taken many steps. (i) Fourteen biosphere reserves have been set up in the country to protect flora and fauna. Four out of these, the Sunderbans in the West Bengal, Nanda Devi in Uttarakhand, the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu and the Nilgiris (Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) have been included in the world network of Biosphese reserves. (ii) Financial and technical assistance is provided to many Botanical Gardens by the government since 1992 (iii) Project Tiger , Project Rhino, Project Great Indian Bustard and many other ecodevelopmental projects have been introduced. (iv) 89 National Parks, 490 Wildlife sanctuaries and Zoological gardens are set up to take care of Natural heritage. All of us must realise the importance of the natural ecosystem for our own survival. It is possible if indiscriminate destruction of natural environment is put to an immediate end.



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NCERT Class 9 Chapter 6 POPULATION The people are important to develop the economy and society. The people make and use resources and are themselves resources with varying quality. ‘Resources’, ‘calamities’ and ‘disasters’ are all meaningful only in relation to human being Their numbers, distribution, growth and characteristics or qualities provide the basic background for understanding and appreciating all aspects of the environment.

Therefore, it is important to know how many people are there in a country, where do they live, how and why their numbers are increasing and what are their characteristics. The census of India provides us with information regarding the population of our country We are primarily concerned with three major questions about the population: (i) Population size and distribution:How many people are there and where are they located? (ii) Population growth and processes of population change: How has the population grown and changed through time? (iii) Characteristics or qualities of the population:What are their age, sex composition, literacy levels, occupational structure and health conditions?

POPULATION SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION India’s Population Size and Distribution by Numbers India’s population as on March 2001 stood at 1,028 million, which account for 16.7 per cent of the world’s population. These 1.02 billion people are unevenly distributed over our country’s vast area of 3.28 million square km, which accounts for 2.4 per cent of the world’s area The 2001 Census data reveals that Uttar Pradesh with a population size of 166 million people is the most populous state of India. Uttar Pradesh accounts for about 16 per cent of the country’s population. On the other hand, the Himalayan state Sikkim has a population of just about 0.5 million

and Lakshadweep has only 60 thousand people. Almost half of India’s population lives in just five states. These are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, W est Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh. Rajasthan, the biggest state in terms of area, has only 5.5 per cent of the total population of India Population density is calculated as the number of persons per unit area. India is one of the most densely populated countries of the world. Rugged terrain and unfavourable climatic conditions are primarily responsible for sparse population .Assam and most of the Peninsular states have moderate population densities. Hilly, dissected and rocky nature of the terrain, moderate to low rainfall, shallow and less fertile soils have influenced population densities in these areas. The Northern Plains and Kerala in the south have high to very high population densities because of the flat plains with fertile soils and abundant rainfall. POPULATION GROWTH AND PROCESSES OF POPULATION CHANGE Population is a dynamic phenomenon. The numbers, distribution and composition of the population are constantly changing. This is the influence of the interaction of the three processes, namely-births, deaths and migrations Population Growth Growth of population refers to the change in the number of inhabitants of a country/territory during a specific period of time, say during the last ten years. Such a change can be expressed in two ways: in terms of absolute numbers and in terms of percentage change per year. The absolute numbers added each year or decade is the magnitude of increase. It is obtained by simply subtracting the earlier population (e.g. that of 1991) from the later population (e.g. that of 2001). It is referred to as the absolute increase. The rate or the pace of population increase is the other important aspect. It is studied in per cent per annum, e.g. a rate of increase of 2 per cent per annum means that in a given year, there was an increase of two persons for every 100 persons in the base population This is referred to as the annual growth rate. India’s population has been steadily increasing from 361 million in 1951 to 1028 million in 2001. From 1951 to 1981, the annual rate of population growth was steadily increasing; which explains the rapid increase in population from 361 million in 1951 to 683 million in 1981.



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Since 1981, however, the rate of growth started declining gradually. During this period, birth rates declined rapidly. Still 182 million people were added to the total population in the 1990s alone (an annual addition larger than ever before). It is essential to realise that India has a very large population. When a low annual rate is applied to a very large population, it yields a large absolute increase. When more than a billion people increase even at a lower rate, the total numbers being added becomes very large. The declining trend of the growth rate is indeed a positive indicator of the efforts of birth control. Despite that, the total additions to the population base continue to grow, and India may overtake China in 2045 to become the most populous country in the world. Processes of Population Change/Growth There are three main processes of change of population : A) birth rates, B) death rates and C) migration. The natural increase of population is the difference between birth rates and death rates. Birth rate is the number of live births per thousand persons in a year . It is a major component of growth because in India, birth rates have always been higher than death rates Death rate is the number of deaths per thousand persons in a year . The main cause of the rate of growth of the Indian population has been the rapid decline in death rates. Till 1980, high birth rates and declining death rates led to a large difference between birth rates and death rates resulting in higher rates of population growth. The third component of population growth is migration. Migration is the movement of people across regions and territories. Migration can be internal (within the country) or international (between the countries). Internal migration does not change the size of the population, but influences the distribution of population within the nation. Migration plays a very significant role in changing the composition and distribution of population. In India, most migrations have been from rural to urban areas because of the “push” factor in rural areas. These are adverse conditions of poverty and unemployment in the rural areas and the “pull” of the city in terms of increased employment opportunities and better living conditions. Migration is an important determinant of population change. It changes not only the population size but also the population composition of urban and rural populations in terms of age and sex composition. In India, the rural-urban migration has resulted in a steady increase in the percentage of

population in cities and towns. The urban population has increased from 17.29 per cent of the total population in 1951 to 27.78 per cent in 2001. There has been a significant increase in the number of ‘million plus cities’ from 23 to 35 in just one decade i.e. 1991 to 2001. Age Composition The age composition of a population refers to the number of people in different age groups in a country. It is one of the most basic characteristics of a population. To an important degree, a person’s age influences what he needs, buys, does and his capacity to perform. Consequently, the number and percentage of a population found within the children, working age and aged groups are notable determinants of the population’s social and economic structure. The population of a nation is generally grouped into three broad categories: A) Children (generally below 15 years) They are economically unproductive and need to be provided with food, clothing, education and medical care. B) Working Age (15-59 years) They are economically productive and biologically reproductive. They comprise the working population. C) Aged (Above 59 years) They can be economically productive though they may have retired. They may be working voluntarily but they are not available for employment through recruitment. The percentage of children and the aged affect the dependency ratio because these groups are not producers. Sex Ratio Sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males in the population. This information is an important social indicator to measure the extent of equality between males and females in a society at a given time. The sex ratio in the country has always remained unfavourable to females. Literacy Rates Literacy is a very important quality of a population.. Low levels of literacy are a serious obstacle for economic improvement. According to the Census of 2001, a person aged 7 years. and above who can read and write with understanding in any language, is treated as literate. There has been a steady improvement in the literacy levels in India.



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Occupational Structure The percentage of population that is economically active is an important index of development. The distribution of the population according to different types of occupation is referred to as the occupational structure. An enormous variety of occupations are found in any country. Occupations are generally classified as primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary activities include agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, fishing, mining and quarrying etc. Secondary activities include manufacturing industry, building and construction work etc. Tertiary activities include transport, communications, commerce, administration and other services. The proportion of people working in different activities varies in developed and developing countries. Developed nations have a high proportion of people in secondary, and tertiary activities. Developing countries tend to have a higher proportion of their workforce engaged in primary activities. In India, about 64 per cent of the population is engaged only in agriculture. The proportion of population dependent on secondary and tertiary sectors is about 13 and 20 per cent respectively. There has been an occupational shift in favour of secondary and tertiary sectors because of growing industrialisation and urbanisation in recent times Health Health is an important component of population composition, which affects the process of development. Sustained efforts of government programmes have registered significant improvements in the health conditions of the Indian population. Death rates have declined from 25 per 1000 population in 1951 to 8.1 per 1000 in 2001 and life expectancy at birth has increased from 36.7 years in 1951 to 64.6 years in 2001 The substantial improvement is the result of many factors including improvement in public health, prevention of infectious diseases and application of modern medical practices in diagnosis and treatment of ailments. Despite considerable achievements, the health situation is a matter of major concern for India. The per capita calorie consumption is much below the recommended levels and malnutrition afflicts a large percentage of our population. Safe drinking water and basic sanitation amenities are available to only one third of the rural

population. These problems need to be tackled through an appropriate population policy. Adolescent Population The most significant feature of the Indian population is the size of its adolescent population. It constitutes one-fifth of the total population of India. Adolescents are generally grouped in the age-group of 10 to 19 years. They are the most important resource for the future. Nutrition requirements of adolescents are higher than those of a normal child or adult. Poor nutrition can lead to deficiency and stunted growth. But in India, the diet available to adolescents is inadequate in all nutrients. A large number of adolescent girls suffer from anaemia. Their problems have so far not received adequate attention in the process of development. National Population Policy Recognising that the planning of families would improve individual health and welfare, the Government of India initiated the comprehensive Family Planning Programme in 1952. The Family Welfare Programme has sought to promote responsible and planned parenthood on a voluntary basis. The National Population Policy 2000 is a culmination of years of planned efforts. The NPP 2000 provides a policy framework for imparting free and compulsory school education up to 14 years of age, reducing infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births, achieving universal immunisation of children against all vaccine preventable diseases, promoting delayed marriage for girls, and making family welfare a people-centered programme.



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NCERT Class 10 Chapter 1 Resources and development Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs, provided, it is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable can be termed as ‘Resource’

Human beings themselves are essential components of resources.They transform material available in our environment into resources and use them. These resources can be classified in the following ways – (a) On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic (b) On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable and non-renewable (c) On the basis of ownership – individual, community, national and international (d) On the basis of status of development – potential, developed stock and reserves. TYPES OF RESOURCES On the Basis of Origin Biotic Resources: These are obtained from biosphere and have life such as human beings, flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock etc. Abiotic Resources: All those things which are composed of non-living things are called abiotic resources. For example, rocks and metals On the Basis of Exhaustibility Renewable Resources:The resources which can be renewed or reproduced by physical, chemical or mechanical processes are known as renewable

or replenishable resources. For example, solar and wind energy, water, forests and wildlife, etc. The renewable resource may further be divided into continuous or flow Non-Renewable Resources:These occur over a very long geological time. Minerals and fossil fuels are examples of such resources. These resources take millions of years in their formation. Some of the resources like metals are recyclable and some like fossil fuels cannot be recycled and get exhausted with their use

On the Basis of Ownership Individual Resources: These are also owned privately by individuals. Many farmers own land which is allotted to them by government against the payment of revenue. Community Owned Resources: There are resources which are accessible to all the members of the community. Village commons (grazing grounds, burial grounds, village ponds, etc.) public parks, picnic spots playgrounds in urban areas are de facto accessible to all the people living there. National Resources: Technically, all the resources belong to the nation. The country has legal powers to acquire even private property for public good. Urban Development Authorities get empowered by the government to acquire land. All the minerals, water resources, forests, wildlife, land within the political boundaries and oceanic area upto 12 nautical miles (19.2 km) from the coast termed as territorial water and resources therein belong to the nation. International Resources:



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There are international institutions which regulate some resources. The oceanic resources beyond 200 km of the Exclusive Economic Zone belong to open ocean and no individual country can utilise these without the concurrence of international institutions. On the Basis of the Status of Development Potential Resources: Resources which are found in a region, but have not been utilised. For example, the western parts of India particularly Rajasthan and Gujarat have enormous potential for the development of wind and solar energy, but so far these have not been developed properly. Developed Resources: Resources which are surveyed and their quality and quantity have been determined for utilisation. The development of resources depends on technology and level of their feasibility. Stock: Materials in the environment which have the potential to satisfy human needs but human beings do not have the appropriate technology to access these, are included in Stock . Reserves are the subset of the stock, which can be put into use with the help of existing technical ‘know-how’ but their use has not been started. These can be used for meeting future requirements. River water can be used for generating hydroelectric power but presently, it is being utilised only to a limited extent. Thus, the water in the dams, forests etc. is a reserve which can be used in the future. DEVELOPMENT OF RESOURCES Resources are vital for human survival as well as for maintaining the quality of life. It was believed that resources are free gifts of nature. As a result, human beings used them

indiscriminately and this has led to the following major problems. • Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of few individuals. • Accumulation of resources in few hands, which, in turn, divided the society into two segments i.e. haves and have nots or rich and poor. • Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has led to global ecological crises such as, global warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution and land degradation RESOURCE PLANNING Planning is the widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources.There are some regions which can be considered self sufficient in terms of the availability of resources and there are some regions which have acute shortage of some vital resources. For example, the states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal deposits. Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of water resources but lacks in infrastructural development.. This calls for balanced resource planning at the national, state, regional and local levels. The availability of resources is a necessary condition for the development of any region, but mere availability of resources in the absence of corresponding changes in technology and institutions may hinder development. There are many regions in our country that are rich in resources but these are included in economically backward regions. On the contrary there are some regions which have a poor resource base but they are economically developed.The history of colonisation reveals that rich resources in colonies were the main attractions for the foreign invaders. It was primarily the higher level of technological development of the colonising countries that helped them to exploit resources of other regions and establish their supremacy over the colonies. Therefore, resources can contribute to development only when they are accompanied by appropriate technological development and institutional changes. India has experienced all this in different phases of



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colonisation. Therefore, in India, development, in general, and resource development in particular does not only involve the availability of resources, but also the technology, quality of human resources and the historical experiences of the people. Conservation of Resources: Resources are vital for any developmental activity. But irrational consumption and over-utilisation of resources may lead to socio-economic and environmental problems. To overcome these problems, resource conservation at various levels is important. In India Resource planning is a complex process which involves : (i) identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country. This involves surveying, mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources. (ii) Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set up for implementing resource development plans. (iii) Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans. Reserves are the subset of the stock, which can be put into use with the help of existing technical ‘know-how’ but their use has not been started. These can be used for meeting future requirements. River water can be used for generating hydroelectric power but presently, it is being utilised only to a limited extent. Thus, the water in the dams, forests etc. is a reserve which can be used in the future. LAND RESOURCES Land is a natural resource of utmost importance. It supports natural vegetation, wild life, human life, economic activities, transport and communication systems. However, land is an asset of a finite magnitude, therefore, it is

important to use the available land for various purposes with careful planning. India has land under a variety of relief features, namely; mountains, plateaus, plains and islands. About 43 per cent of the land area is plain, which provides facilities for agriculture and industry. Mountains account for 30 per cent of the total surface area of the country and ensure perennial flow of some rivers, provide facilities for tourism and ecological aspects. About 27 per cent of the area of the country is the plateau region. It possesses rich reserves of minerals, fossil fuels and forests LAND UTILISATION Land resources are used for the following purposes: 1 Forests 2. Land not available for cultivation

(a) Barren and waste land (b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g. buildings, roads, factories, etc.

3. Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land) (a) Permanent pastures and grazing land, (b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops groves (not included in net sown area), (c) Cultivable waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years)

4. Fallow lands (a) Current fallow-(left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year), (b) Other than current fallow-(left uncultivated for the past 1 to 5 agricultural years).

5. Net sown area Area sown more than once in an agricultural year plus net sown area is known as gross cropped area.

LAND USE PATTERN IN INDIA The use of land is determined both by physical factors such as topography, climate, soil types as well as human factors such as population



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density, technological capability and culture and traditions etc. Total geographical area of India is 3.28 million sq km Land use data, is available only for 93 per cent of the total geographical area because the land use reporting for most of the north-east states except Assam has not been done fully. Moreover, some areas of Jammu and Kashmir occupied by Pakistan and China have also not been surveyed The land under permanent pasture has also decreased. Most of the other than the current fallow lands are either of poor quality or the cost of cultivation of such land is very high. Hence, these lands are cultivated once or twice in about two to three years and if these are included in the net sown area then the percentage of NSA in India comes to about 54 per cent of the total reporting area. The pattern of net sown area varies greatly from one state to another. It is over 80 per cent of the total area in Punjab and Haryana and less than 10 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram Manipur and Andaman Nicobar Islands. Forest area in the country is far lower than the desired 33 per cent of geographical area, as it was outlined in the National Forest Policy (1952). It was considered essential for maintenance of the ecological balance. The livelihood of millions of people who live on the fringes of these forests depends upon it. A part of the land is termed as waste land and land put to other non-agricultural uses. Waste land includes rocky, arid and desert areas and land put to other non-agricultural uses includes settlements, roads, railways, industry etc. Continuous use of land over a long period of time without taking appropriate measures to conserve and manage it, has resulted in land degradation. This, in turn, has serious repercussions on society and the environment. . LAND DEGRADATION AND CONSERVATION MEASURES

Ninety-five per cent of our basic needs for food, shelter and clothing are obtained from land. Human activities have not only brought about degradation of land but have also aggravated the pace of natural forces to cause damage to land. At present, there are about 130 million hectares of degraded land in India. Approximately, 28 per cent of it belongs to the category of forest degraded area, 56 per cent of it is water eroded area and the rest is affected by saline and alkaline deposits. Some human activities such as deforestation, over grazing, mining and quarrying too have contributed significantly in land degradation Mining sites are abandoned after excavation work is complete leaving deep scars and traces of over-burdening. In states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa deforestation due to mining have caused severe land degradation. In states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra overgrazing is one of the main reasons for land degradation. In the states of Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, over irrigation is responsible for land degradation due to water logging leading to increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil. The mineral processing like grinding of limestone for cement industry and calcite and soapstone for ceramic industry generate huge quantity of dust in the atmosphere. It retards the process of infiltration of water into the soil after it settles down on the land. In recent years, industrial effluents as waste have become a major source of land and water pollution in many parts of the country. There are many ways to solve the problems of land degradation. Afforestation and proper management of grazing can help to some extent. Planting of shelter belts of plants, control on over grazing, stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes are some of the methods to check land degradation. Proper management of waste lands, control of mining activities, proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes after treatment can reduce



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land and water degradation in industrial and suburban areas SOIL AS A RESOURCE Soil is the most important renewable natural resource. It is the medium of plant growth and supports different types of living organisms on the earth. The soil is a living system. It takes millions of years to form soil upto a few cm in depth. Relief, parent rock or bed rock, climate, vegetation and other forms of life and time are important factors in the formation of soil. Various forces of nature such as change in temperature, actions of running water, wind and glaciers, activities of decomposers etc. contribute to the formation of soil. Chemical and organic changes which take place in the soil are equally important. Soil also consists of organic (humus) and inorganic materials. On the basis of the factors responsible for soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age, chemical and physical properties, the soils of India can be classified in different types. Classification of Soils India has varied relief features, landforms, climatic realms and vegetation types. These have contributed in the development of various types of soils. A) Alluvial Soils This is the most widely spread and important soil. In fact, the entire northern plains are made of alluvial soil. These have been deposited by three important Himalayan river systems– the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. These soils also extend in Rajasthan and Gujarat through a narrow corridor. Alluvial soil is also found in the eastern coastal plains particularly in the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers The alluvial soil consists of various proportions of sand, silt and clay. As we move

inlands towards the river valleys, soil particles appear some what bigger in size. In the upper reaches of the river valley i.e. near the place of the break of slope, the soils are coarse. Such soils are more common in piedmont plains such as Duars, Chos and Terai. Apart from the size of their reaches of the river valley i.e. near the place of the break of slope, the soils are coarse. Apart from the size of their grains or components, soils are also described on the basis of their age. According to their age alluvial soils can be classified as old alluvial (Bangar) and new alluvial (Khadar). The bangar soil has higher concentration of kanker nodules than the Khadar. It has more fine particles and is more fertile than the bangar. Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile. Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion of potash, phosphoric acid and lime which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops. Due to its high fertility, regions of alluvial soils are intensively cultivated and densely populated. Soils in the drier areas are more alkaline and can be productive after proper treatment and irrigation. Black Soil These soils are black in colour and are also known as regur soils. Black soil is ideal for growing cotton and is also known as black cotton soil. It is believed that climatic condition along with the parent rock material are the important factors for the formation of black soil. This type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest Deccan plateau and is made up of lava flows. They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh and extend in the south east direction along the Godavari and the Krishna valleys. The black soils are made up of extremely fine i.e. clayey material. They are well-known for their capacity to hold moisture. In addition, they are rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime. These soils are generally poor in phosphoric contents. They develop deep cracks during hot



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weather, which helps in the proper aeration of the soil. These soils are sticky when wet and difficult to work on unless tilled immediately after the first shower or during the pre-monsoon period Red and Yellow Soils Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern parts of the Deccan plateau. Yelllow and red soils are also found in parts of Orissa, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain and along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats. These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form Laterite Soil Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘later’ which means brick. The laterite soil develops in areas with high temperature and heavy rainfall. This is the result of intense leaching due to heavy rain. Humus content of the soil is low because most of the micro organisms, particularly the decomposers, like bacteria, get destroyed due to high temperature. Laterite soils are suitable for cultivation with adequate doses of manures and fertilizers. These soils are mainly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, and the hilly areas of Orissa and Assam. After adopting appropriate soil conservation techniques particularly in the hilly areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, this soil is very useful for growing tea and coffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for crops like cashew nut. Arid Soils Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They are generally sandy in texture and saline in nature. In some areas the salt content is very high and common salt is obtained by evaporating the water. Due to the dry climate, high

temperature, evaporation is faster and the soil lacks humus and moisture. The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar because of the increasing calcium content downwards. The Kankarlayer formations in the bottom horizons restrict the infiltration of water. After proper irrigation these soils become cultivable as has been in the case of western Rajasthan. Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh and extend in the south east direction along the Godavari and the Krishna valleys Mountain Soil These soils are found in Mountainous and hilly regions where sufficient rain forests are available.The soil texture varies according to the mountain environment where they are formed. They are loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper slopes. In the snow covered areas of Himalayas, these soils experience denudation and are acidic with low humus content. The soils found in the lower parts of the valleys particularly on the river terraces and alluvial fans are fertile. Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation The denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is described as soil erosion. The processes of soil formation and erosion, go on simultaneously and generally there is a balance between the two. Sometimes, this balance is disturbed due to human activities like deforestation, over-grazing, construction and mining etc., while natural forces like wind, glacier and water lead to soil erosion. The running water cuts through the clayey soils and makes deep channels as gullies. The land becomes unfit for cultivation and is known as bad land. In the Chambal basin such lands are called ravines. Sometimes water flows as a sheet over large areas down a slope. In such cases the top soil is washed away. This is known as sheet erosion. Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land known as wind erosion. Soil erosion is also caused due to defective methods of farming.



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Ploughing in a wrong way i.e. up and down the slope form channels for the quick flow of water leading to soil erosion. Ploughing along the contour lines can decelerate the flow of water down the slopes. This is called contour ploughing. Steps can be cut out on the slopes making terraces. Terrace cultivation restricts erosion. Western and central Himalayas have well developed terrace farming. Large fields can be divided into strips. Strips of grass are left to grow between the crops. This breaks up the force of the wind. This method is known as strip cropping. Planting lines of trees to create shelter also works in a similar way. Rows of such trees are called shelter belts. These shelter belts have contributed significantly to the stabilisation of sand dunes and in stabilising the desert in western India

NCERT Class 10th Chapter 5 Minerals and energy resources Geologists define mineral as a “homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal structure.” Minerals are found in varied forms in nature, ranging from the hardest diamond to the softest talc. Rocks are combinations of homogenous substances called minerals. Some rocks, for instance limestone, consist of a single mineral only, but majority of the rock consist of several minerals in varying proportions.Over 2000 minerals have been identified, only a few are abundantly found in most of the rocks. A particular mineral that will be formed from a certain combination of elements depends upon the physical and chemical conditions under which the material forms. This results in a wide range of colours, hardness, crystal forms, lustre and density that a particular mineral possesses. Geologists use these properties to classify the minerals. However, for general and commercial purposes minerals can be classified as under. MODE OFOCCURRENCE OF MINERALS Where are these minerals found? Minerals are usually found in “ores”. The term ore is used to describe an accumulation of any mineral mixed with other elements. The mineral content of the ore must be in sufficient concentration to make its extraction commercially viable. The type of formation or structure in which they are found determines the relative ease with which mineral ores may be mined. This also determines the cost of extraction. It is, therefore, important for us to understand the main types of formations in which minerals occur. Minerals generally occur in these forms:



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(i)In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults or joints. The smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger are called lodes. In most cases, they are formed when minerals in liquid/ molten and gaseous forms are forced upward through cavities towards the earth’s surface. They cool and solidify as they rise. Major metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc and lead etc. are obtained from veins and lodes. (ii)In sedimentary rocks a number of minerals occur in beds or layers. They have been formed as a result of deposition, accumulation and concentration in horizontal strata. Coal and some forms of iron ore have been concentrated as a result of long periods under great heat and pressure. Another group of sedimentary minerals include gypsum, potash salt and sodium salt. These are formed as a result of evaporation especially in arid regions. (iii) Another mode of formation involves the decomposition of surface rocks, and the removal of soluble constituents, leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing ores. Bauxite is formed this way. (iv) Certain minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of hills. These deposits are called ‘placer deposits’ and generally contain minerals, which are not corroded by water. Gold, silver, tin and platinum are most important among such minerals. (v)The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals, but most of these are too widely diffused to be of economic significance. Common salt, magnesium and bromine are largely derived from ocean waters. The ocean beds, too, are rich in manganese nodules India is fortunate to have fairly rich and varied mineral resources. However, these are unevenly distributed. Broadly speaking, peninsular rocks contain most of the reserves of coal, metallic

minerals, mica and many other non-metallic minerals. Sedimentary rocks on the western and eastern flanks of the peninsula, in Gujarat and Assam have most of the petroleum deposits. Rajasthan with the rock systems of the peninsula, has reserves of many non-ferrous minerals. The vast alluvial plains of north India are almost devoid of economic minerals. These variations exist largely because of the differences in the geological structure, processes and time involved in the formation of minerals. Distribution of a few major minerals in India. The concentration of mineral in the ore, the ease of extraction and closeness to the market play an important role in affecting the economic viability of a reserve. Thus, to meet the demand, a choice has to be made between a number of possible options. When this is done a mineral ‘deposit’ or ‘reserve’ turns into a mine Ferrous Minerals Ferrous minerals account for about three fourths of the total value of the production of metallic minerals. They provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries. India exports substantial quantities of ferrous minerals after meeting her internal demands. Iron Ore Iron ore is the basic mineral and the backbone of industrial development. India is endowed with fairly abundant resources of iron ore. India is rich in good quality iron ores. Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very high content of iron up to 70 per cent. It has excellent magnetic qualities, especially valuable in the electrical industry. Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity used, but has a slightly lower iron content than magnetite. (50-60 per cent). The major iron ore belts in India are: • Orissa-Jharkhand belt:



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In Orissa high grade hematite ore is found in Badampahar mines in the Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar districts. In the adjoining Singbhum district of Jharkhand haematite iron ore is mined in Gua and Noamundi. • Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt lies in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra.Very high grade hematites are found in the famous Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district of Chattisgarh. The range of hills comprise of 14 deposits of super high grade hematite iron ore. It has the best physical properties needed for steel making. Iron ore from these mines is exported to Japan and South Korea via Vishakapatnam port. • Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur beltin Karnataka It has large reserves of iron ore. The Kudermukh mines located in the Western Ghats of Karnataka are a 100 per cent export unit. Kudremukh deposits are known to be one of the largest in the world. The ore is transported as slurry through a pipeline to a port near Mangalore. • Maharashtra-Goa belt It includes the state of Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. Though, the ores are not of very high quality, yet they are efficiently exploited. Iron ore is exported through Marmagao port. Manganese Manganese is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy. Nearly 10 kg of manganese is required to manufacture one tonne of steel. It is also used in manufacturing bleaching powder, insecticides and paints. Orissa is the largest producer of manganese ores in India. It accounted for one-third of the country’s total production in 2000-01. Non-Ferrous Minerals

India’s reserves and production of non- ferrous minerals is not very satisfactory. However, these minerals, which include copper, bauxite, lead, zinc and gold play a vital role in a number of metallurgical, engineering and electrical industries. Copper India is critically deficient in the reserve and production of copper. Being malleable, ductile and a good conductor, copper is mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries. The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh produce 52 per cent of India’s copper. The Singbhum district of Jharkhand is also a leading producer of copper. The Khetri mines in Rajasthan are also famous. Bauxite Though, several ores contain aluminium, it is from bauxite, a clay-like substance that alumina and later aluminium is obtained. Bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in aluminium silicates. Aluminium is an important metal because it combines the strength of metals such as iron, with extreme lightness and also with good conductivity and great malleability. India’s bauxite deposits are mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau region of Bilaspur- Katni. Orissa is the largest bauxite producing state in India with 45 per cent of the country’s total production in 2000-01. Panchpatmali deposits in Koraput district are the most important bauxite deposits in the state. Non-Metallic Minerals Mica Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves. It splits easily into thin sheets. These sheets can be so thin that a thousand can be



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layered into a mica sheet of a few centimeters high. Mica can be clear, black, green, red yellow or brown. Due to its excellent di-electric strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance to high voltage, mica is one of the most indispensable minerals used in electric and electronic industries. Mica deposits are found in the northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau. Koderma Gaya – Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand is the leading producer. In Rajasthan, the major mica producing area is around Ajmer. Nellore mica belt of Andhra Pradesh is also an important producer in the country. Rock Minerals Limestone is found in association with rocks composed of calcium carbonates or calcium and magnesium carbonates. It is found in sedimentary rocks of most geological formations. Limestone is the basic raw material for the cement industry and essential for smelting iron ore in the blast furnace. Stricter safety regulations and implementation of environmental laws are essential to prevent mining from becoming a “killer industry”. CONSERVATION OF MINERALS We are rapidly consuming mineral resources that required millions of years to be created and concentrated.. Mineral resources are, therefore, finite and non-renewable. Rich mineral deposits are our country’s extremely valuable but short-lived possessions. Continued extraction of ores leads to increasing costs as mineral extraction comes from greater depths along with decrease in quality. A concerted effort has to be made in order to use our mineral resources in a planned and sustainable manner. Energy Resources Energy is required for all activities. It is needed to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel vehicles and to drive machinery in industries. Energy can be generated from fuel minerals like

coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium and from electricity. Energy resources can be classified as conventional and nonconventional sources. Conventional sources include: firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity (both hydel and thermal). Non-conventional sources include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy. Firewood and cattle dung cake are most common in rural India. According to one estimate more than 70 per cent energy requirement in rural households is met by these two ; continuation of these is increasingly becoming difficult due to decreasing forest area. Moreover, using dung cake too is being discouraged because it consumes most valuable manure which could be used in agriculture. Conventional Sources of Energy Coal:In India, coal is the most abundantly available fossil fuel. It provides a substantial part of the nation’s energy needs. It is used for power generation, to supply energy to industry as well as for domestic needs. India is highly dependent on coal for meeting its commercial energy requirements. As you are already aware that coal is formed due the compression of plant material over millions of years. Coal, therefore, is found in a variety of forms depending on the degrees of compression A concerted effort has to be made in order to use our mineral resources in a planned and sustainable manner. Improved technologies need to be constantly evolved to allow use of low grade ores at low costs. Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and other substitutes are steps in conserving our mineral resources for the future. Dig a little deeper: Make a list of items where substitutes are being used instead of minerals. Where are these substitutes obtained from? Energy Resources Energy is required for all activities. It is needed to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel vehicles and to drive machinery in industries. Energy can be generated from fuel minerals like coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium and from electricity. Energy resources can be classified as conventional and nonconventional sources. Conventional sources include: firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity (both hydel and thermal). Non-conventional sources include



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solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy. Firewood and cattle dung cake are most common in rural India. According to one estimate more than 70 per cent energy requirement in rural households is met by these two ; continuation of these is increasingly becoming difficult due to decreasing forest area. Moreover, using dung cake too is being discouraged because it consumes most valuable manure which could be used in agriculture. Conventional Sources of Energy Coal:In India, coal is the most abundantly available fossil fuel. It provides a substantial part of the nation’s energy needs. It is used for power generation, to supply energy to industry as well as for domestic needs. India is highly dependent on coal for meeting its commercial energy requirements. As you are already aware that coal is formed due the compression of plant material over millions of years. Coal, therefore, is found in a variety of forms depending on the degrees of compression Fig. 5.11 (a):A view from inside of a coal mine Fig. 5.11 (b):A view from outside of a coal mine and the depth and time of burial. Decaying plants in swamps produce peat. Which has a low carbon and high moisture contents and low heating capacity. Lignite is a low grade brown coal, which is soft with high moisture content. The principal lignite reserves are in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu and are used for generation of electricity. Coal that has been buried deep and subjected to increased temperatures is bituminouscoal. It is the most popular coal in commercial use. Metallurgical coal is high grade bituminous coal which has a special value for smelting iron in blast furnaces. Anthracite is the highest quality hard coal. In India coal occurs in rock series of two main geological ages, namely Gondwana, a little over 200 million years in age and in tertiary deposits which are only about 55 million years old. The major resources of Gondwana coal, which are metallurgical coal, are located in Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand). Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are important coalfields. The Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys also contain coal deposits. Tertiary coals occur in the north eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. Remember coal is a bulky material,

which loses weight on use as it is reduced to ash. Hence, heavy industries and thermal power stations are located on or near the coalfields Petroleum Petroleum or mineral oil is the next major energy source in India after coal. It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for a number of manufacturing industries. Petroleum refineries act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile, fertiliser and numerous chemical industries. Most of the petroleum occurrences in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the rock formations of the tertiary age. In regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of the upfold. The oil bearing layer is a porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may flow. The oil is prevented from rising or sinking by intervening non-porous layers. Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas, being lighter usually occurs above the oil. About 63 per cent of India’s petroleum production is from Mumbai High, 18 per cent from Gujarat and 16 per cent from Assam. From the map locate the 3 major off shore fields of western India. Ankeleshwar is the most important field of Gujarat. Assam is the oldest oil producing state of India. Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan are the important oil fields in the state. Natural Gas Natural gas is an important clean energy resource found in association with or without petroleum. It is used as a source of energy as well as an industrial raw material in the petrochemical industry. Natural gas is considered an environment friendly fuel because of low carbon dioxide emissions and is, therefore, the fuel for the present century. Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna- Godavari basin. Along the west coast the reserves of the Mumbai High and allied fields are supplemented by finds in the Gulf of Cambay. Andaman and Nicobar islands are also important areas having large reserves of natural gas. The 1700 km long Hazira-VijaipurJagdishpur cross country gas pipeline links Mumbai High and Bassien with the fertilizer, power and industrial complexes in western and northern India. This artery has provided an impetus to India’s gas production.



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The power and fertilizer industries are the key users of natural gas. Use of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG ) for vehicles to replace liquid fuels is gaining wide popularity in the country. Electricity Electricity has such a wide range of applications in today’s world that, its percapita consumption is considered as an index of development. Electricity is generated mainly in two ways: by running water which drives hydro turbines to generate hydro electricity; and by burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas to drive turbines to produce thermal power. Once generated the electricity is exactly the same. Name some river valley projects and write the names of the dams built on these rivers. Hydro electricity is generated by fast flowing water, which is a renewable resource. India has a number of multi-purpose projects like the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley corporation, the Kopili Hydel Project etc. producing hydroelectric power. Thermal electricityis generated by using coal, petroleum and natural gas. The thermal power stations use non-renewable fossil fuels for generating electricity. There are over 310 thermal power plants in India Non-Conventional Sources of Energy The growing consumption of energy has resulted in the country becoming increasingly dependent on fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas. Rising prices of oil and gas and their potential shortages have raised uncertainties about the security of energy supply in future, which in turn has serious repercussions on the growth of the national economy. Moreover, increasing use of fossil fuels also causes serious environmental problems. Hence, there is a pressing need to use renewable energy sources like solar energy, wind, tide, biomass and energy from waste material. These are called nonconventional energy sources. India is blessed with an abundance of sunlight, water, wind and biomass. It has the largest programmes for the development of these renewable energy resources. Nuclear or Atomic Energy It is obtained by altering the structure of atoms. When such an alteration is made, much energy is released in the form of heat and this is used to generate electric power. Uranium and Thorium, which are available in Jharkhand and the

Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan are used for generating atomic or nuclear power. The Monazite sands of Kerala is also rich in Thorium. Locate the 6 nuclear power stations and find out the state in which they are located. Solar Energy India is a tropical country. It has enormous possibilities of tapping solar energy. Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electricity. Solar energy is fast becoming popular in rural and remote areas. The largest solar plant of India is located at Madhapur, near Bhuj, where solar energy is used to sterlise milk cans. It is expected that use of solar energy will be able to minimise the dependence of rural households on firewood and dung cakes, which in turn will contribute to environmental conservation and adequate supply of manure in agriculture Wind power India now ranks as a “wind super power” in the world. The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from Nagarcoil to Madurai. Apart from these, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep have important wind farms. Nagarcoil and Jaisalmer are well known for effective use of wind energy in the country. Biogas Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste are used to produce biogas for domestic consumption in rural areas. Decomposition of organic matter yields gas, which has higher thermal efficiency in comparison to kerosene, dung cake and charcoal. Biogas plants are set up at municipal, cooperative and individual levels. The plants using cattle dung are know as ‘Gobar gas plants’in rural India. These provide twin benefits to the farmer in the form of energy and improved quality of manure. Biogas is by far the most efficient use of cattle dung. It improves the quality of manure and also prevents the loss of trees and manure due to burning of fuel wood and cow dung cakes. at shallow depths. Groundwater in such areas absorbs heat from the rocks and becomes hot. It is so hot that when it rises to the earth’s surface, it turns into steam. This steam is used to drive turbines and generate electricity. Tidal Energy Oceanic tides can be used to generate electricity. Floodgate dams are built across inlets. During high tide water flows into



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the inlet and gets trapped when the gate is closed. After the tide falls outside the flood gate, the water retained by the floodgate flows back to the sea via a pipe that carries it through a power-generating turbine. In India, the Gulf of Kuchchh, provides ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy. A 900 mw tidal energy power plant is set up here by the National Hydropower Corporation. Geo Thermal Energy Geothermal energy refers to the heat and electricity produced by using the heat from the interior of the Earth. Geothermal energy exists because, the Earth grows progressively hotter with increasing depth. Where the geothermal gradient is high, high temperatures are found at shallow depths. Groundwater in such areas absorbs heat from the rocks and becomes hot. It is so hot that when it rises to the earth’s surface, it turns into steam. This steam is used to drive turbines and generate electricity. There are several hundred hot springs in India, which could be used to generate electricity. Two experimental projects have been set up in India to harness geothermal energy. One is located in the Parvati valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the other is located in the Puga Valley, Ladakh. Conservation of Energy Resources Energy is a basic requirement for economic development. Every sector of the national economy – agriculture, industry, transport, commercial and domestic – needs inputs of energy. The economic development plans implemented since Independence necessarily required increasing amounts of energy to remain operational. As a result, consumption of energy in all forms has been steadily rising all over the country. In this background, there is an urgent need to develop a sustainable path of energy development. Promotion of energy conservation and increased use of renewable energy sources are the twin planks of sustainable energy. India is presently one of the least energy efficient countries in the world. We have to adopt a cautious approach for the judicious use of our limited energy resources. For example, as concerned citizens we can do our bit by using public transport systems instead of individual vehicles; switching off electricity when not in use, using power-saving devices and using non-conventional sources of energy.



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Class 10 NCERT Chapter 2 Forest and wild life resources This entire habitat that we live in has immense biodiversity.Forests play a key role in the ecological system as these are also the primary producers on which all other living beings depend. . Flora and Fauna in India India is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of its vast array of biological diversity, and has nearly 8 per cent of the total number of species in the world (estimated to be 1.6 million). Some estimates suggest that at least 10 per cent of India’s recorded wild flora and 20 per cent of its mammals are on the threatened list. Many of these would now be categorised as ‘critical’, that is on the verge of extinction like the cheetah, pink-headed duck, mountain quail, forest spotted owlet, and plants like madhuca insignis(a wild variety of mahua) and hubbardia heptaneuron,(a species of grass)

Vanishing Forests The dimensions of deforestation in India are staggering. The forest cover in the country is estimated at 637,293 sq km, which is 19.39 per cent of the total geographical area. (dense forest 11.48 per cent; open forest 7.76 per cent; and mangrove 0.15 per cent). According to the State of Forest Report (1999), the dense forest cover has increasedby 10,098 sq km since 1997. However, this apparent increase in the forest cover is due to plantation by different agencies. The State of Forest Report does not differentiate between natural forests and plantations. Therefore, these reports fail to deliver the actual picture.

Based on the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), we can classify the flora and fauna as follows – A) Normal Species

Species whose population levels are considered to be normal for their survival, such as cattle, sal, pine, rodents, etc. B) Endangered Species

These are species which are in danger of extinction. The survival of such species is difficult if the negative factors that have led to a decline in their population continue to operate. The examples of such species are black buck, crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer in Manipur), etc

C) Vulnerable Species

These are species whose population

has declined to levels from where it is likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if the negative factors continue to operate. The examples of such species are blue sheep, Asiatic elephant, Gangetic dolphin, etc.

D) Rare Species Species with small population may move into the endangered or vulnerable category if the negative factors affecting them continue to operate. The examples of such species are the Himalayan brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert fox and hornbill, etc.



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E) Endemic Species These are species which are only found in some particular areas usually isolated by natural or geographical barriers. Examples of such species are the Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig, mithun in Arunchal Pradesh. F) Extinct Species These are species which are not found after searches of known or likely areas where they may occur. A species may be extinct from a local area, region, country, continent or the entire earth. Examples of such species are the Asiatic cheetah, pink head duck.

The greatest damage inflicted on Indian forests was during the colonial period due to the expansion of the railways, agriculture, commercial and scientific forestry and mining activities. Even after Independence, agricultural expansion continues to be one of the major causes of depletion of forest resources. Between 1951 and 1980, according to the Forest Survey of India, over 26,200 sq. km. of forest area was converted into agricultural land all over India. Substantial parts of the tribal belts, especially in the northeastern and central India, have been

deforested or degraded by shifting cultivation (jhum), a type of ‘slash and burn’ agriculture Some of our environmental activists say that the promotion of a few favoured species, in many parts of India, has been carried through the ironically-termed “enrichment plantation”, in which a single commercially valuable species was extensively planted and other species eliminated. For instance, teak monoculture has damaged the natural forest in South India and Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii)plantations in the Himalayas have replaced the Himalayan oak (Quercius spp.) and Rhododendron forests Large-scale development projects have also contributed significantly to the loss of forests. Since 1951, over 5,000 sq km of forest was cleared for river valley projects. Mining is another important factor behind deforestation. The Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal is seriously threatened by the ongoing dolomite mining. It has disturbed the natural habitat of many species and blocked the migration route of several others, including the great Indian elephant. Many foresters and environmentalists hold the view that the greatest degrading factors behind the depletion of forest resources are grazing and fuel-wood collection. Though, there may be some substance in their argument, yet, the fact remains that a substantial part of the fuel-fodder demand is met by lopping rather than by felling entire trees. The forest ecosystems are repositories of some of the country’s most valuable forest products, minerals and other resources that meet the demands of the rapidly expanding industrialurban economy. The Himalayan Yew in trouble The Himalayan Yew (Taxus wallachiana) is a medicinal plant found in various parts of Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh. A chemical compound called ‘taxol’ is extracted from the bark, needles, twigs and roots of this tree, and it has been successfully used to treat some cancers – the drug is now the biggest selling anti-cancer drug in the world. The species is under great threat due to over-exploitation. In the last one decade, thousands of yew trees have dried up in various parts of Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh.



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Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching, over-exploitation, environmental pollution, poisoning and forest fires are factors, which have led to the decline in India’s biodiversity. Other important causes of environmental destruction are unequal access, inequitable consumption of resources and differential sharing of responsibility for environmental well-being. Over-population in third world countries is often cited as the cause of environmental degradation. However, an average American consumes 40 times more resources than an average Somalian.. The former shares minimum responsibilities for environmental well-being. The question is: who is consuming what, from where and how much? The destruction of forests and wildlife is not just a biological issue. The biological loss is strongly correlated with the loss of cultural diversity. Such losses have increasingly marginalised and impoverished many indigenous and other forest-dependent communities, who directly depend on various components of the forest and wildlife for food, drink, medicine, culture, spirituality, etc. Within the poor, women are affected more than men. In many societies, women bear the major responsibility of collection of fuel, fodder, water and other basic subsistence needs. As these resources are depleted, the drudgery of women increases and sometimes they have to walk for more than 10 km to collect these resources. The indirect impact of degradation such as severe drought or deforestation-induced floods, etc. also hits the poor the hardest. Poverty in these cases is a direct outcome of environmental destruction. Therefore, forest and wildlife, are vital to the quality of life and

environment in the subcontinent. It is imperative to adapt to sound forest and wildlife conservation strategies. Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India Conservation in the background of rapid decline in wildlife population and forestry has become essential. But why do we need to conserve our forests and wildlife? Conservation preserves the ecological diversity and our life support systems – water, air and soil. It also preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals for better growth of species and breeding. For example, in agriculture, we are still dependent on traditional crop varieties. Fisheries too are heavily dependent on the maintenance of aquatic biodiversity. In the 1960s and 1970s, conservationists demanded a national wildlife protection programme. The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act was implemented in 1972, with various provisions for protecting habitats. An all-India list of protected species was also published. The thrust of the programme was towards protecting the remaining population of certain endangered species by banning hunting, giving legal protection to their habitats, and restricting trade in wildlife. Subsequently, central and many state governments established national parks and wildlife sanctuaries about which you have already studied. The central government also announced several projects for protecting specific animals, which were gravely threatened, including the tiger, the one horned rhinoceros, the Kashmir stag or hangul, three types of crocodiles – fresh water crocodile, saltwater crocodile and the Gharial, the Asiatic lion, and others. Most recently, the Indian elephant, black buck (chinkara), the great Indian bustard (godawan) and the snow leopard, etc. have been given full or partial legal protection against hunting and trade throughout India. Project Tiger Tiger is one of the key wildlife species in the faunal web. In 1973, the authorities realised that the tiger population had dwindled to 1,827 from an estimated 55,000 at the turn of the century. The major threats to tiger population are numerous, such as poaching for trade, shrinking habitat, depletion of prey base species, growing



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human population, etc. The trade of tiger skins and the use of their bones in traditional medicines, especially in the Asian countries left the tiger population on the verge of extinction. Since India and Nepal provide habitat to about two-thirds of the surviving tiger population in the world, these two nations became prime targets for poaching and illegal trading. “Project Tiger”, one of the well publicised wildlife campaigns in the world, was launched in 1973. Initially, it showed success as the tiger population went up to 4,002 in 1985 and 4,334 in 1989. But in 1993, the population of the tiger had dropped to 3,600. There are 27 tiger reserves in India covering an area of 37,761 sq km Tiger conservation has been viewed not only as an effort to save an endangered species, but with equal importance as a means of preserving biotypes of sizeable magnitude. Corbett National Park in Uttaranchal, Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal, Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan, Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam and Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala are some of the tiger reserves of India. The conservation projects are now focusing on biodiversity rather than on a few of its components. There is now a more intensive search for different conservation measures. Increasingly, even insects are beginning to find a place in conservation planning. In the notification under Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986, several hundred butterflies, moths, beetles, and one dragonfly have been added to the list of protected species. In 1991, for the first time plants were also added to the list, starting with six species. Types and Distribution of Forest and Wildlife Resources Even if we want to conserve our vast forest and wildlife resources, it is rather difficult to manage, control and regulate them. In India, much of its forest and wildlife resources are either owned or managed by the government through the Forest Department or other government departments.

These are classified under the following categories. (i)Reserved Forests :More than half of the total forest land has been declared reserved forests. Reserved forests are regarded as the most valuable as far as the conservation of forest and wildlife resources are concerned. (ii) Protected Forests :Almost one-third of the total forest area is protected forest, as declared by the Forest Department. This forest land are protected from any further depletion. (iii) Unclassed Forests: These are other forests and wastelands belonging to both government and private individuals and communities. Reserved and protected forests are also referred to as permanent forest estates maintained for the purpose of producing timber and other forest produce, and for protective reasons. Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under permanent forests, constituting 75 per cent of its total forest area. Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Maharashtra have large percentages of reserved forests of its total forest area whereas Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan have a bulk of it under protected forests. All Northeastern states and parts of Gujarat have a very high percentage of their forests as unclassed forests managed by local communities. Community and Conservation Conservation strategies are not new in our country. We often ignore that in India, forests are also home to some of the traditional communities. In some areas of India, local communities are struggling to conserve these habitats along with government officials, recognising that only this will secure their own long-term livelihood. In Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, villagers have fought against mining by citing the Wildlife Protection Act. In many areas, villagers themselves are protecting habitats and explicitly rejecting government involvement. The inhabitants of five villages in the Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared 1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, declaring their own set of rules and regulations which do not allow hunting, and are protecting the wildlife against any outside encroachments.



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Sacred groves - a wealth of diverse and rare species Nature worship is an age old tribal belief based on the premise that all creations of nature have to be protected. Such beliefs have preserved several virgin forests in pristine form called Sacred Groves (the forests of God and Goddesses). These patches of forest or parts of large forests have been left untouched by the local people and any interference with them is banned. Certain societies revere a particular tree which they have preserved from time immemorial. The Mundas and the Santhal of Chhota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocaphalus cadamba) trees, and the tribals of Orissa and Bihar worship the tamarind (Tamarindus indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees during weddings. Sacred qualities are often ascribed to springs, mountain peaks, plants and animals which are closely protected. The famous Chipkoo movement in the Himalayas has not only successfully resisted deforestation in several areas but has also shown that community afforestation with indigenous species can be enormously successful. Attempts to revive the traditional conservation methods or developing new methods of ecological farming are now widespread. Farmers and citizen’s groups like the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have shown that adequate levels of diversified crop production without the use of synthetic chemicals are possible and economically viable. In India joint forest management (JFM) programme furnishes a good example for involving local communities in the management and restoration of degraded forests. The programme has been in formal existence since 1988 when the state of Orissa passed the first resolution for joint forest management. JFM depends on the formation of local (village) institutions that undertake protection activities mostly on degraded forest land managed by the forest department. In return, the members of these communities are entitled to intermediary benefits like non-timber forest produces and share in the timber harvested by ‘successful protection’. The clear lesson from the dynamics of both environmental destruction and reconstruction in India is that local communities everywhere have to be involved in

some kind of natural resource management. But there is still a long way to go before local communities are at the centre-stage in decision-making. Accept only those economic or developmental activities, that are people centric, environment-friendly and economically rewarding.



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Class 9 NCERT Chapter 3 Water Resources

WATER SCARCITY AND THE NEED FOR WATER CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT

The moment we speak of water shortages, we immediately associate it with regions having low rainfall or those that are drought prone.The availability of water resources varies over space and time, mainly due to the variations in seasonal and annual precipitation, but water scarcity in most cases is caused by over- exploitation, excessive use and unequal access to water among different social groups. Where is then water scarcity likely to occur? Is it possible that an area or region may have ample water resources but is still facing water scarcity? Many of our cities are such examples. Thus, water scarcity may be an outcome of large and growing population and consequent greater demands for water, and unequal access to it. A large population means more water not only for domestic use but also to produce more food. Hence, to facilitate higher food-grain production,

water resources are being over-exploited to expand irrigated areas and dry-season agriculture. Most farmers have their own wells and tube-wells in their farms for irrigation to increase their produce this will lead to falling groundwater levels, adversely affecting water availability and food security of the people. Post-independent India witnessed intensive industrialisation and urbanisation, creating vast opportunities for us. Today, large industrial houses are as commonplace as the industrial units of many MNCs (Multinational Corporations). The ever increasing number of industries has made matters worse by exerting pressure on existing freshwater resources. Industries, apart from being heavy users of water, also require power to run them. Much of this energy comes from hydroelectric power. Today, in India hydroeclectric power contributes approximately 22 per cent of the total electricity produced. Moreover, multiplying urban centres with large and dense populations and urban lifestyles have not only added to water and energy requirements but have further aggravated the problem. So far we have focused on the quantitative aspects of water scarcity. Now, let us consider another situation where water is sufficiently available to meet the needs of the people, but, the area still suffers from water scarcity. This scarcity may be due to bad quality of water. Lately, there has been a growing concern that even if there is ample water to meet the needs of the people, much of it may be polluted by domestic and industrial wastes, chemicals, pesticides and fertilisers used in agriculture, thus, making it hazardous for human use. You may have already realised that the need of the hour is to conserve and manage our water resources, to safeguard ourselves from health hazards, to ensure food security, continuation of our livelihoods and productive activities and also to prevent degradation of our natural ecosystems. Over exploitation and mismanagement of water resources will impoverish this resource and cause ecological crisis that may have profound impact on our lives MULTI-PURPOSE RIVER PROJECTS AND INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT But, how do we conserve and manage water? Archaeological and historical records show that



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from ancient times we have been constructing sophisticated hydraulic structures like dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes, embankments and canals for irrigation.We have continued this tradition in modern India by building dams in most of our river basins What are dams and how do they help us in conserving and managing water? Dams were traditionally built to impound rivers and rainwater that could be used later to irrigate agricultural fields. Today, dams are built not just for irrigation but for electricity generation, water supply for domestic and industrial uses, flood control, recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding. Hence, dams are now referred to as multi-purpose projects where the many uses of the impounded water are integrated with one another .Multi-purpose projects, launched after Independence with their integrated water resources management approach, were thought of as the vehicle that would lead the nation to development and progress, overcoming the handicap of its colonial past. Jawaharlal Nehru proudly proclaimed the dams as the ‘temples of modern India’; the reason being that it would integrate development of agriculture and the village economy with rapid industrialisation and growth of the urban economy. In recent years, multi-purpose projects and large dams have come under great scrutiny and opposition for a variety of reasons. A) Regulating and damming of rivers affect their natural flow causing poor sediment flow and excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the reservoir, resulting in rockier stream beds and poorer habitats for the rivers’ aquatic life. B) Dams also fragment rivers making it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate, especially for spawning. The reservoirs that are created on the floodplains also submerge the existing vegetation and soil leading to its decomposition over a period of time. Multi-purpose projects and large dams have also been the cause of many new social movements like the ‘Narmada Bachao Andolan’ and the ‘Tehri Dam Andolan’ etc. Resistance to these projects has primarily been due to the large-scale displacement of local communities. Local people often had to give up their land, livelihood

and their meagre access and control over resources for the greater good of the nation Irrigation has also changed the cropping pattern of many regions with farmers shifting to water intensive and commercial crops. This has great ecological consequences like salinisation of the soil. At the same time, it has transformed the social landscape i.e. increasing the social gap between the richer landowners and the landless poor. As we can see, the dams did create conflicts between people wanting different uses and benefits from the same water resources. In Gujarat, the Sabarmati-basin farmers were agitated and almost caused a riot over the higher priority given to water supply in urban areas, particularly during droughts. Inter-state water disputes are also becoming common with regard to sharing the costs and benefits of the multi-purpose project. Most of the objections to the projects arose due to their failure to achieve the purposes for which they were built. Ironically, the dams that were constructed to control floods have triggered floods due to sedimentation in the reservoir. Moreover, the big dams have mostly been unsuccessful in controlling floods at the time of excessive rainfall. The floods have not only devastated life and property but also caused extensive soil erosion. Sedimentation also meant that the flood plains were deprived of silt, a natural fertiliser, further adding on to the problem of land degradation. It was also observed that the multi-purpose projects induced earthquakes, caused waterborne diseases and pests and pollution resulting from excessive use of water. RAIN WATER HARVESTING Many thought that given the disadvantages and rising resistance against the multi purpose projects, water harvesting system was a viable alternative, both socio economically and environmentally. In ancient India, along with the sophisticated hydraulic structures, there existed an extraordinary tradition of water-harvesting system. In hill and mountainous regions, people built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of the Western Himalayas for agriculture. ‘Rooftop rain water harvesting’ was commonly practised to store drinking water, particularly in Rajasthan. In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation channels to irrigate



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their fields. In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain fed storage structures that allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil like the ‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other parts of Rajasthan.

• Roof top rain water is collected using a PVC pipe • Filtered using sand and bricks • Underground pipe takes water to sump for immediate usage • Excess water from the sump is taken to the well • Water from the well recharges the underground • Take water from the well (later)

In the semi-arid and arid regions of Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi and Barmer, almost all the houses traditionally had underground tanks or tankas for storing drinking water. The tankas were part of the well-developed rooftop rainwater harvesting system and were built inside the main house or the courtyard. They were connected to the sloping roofs of the houses through a pipe. Rain falling on the rooftops would travel down the pipe and was stored in these underground ‘tankas’. The first spell of rain was usually not collected as this would clean the roofs and the pipes. The rainwater from the subsequent showers was then collected. The rainwater can be stored in the tankas till the next rainfall making it an extremely reliable source of drinking water when all other sources are dried up, particularly in the summers. Rainwater,is considered the purest form of natural water. Many houses constructed underground rooms adjoining the ‘tanka’ to beat the summer heat as it would keep the room cool.

Today, in western Rajasthan, sadly the practice of rooftop rainwater harvesting is on the decline as plenty of water is available due to the perennial Rajasthan Canal, though some houses still maintain the tankas since they do not like the taste of tap water. Fortunately, in many parts of rural and urban India, rooftop rainwater harvesting is being successfully adapted to store and conserve water. In Gendathur, a remote backward village in Mysore, Karnataka, villagers have installed, in their household’s rooftop, rainwater harvesting system to meet their water needs. Nearly 200 households have installed this system and the village has earned the rare distinction of being rich in rainwater Gendathur receives an annual precipitation of 1,000 mm, and with 80 per cent of collection efficiency and of about 10 fillings, every house can collect and use about 50,000 litres of water annually. From the 20 houses, the net amount of rainwater harvested annually amounts to 1,00,000 litres.



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NCERT CLASS 9 Chapter 4 Agriculture India is an agriculturally important country. Two-thirds of its population is engaged in agricultural activities. Agriculture is a primary activity, which produces most of the food that we consume. Besides food grains, it also produces raw material for various industries. Some agricultural products like tea, coffee, spices, etc. are also exported. TYPES OF FARMING Farming varies from subsistence to commercial type. At present, in different parts of India, the following farming systems are practised. Primitive Subsistence Farming This type of farming is still practised in few pockets of India. Primitive subsistence agriculture is practised on small patches of land with the help of primitive tools like hoe, dao and digging sticks, and family/community labour. This type of farming depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of the soil and suitability of other environmental conditions to the crops grown. It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture. Farmers clear a patch of land and produce cereals and other food crops to sustain their family. When the soil fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land for cultivation. This type of shifting allows Nature to replenish the fertility of the soil through natural processes; land productivity in this type of agriculture is low as the farmer does not use fertilisers or other modern inputs. It is known by different names in different parts of the country. It is jhumming in north-eastern states like Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland; Pamlou in Manipur, Dipa in Bastar district of Chhattishgarh, and in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Intensive Subsistence Farming This type of farming is practised in areas of high population pressure on land. It is labour intensive farming, where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for obtaining higher production. Though the ‘right of inheritance’ leading to the division of land among successive generations has rendered

land-holding size uneconomical, the farmers continue to take maximum output from the limited land in the absence of alternative source of livelihood. Thus, there is enormous pressure on agricultural land. Commercial Farming The main characteristic of this type of farming is the use of higher doses of modern inputs, e.g. high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides in order to obtain higher productivity. The degree of commercialisation of agriculture varies from one region to another. For example, rice is a commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab, but in Orissa, it is a subsistence crop. Plantation is also a type of commercial farming. In this type of farming, a single crop is grown on a large area. The plantation has an interface of agriculture and industry. Plantations cover large tracts of land, using capital intensive inputs, with the help of migrant labourers. All the produce is used as raw material in respective industries. In India, tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, banana, etc.. are important plantation crops. Tea in Assam and North Bengal coffee in. Karnataka are some of the important plantation crops grown in these states. Since the production is mainly for market, a well developed network of transport and communication connecting the plantation areas, processing industries and markets plays an important role in the development of plantations. CROPPING PATTERN Various types of food and fibre crops, vegetables and fruits, spices and condiments, etc.. constitute some of the important crops grown in the country. India has three cropping seasons — rabi, kharif and zaid. Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from April to June. Some of the important rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard. Though, these crops are grown in large parts of India, states from the north and northwestern parts such as Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh are important for the production of wheat and other



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rabi crops. Availability of precipitation during winter months helps in the success of these crops Kharif crops are grown with the onset of monsoon in different parts of the country and these are harvested in September-October. Important crops grown during this season are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean. Some of the most important rice-growing regions are Assam, West Bengal, coastal regions of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharashtra, particularly the (Konkan coast) along with Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Recently, paddy has also become an important crop of Punjab and Haryana. In states like Assam, West Bengal and Orissa, three crops of paddy are grown in a year. These are Aus, Aman and Boro. In between the rabi and the kharif seasons, there is a short season during the summer months known as the Zaid season. Some of the crops produced during ‘zaid’ are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber vegetables and fodder crops. Major Crops A variety of food and non food crops are grown in different parts of the country depending upon the variations in soil, climate and cultivation practices. Major crops grown in India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea, coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and jute, etc. Rice: It is the staple food crop of a majority of the people in India. Our country is the second largest producer of rice in the world after China. It is a kharif crop which requires high temperature, (above 25°C) and high humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm. In the areas of less rainfall, it grows with the help of irrigation. Rice is grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and the deltaic regions. Development of dense network of canal irrigation and tubewells have made it possible to grow rice in areas of less rainfall such as Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.

Wheat: This is the second most important cereal crop. It is the main food crop, in north and north-western part of the country. This rabi crop requires a cool growing season and a bright sunshine at the time of ripening. It requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season. There are two important wheat-growing zones in the country – the Ganga-Satluj plains in the northwest and black soil region of the Deccan. The major wheat-producing states are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh Millets: Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important millets grown in India. Though, these are known as coarse grains, they have very high nutritional value. For example, ragi is very rich in iron, calcium, other micro nutrients and roughage. Jowar is the third most important food crop with respect to area and production. It is a rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist areas which hardly needs irrigation. Maharashtra is the largest producer of jowar followed by Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Bajra grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soil. Rajasthan is the largest producer of bajra followed by Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana. Ragi is a crop of drier regions and grows well on red, black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils. Karnataka is the largest producer of ragi followed by Tamil Nadu. Apart from these states, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Jharkhand and Arunachal Pradesh are also important for the production of ragi. Maize: It is a crop which is used both as food and fodder. It is a kharif crop which requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil. In some states like Bihar maize is grown in rabi season also. Use of modern inputs such as HYV seeds, fertilisers



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and irrigation have contributed to the increasing production of maize. Major maize-producing states are Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Pulses: India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world. These are the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet. Major pulses that are grown in India are tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and gram. Pulses need less moisture and survive even in dry conditions. Being leguminous crops, all these crops except arhar help in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air. Therefore, these are mostly grown in rotation with other crops. Major pulse producing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Karnataka. Food Crops other than Grains Sugarcane It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop. It grows well in hot and humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and an annual rainfall between 75cm. and 100cm. Irrigation is required in the regions of low rainfall. It can be grown on a variety of soils and needs manual labour from sowing to harvesting. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane only after Brazil. It is the main source of sugar, gur (jaggary), khandsari and molasses. The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana. Oil Seeds: India is the largest producer of oilseeds in the world. Different oil seeds are grown covering approximately 12 per cent of the total cropped area of the country. Main oil-seeds produced in India are groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean, castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and sunflower. Most of these are edible and used as cooking mediums. However, some of these are also used as raw material in the production of soap, cosmetics and ointments.

Groundnut It is a kharif crop and accounts for about half of the major oilseeds produced in the country. Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of groundnut followed by Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat and Maharashtra – linseed and mustard are rabi crops. Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and rabi crop in south India. Castor seed is grown both as rabi and kharif crop. Tea: Tea cultivation is an example of plantation agriculture. It is also an important beverage crop introduced in India initially by the British. Today, most of the tea plantations are owned by Indians. The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates endowed with deep and fertile well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic matter. Tea bushes require warm and moist frost-free climate all through the year. Frequent showers evenly distributed over the year ensure continuous growth of tender leaves. Tea is a labour intensive industry. It requires abundant cheap and skilled labour. Tea is processed within the tea garden to restore its freshness. Major teaproducing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Apart from these, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh and Tripura are also tea-producing states in the country. India is the leading producer as well as exporter of tea in the world. Coffee India produces about four per cent of the world’s coffee production. Indian coffee is known in the world for its good quality. The Arabica variety initially brought from Yemen is produced in the country. This variety is in great demand all over the world. Intially its cultivation was introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and even today its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.



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Horticulture Crops: India is the largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world. India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits. Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, lichi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, pineapples of Meghalaya, grapes of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, apples, pears, apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh are in great demand the world over. India produces about 13 per cent of the world’s vegetables. It is an important producer of pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato. Non-Food Crops Rubber: It is an equatorial crop, but under special conditions, it is also grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas. It requires moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm. and temperature above 25°C. Rubber is an important industrial raw material. It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicabar islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya. India ranks fifth among the world’s natural rubber producers. Fibre Crops Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are the four major fibre crops grown in India. The first three are derived from the crops grown in the soil, the latter is obtained from cocoons of the silkworms fed on green leaves specially mulberry. Rearing of silk worms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture. Cotton: India is believed to be the original home of the cotton plant. Cotton is one of the main raw materials for cotton textile industry. India is the third-largest producer of cotton in the world. Cotton grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau. It requires high temperature, light rainfall or

irrigation, 210 frost-free days and bright sunshine for its growth. It is a kharif crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature. Major cotton-producing states are – Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. Jute It is known as the golden fibre. Jute grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains where soils are renewed every year. High temperature is required during the time of growth. West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa and Meghalaya are the major jute producing states. It is used in making gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets and other artefacts. Due to its high cost, it is losing market to synthetic fibres and packing materials, particularly the nylon. Technological and Institutional Reforms Agriculture which provides livelihood for more than 60 per cent of its population, needs some serious technical and institutional reforms. Thus, consolidation of holdings, cooperation and abolition of zamindari, etc. were given priority to bring about institutional reforms in the country after Independence. ‘Land reform’ was the main focus of our First Five Year Plan. The right of inheritance had already lead to fragmentation of land holdings necessitating consolidation of holdings. The laws of land reforms were enacted but the laws of implementation was lacking or lukewarm. The Government of India embarked upon introducing agricultural reforms to improve Indian agriculture in the 1960s and 1970s. The Green Revolution based on the use of package technology and the White Revolution (Operation Flood) were some of the strategies initiated to improve the lot of Indian agriculture. But, this too led to the concentration of development in few selected areas. Therefore, in the 1980s and 1990s, a comprehensive land development programme was initiated, which included both institutional and technical reforms. Provision for crop insurance against drought, flood, cyclone, fire and disease, establishment of Grameen banks, cooperative societies and banks for providing loan facilities to the farmers at lower rates of interest were some important steps in this direction



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Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS) are some other schemes introduced by the Government of India for the benefit of the farmers. Moreover, special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers were introduced on the radio and television. The government also announces minimum support price, remunerative and procurement prices for important crops to check the exploitation of farmers by speculators and middlemen. Contribution of agriculture to the national economy, employment and output Agriculture has been the backbone of the Indian economy though its share in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has registered a declining trend from 1951 onwards; yet its share in providing employment and livelihood to the population continues to be as high as 63 per cent in 2001. The declining share of agriculture in the GDP is a matter of serious concern because any decline and stagnation in agriculture will lead to a decline in other spheres of the economy having wider implications for society. Considering the importance of agriculture in India, the Government of India made concerted efforts to modernise agriculture. Establishment of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), agricultural universities, veterinary services and animal breeding centres, horticulture development, research and development in the field of meteorology and weather forecast, etc. were given priority for improving Indian agriculture. Apart from this, improving the rural infrastructure was also considered essential for the same. FOOD SECURITY Food is a basic need and every citizen of the country should have access to food which provides minimum nutritional level. If any segment of our population does not have this access, that segment suffers from lack of food security. The number of people who do not have food security is disproportionately large in some regions of our country, particularly in economically less developed states with higher incidence of

poverty. The remote areas of the country are more prone to natural disasters and uncertain food supply. In order to ensure availability of food to all sections of society our government carefully designed a national food security system. It consists of two components (a) buffer stock and (b) public distribution system (PDS). PDS is a programme which provides food grains and other essential commodities at subsidised prices in rural and urban areas. India’s food security policy has a primary objective to ensure availability of foodgrains to the common people at an affordable price. It has enabled the poor to have access to food. The focus of the policy is on growth in agriculture production and on fixing the support price for procurement of wheat and rice, to maintain their stocks. Food Corporation of India (FCI) is responsible for procuring and stocking foodgrains, whereas distribution is ensured by public distribution system (PDS). The FCI procures foodgrains from the farmers at the government announced minimum support price (MSP). The government used to provide subsidies on agriculture inputs such as fertilizers, power and water. These subsidies have now reached unsustainable levels and have also led to large scale inefficiencies in the use of these scarce inputs. Excessive and imprudent use of fertilizers and water has led to waterlogging, salinity and depletion of essential micronutrients in the soil. The high MSP, subsidies in input and committed FCI purchases have distorted the cropping pattern. Wheat and paddy crops are being grown more for the MSP they get. This has also created a serious imbalance in inter-crop parities. The consumers are divided into two categories below poverty line (BPL) and above poverty line (APL), with the issue price being different for each category. However, this categorisation is not perfect and a number of deserving poor have been excluded from the BPL category. Moreover, some of the so called APL slip back to BPL, because of the failure of even one crop and it is administratively difficult to accommodate such shifts. Each district and block can be made self sufficient in foodgrain production if government



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provides proper agricultural infrastructure, credit linkages and also encourages the use of latest techniques. Instead of concentrating only on rice or wheat, the food crop with a better growth potential in that particular area must be encouraged. Creation of necessary infrastructure like irrigation facilities, availability of electricity etc. may also attract private investments in agriculture. There has been a gradual shift from cultivation of food crops to cultivation of fruits, vegetables, oil-seeds and industrial crops. This has led to the reduction in net sown area under cereals and pulses. With the growing population of India, the declining food production puts a big question mark over the country’s future food security. The competition for land between non-agricultural uses such as housing etc. and agriculture has resulted in reduction in the net sown area. The productivity of land has started showing a declining trend. Fertilisers, pesticides and insecticides, which once showed dramatic results, are now being held responsible for degrading the soils. Periodic scarcity of water has led to reduction in area under irrigation. Inefficient water management has led to water logging and salinity. Free power to a section of farmers has encouraged them to pump groundwater to grow water-intensive crops in low-rainfall areas (rice in Punjab, sugarcane in Maharashtra). This unsustainable pumping has reduced water storage in aquifers. Consequently, many wells and tubewells have run dry. This has pushed the marginal and small farmers out of cultivation. The big farmers with deeper tubewells still have water, but many others face a water crisis. Inadequate storage and marketing facilities also act as a disincentive to the farmer. Thus, the farmers are badly affected by the uncertainties of production and market. They suffer from a double disadvantage as they pay high prices for inputs such as HYV seeds, fertilisers etc. but lack the bargaining power to fix prices in their favour. All the production reaches the market simultaneously. The higher the supply the lower is the demand. This causes distress sale also. Therefore, there can be no food security without the security of the small farmers.

Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture Globalisation is not a new phenomenon.It was there at the time of colonisation. In the nineteenth century when European traders came to India, at that time too, Indian spices were exported to different countries of the world and farmers of south India were encouraged to grow these crops. Till today it is one of the important items of export from India. During the British period cotton belts of India attracted the British and ultimately cotton was exported to Britain as a raw material for their textile industries. Cotton textile industry in Manchester and Liverpool flourished due to the availability of good quality cotton from India. Under globalisation, particularly after 1990, the farmers in India have been exposed to new challenges. Despite being an important producer of rice, cotton, rubber, tea, coffee, jute and spices our agricultural products are not able to compete with the developed countries because of the highly subsidised agriculture in those countries Today, Indian agriculture finds itself at the crossroads. To make agriculture successful and profitable, proper thrust should be given to the improvement of the condition of marginal and small farmers. The green revolution promised much. But today it’s under controversies. It is being alleged that it has caused land degradation due to overuse of chemicals, drying aquifers and vanishing biodiversity. The keyword today is “gene revolution”. Infact organic farming is much in vogue today because it is practised without factory made chemicals such as fertilisers and pesticides. Hence, it does not affect environment in a negative manner. A few economists think that Indian farmers have a bleak future if they continue growing foodgrains on the holdings that grow smaller and smaller as the population rises. India’s rural population is about 600 million which depends upon 250 million (approximate) hectares of agricultural land, an average of less than half a hectare per person. Indian farmers should diversify their cropping pattern from cereals to high-value crops. This will increase incomes and reduce environmental degradation simultaneously. Because fruits, medicinal herbs, flowers, vegetables, bio-diesel crops like jatropha and jojoba need much less irrigation than rice or sugarcane. India’s diverse climate can be harnessed to grow a wide range of high-value crops.



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Class 10 NCERT Chapter 6 Manufacturing Industries Production of goods in large quantities after processing from raw materials to more valuable products is called manufacturing People employed in the secondary activities manufacture the primary materials into finished goods. The workers employed in steel factories, car, breweries, textile industries, bakeries etc. fall into this category. Some people are employed in providing services.This is the tertiary sector. The economic strength of a country is measured by the development of manufacturing industries IMPORTANCE OF MANUFACTURING Manufacturing sector is considered the backbone of development in general and economic development in particular mainly because– • Manufacturing industries not only help in modernising agriculture, which forms the backbone of our economy, they also reduce the heavy dependence of people on agricultural income by providing them jobs in secondary and tertiary sectors. • Industrial development is a precondition for eradication of unemployment and poverty from our country. This was the main philosophy behind public sector industries and joint sector ventures in India. It was also aimed at bringing down regional disparities by establishing industries in tribal and backward areas. • Export of manufactured goods expands trade and commerce, and brings in much needed foreign exchange. • Countries that transform their raw materials into a wide variety of furnished goods of higher value are prosperous. India’s prosperity lies in increasing and diversifying its manufacturing industries as quickly as possible. In the present day world of globalisation, our industry needs to be more efficient and competitive. Self-sufficiency alone is not enough. Contribution of Industry to National Economy Over the last two decades, the share of

manufacturing sector has stagnated at 17 per cent of GDP – out of a total of 27 per cent for the industry which includes 10 per cent for mining, quarrying, electricity and gas. This is much lower in comparison to some East Asian economies, where it is 25 to 35 per cent. The trend of growth rate in manufacturing over the last decade has been around 7 per cent per annum. The desired growth rate over the next decade is 12 per cent. Since 2003, manufacturing is once again growing at the rate of 9 to 10 per cent per annum. With appropriate policy interventions by the government and renewed efforts by the industry to improve productivity, economists predict that manufacturing can achieve its target over the next decade. The National Manufacturing Competitiveness Council (NMCC) has been set up with this objective Industrial Location Industrial locations are complex in nature. These are influenced by availability of raw material, labour, capital, power and market, etc.. After an industrial activity starts, urbanisation follows. Sometimes, industries are located in or near the cities. Thus, industrialisation and urbanisation go hand in hand. Cities provide markets and also provide services such as banking, insurance, transport, labour, consultants and financial advice, etc. to the industry. Many industries tend to come together to make use of the advantages offered by the urban centres known as agglomeration economies. Gradually, a large industrial agglomeration takes place. In the pre-Independence period, most manufacturing units were located in places from the point of view of overseas trade such as Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, etc. Consequently, there emerged certain pockets of industrially developed urban centres surrounded by a huge agricultural rural hinterland. The key to decision of the factory location is the least cost. Government policies and specialised labour also influence the location of industry. Classification of Industries Industries may be classified as follows: On the basis of source of raw materials used: • Agro based: cotton, woollen, jute, silk textile, rubber and sugar, tea, coffee, edible oil.



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• Mineral based: iron and steel, cement, aluminium, machine tools, petrochemicals. According to their main role: • Basic or key industries which supply their products or raw materials to manufacture other goods e.g. iron and steel and copper smelting, aluminum smelting. • Consumer industries that produce goods for direct use by consumers – sugar, toothpaste, paper, sewing machines, fans etc. On the basis of capital investment: • A small scale industry is defined with reference to the maximum investment allowed on the assets of a unit. This limit has changed over a period of time. At present the maximum investment allowed is rupees one crore. If investment is more than one crore on any industry then it is known as a large scale industry. On the basis of ownership:

Public sector, owned and operated by government agencies – BHEL, SAIL etc.

Private sector industries owned and operated by individuals or a group of individuals –TISCO, Bajaj Auto Ltd., Dabur Industries.

Joint sector industries which are jointly run by the state and individuals or a group of individuals. Oil India Ltd. (OIL) is jointly owned by public and private sector.

Cooperative sector industries are owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers or both. They pool in the resources and share the profits or losses proportionately such as the sugar industry in Maharashtra, the coir industry in Kerala.

Based on the bulk and weight of raw material and finished goods: • Heavy industries such as iron and steel • Light industries that use light raw materials and produce light goods such as electrical industries Agro Based Industries Cotton, jute, silk, woollen textiles, sugar and edible oil, etc. industry are based on agricultural raw materials.

Textile Industry:The textile industry occupies unique position in the Indian economy, because it contributes significantly to industrial production (14 per cent), employment generation (35 million persons directly – the second largest after agriculture) and foreign exchange earnings (about 24.6 per cent). It contributes 4 per cent towards GDP. It is the only industry in the country, which is self-reliant and complete in the value chain i.e., from raw material to the highest value added products.

Cotton Textiles:

In ancient India, cotton textiles were produced with hand spinning and handloom weaving techniques. After the 18 th century, power-looms came into use. Our traditional industries suffered a setback during the colonial period because they could not compete with the mill-made cloth from England Today, there are nearly 1600 cotton and human made fibre textile mills in the country. About 80 per cent of these are in the private sector and the rest in the public and cooperative sectors. Apart from these, there are several thousand small factories with four to ten looms. In the early years, the cotton textile industry was concentrated in the cotton growing belt of Maharashtra and Gujarat. Availability of raw cotton, market, transport including accessible port facilities, labour, moist climate, etc. contributed towards its localisation. This industry has close links with agriculture and provides a living to farmers, cotton boll pluckers and workers engaged in ginning, spinning, weaving, dyeing, designing, packaging, tailoring and sewing.



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The industry by creating demands supports many other industries, such as, chemicals and dyes, mill stores, packaging materials etc. While spinning continues to be centralised in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu, weaving is highly decentralised to provide scope for incorporating traditional skills and designs of weaving in cotton, silk, zari, embroidery, etc. India has world class production in spinning, but weaving supplies low quality of fabric as it cannot use much of the high quality yarn produced in the country. Weaving is done by handloom, powerloom and in mills. The handspun khadi provides large scale employment to weavers in their homes as a cottage industry India exports yarn to Japan. Other importers of cotton goods from India are U.S.A., U.K., Russia, France, East European countries, Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and African countries. India has the second largest installed capacity of spindles in the world, next to China, at around 34 million (2003-04). Since the mid eighties, the spinning sector has received a lot of attention. We have a large share in the world trade of cotton yarn, accounting for one fourth of the total trade. However, our trade in garments is only 4 per cent of the world’s total. Our spinning mills are competitive at the global level and capable of using all the fibres we produce. The weaving, knitting and processing units cannot use much of the high quality yarn that is produced in the country. There are some large and modern factories in these segments, but most of the production is in fragmented small units, which cater to the local market. This mismatch is a major drawback for the industry. As a result, many of our spinners export cotton yarn while apparel/garment manufactures have to import fabric. Although, we have made significant increase in the production of good quality long staple cotton (9232 lakh bales in 2004-05), the need to import is still felt. Power supply is erratic and machinery needs to be upgraded in the weaving and processing sectors in particular. Other problems are the low output of labour and stiff competition with the synthetic fibre industry.

Jute Textiles India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods and stands at second place as an exporter after Bangladesh. There are about 70 jute mills in India. Most of these are located in West Bengal, mainly along the banks of the Hugli river, in a narrow belt (98 km long and 3 km wide). Factors responsible for their location in the Hugli basin are: proximity of the jute producing areas, inexpensive water transport, supported by a good network of railways, roadways and waterways to facilitate movement of raw material to the mills, abundant water for processing raw jute, cheap labour from West Bengal and adjoining states of Bihar, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh. The jute industry supports 2.61 lakh workers directly and another 40 lakhs small and marginal farmers who are engaged in cultivation of jute and mesta. Many more people are associated indirectly. Challenges faced by the industry include stiff competition in the international market from synthetic substitutes and from other competitors like Bangladesh, Brazil, Philippines, Egypt and Thailand. However, the internal demand has been on the increase due to the Government policy of mandatory use of jute packaging. To stimulate demand, the products need to be diversified. In 2005, National Jute Policy was formulated with the objective of increasing productivity, improving quality, ensuring good prices to the jute farmers and enhancing the yield per hectare. The main markets are U.S.A., Canada, Russia, United Arab Republic, U.K. and Australia. The growing global concern for environment friendly, biodegradable materials, has once again opened the opportunity for jute products. Sugar Industry India stands second as a world producer of sugar but occupies the first place in the production of gur and khandsari. The raw material used in this industry is bulky, and in haulage its sucrose content reduces. Where should the mills be ideally located? There are over 460 sugar mills in the country spread over Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh



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and Gujarat along with Punjab, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh. Sixty per cent mills are in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. This industry is seasonal in nature. In recent years, there is a tendency for the mills to shift and concentrate in the southern and western states, especially in Maharashtra, This is because the cane produced here has a higher sucrose content. The cooler climate also ensures a longer crushing season. Moreover, the cooperatives are more successful in these states. Major challenges include the seasonal nature of the industry, old and inefficient methods of production, transport delay in reaching cane to factories. Mineral based Industries Industries that use minerals and metals as raw materials are called mineral based industries. Iron and Steel Industry

The iron and steel Industry is the basic industry since all the other industries — heavy, medium and light, depend on it for their machinery. Steel is needed to manufacture a variety of engineering goods, construction material, defence, medical, telephonic, scientific equipment and a variety of consumer goods. Production and consumption of steel is often regarded as the index of a country’s development. Iron and steel is a heavy industry because all the raw materials as well as finished goods are heavy and bulky entailing heavy transportation costs. Iron ore, coking coal and lime stone are required in the ratio of approximately 4 : 2 : 1. Some quantities of

manganese, are also required to harden the steel. The finished products also need an efficient transport network for their distribution to the markets and consumers. Today with 32.8 million tons of steel production, India ranks ninth among the world crude steel producers. It is the largest producer of sponge iron. Inspite of large quantity of production of steel, per capita consumption per annum is only 32 kg Why is the per capita consumption of steel so low in India? Presently, there are 10 primary integrated and many mini steel plants in India.. Mini steel plants are smaller, have electric furnaces, use steel scrap and sponge iron. They have re-rollers that use steel ingots as well. They produce mild and alloy steel of given specifications. An integrated steel plant is large, handles everything in one complex – from putting together raw material to steel making, rolling and shaping.

Most of the public sector undertakings market their steel through Steel Authority of India Ltd. (SAIL) while TISCO markets its produce by itself in the name of Tata Steel. In the 1950s China and India produced almost the same quantity of steel. Today, China is the largest producer of steel. China is also the world’s largest consumer of steel. In 2004, India was the largest exporter of steel which accounted for 2.25 per cent of the global steel trade. Chotanagpur plateau region has the maximum concentration of iron and steel industries. It is largely, because of the relative advantages this region has for the development of this industry. These include, low cost of iron ore, high grade raw materials in proximity, cheap labour and vast growth potential in the home market. India is an important iron and steel producing country in the world yet, we are not able to perform to our full potential largely due to:



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(a) High costs and limited availability of coking coal (b) Lower productivity of labour (c) Irregular supply of energy and (d) Poor infrastructure. We also import good quality steel from other countries. However, the overall production of steel is sufficient to meet our domestic demand. Liberalisation and Foreign Direct Investment have given a boost to the industry with the efforts of private entrepreneurs. There is a need to allocate resources for research and development to produce steel more computatitively. Aluminium Aluminium smelting is the second most important metallurgical industry in India. It is light, resistant to corrosion, a good conductor of heat, mallable and becomes strong when it is mixed with other metals. It is used to manufacture aircraft, utensils and wires. It has gained popularity as a substitute of steel, copper, zinc and lead in a number of industries. There are 8 aluminium smelting plants in the country located in Orissa (Nalco and Balco), West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. In 2004, India produced over 600 million tonnes of aluminium. Bauxite, the raw material used in the smelters is a very bulky, dark reddish coloured rock.. Regular supply of electricity and an assured source of raw material at minimum cost are the two prime factors for location of the industry Chemical Industries The Chemical industry in India is fast growing and diversifying. It contributes approximately 3 per cent of the GDP. It is the third largest in Asia and occupies the twelfth place in the world in term of its size. It comprises both large and small scale manufacturing units. Rapid growth has been recorded in both inorganic and organic sectors.

Inorganic chemicals include sulphuric acid (used to manufacture fertilisers, synthetic fibres, plastics, adhesives, paints, dyes stuffs), nitric acid, alkalies, soda ash (used to make glass, soaps and detergents, paper) and caustic soda. These industries are widely spread over the country. Organic chemicals include petrochemicals, which are used for manufacturing of synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber, plastics, dye-stuffs, drugs and pharmaceuticals. Organic chemical plants are located near oil refineries or petrochemical plants. The chemical industry is its own largest consumer. Fertiliser Industry The fertiliser industry is centred around the production of nitrogenous fertilisers (mainly urea), phosphatic fertilisers and ammonium phosphate (DAP) and complex fertilisers which have a combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P), and potash (K). The third, i.e. potash is entirely imported as the country does not have any reserves of commercially usable potash or potassium compounds in any form. India is the third largest producer of nitrogenous fertilisers. There are 57 fertiliser units manufacturing nitrogenous and complex nitrogenous fertilisers, 29 for urea and 9 for producing ammonium sulphate as a byproduct and 68 other small units produce single superphosphate. At present, there are 10 public sector undertakings and one in cooperative sector at Hazira in Gujarat under the Fertiliser Corporation of India. After the Green Revolution the industry expanded to several other parts of the country. Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Kerala contribute towards half the fertiliser production. Other significant producers are Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Bihar, Maharashtra, Assam, West Bengal, Goa, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. Cement Industry Cement is essential for construction activity such as building houses, factories, bridges, roads, airports, dams and for other commercial establishments. This industry requires bulky and heavy raw materials like limestone, silica, alumina and gypsum.



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Coal and electric power are needed apart from rail transportation.The industry has strategically located plants in Gujarat that have suitable access to the market in the Gulf countries. The first cement plant was set up in Chennai in 1904. After Independence the industry expanded. Decontrol of price and distribution since 1989 and other policy reforms led the cement industry to make rapid strides in capacity, process, technology and production. There are 128 large plants and 332 mini cement plants in the country. India produces a variety of cement. Improvement in the quality has found the produce a readily available market in East Asia, Middle East, Africa and South Asia apart from a large demand within the country. This industry is doing well in terms of production as well as export. Efforts are being made to generate adequate domestic demand and supply in order to sustain this industry. Automobile Industry Automobiles provide vehicle for quick transport of good services and passengers. Trucks, buses, cars, motor cycles, scooters, three-wheelers and multi-utility vehicles are manufactured in India at various centres. After the liberalisation, the coming in of new and contemporary models stimulated the demand for vehicles in the market, which led to the healthy growth of the industry including passenger cars, two and three wheelers. This industry had experienced a quantum jump in less than 15 years. Foreign Direct Investment brought in new technology and aligned the industry with global developments. At present, there are 15 manufacturers of passenger cars and multiutility vehicles, 9 of commercial vehicles, 14 of the two and three-wheelers. The industry is located around Delhi, Gurgaon, Mumbai, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore, Hyderabad, Jamshedpur and Bangalore. Information Technology and Electronics Industry

The electronics industry covers a wide range of products from transistor sets to television, telephones, cellular telecom, pagers, telephone exchange, radars, computers and many other equipments required by the telecommunication industry. Bangalore has emerged as the electronic capital of India. Other important centres for electronic goods are Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow and Coimbatore. 18 software technology parks provide single window service and high data communication facility to software experts. A major impact of this industry has been on employment generation. Upto 31 March 2005, the IT industry employed over one million persons. This number is expected to increase eight-fold in the next 3 to 4 years. It is encouraging to know that 30 per cent of the people employed in this sector are women. This industry has been a major foreign exchange earner in the last two or three years because of its fast growing Business Processes Outsourcing (BPO) sector. The continuing growth in the hardware and software is the key to the success of IT industry in India. Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation Although industries contribute significantly to India’s economic growth and development, the increase in pollution of land, water, air, noise and resulting degradation of environment that they have caused, cannot be overlooked. Industries are responsible for four types of pollution: (a) Air (b) Water (c) Land (d) Noise. The polluting industries also include thermal power plants. Air pollution is caused by the presence of high proportion of undesirable gases, such as sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Airborne particulate materials contain both solid and liquid particles like dust, sprays mist and smoke. Smoke is emitted by chemical and paper factories, brick kilns, refineries and smelting plants, and burning of fossil fuels in big and small factories that ignore pollution norms. Toxic gas leaks can be very hazardous with long-term effects.



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Air pollution adversely affects human health, animals, plants, buildings and the atmosphere as a whole. Water pollution is caused by organic and inorganic industrial wastes and affluents discharged into rivers. The main culprits in this regard are paper, pulp, chemical, textile and dyeing, petroleum refineries, tanneries and electroplating industries that let out dyes, detergents, acids, salts and heavy metals like lead and mercury pesticides, fertilisers, synthetic chemicals with carbon, plastics and rubber, etc. into the water bodies. Fly ash, phospo- gypsum and iron and steel slags are the major solid wastes in India. Thermal pollution of water occurs when hot water from factories and thermal plants is drained into rivers and ponds before cooling. Wastes from nuclear power plants, nuclear and weapon production facilities cause cancers, birth defects and miscarriages. Soil and water pollution are closely related. Dumping of wastes specially glass, harmful chemicals, industrial effluents, packaging, salts and garbage renders the soil useless. Rain water percolates to the soil carrying the pollutants to the ground and the ground water also gets contaminated. Noise pollution not only results in irritation and anger, it can also cause hearing impairment, increased heart rate and blood pressure among other physiological effects. Unwanted sound is an irritant and a source of stress. Industrial and construction activities, machinery, factory equipment, generators, saws and pneumatic and electric drills also make a lot of noise. Control of Environmental Degradation Some suggestions are- (i) minimising use water for processing by reusing and recycling it in two or more successive stages (ii)harvesting of rainwater to meet water requirements (iii) treating hot water and effluents before releasing them in rivers and ponds. Treatment of industrial effluents can be done in three phases (a) Primary treatment by mechanical means. This

involves screening, grinding, flocculation and sedimentation. (b) Secondary treatment by biological process (c) Tertiary treatment by biological, chemical and physical processes. This involves recycling of wastewater. Overdrawing of ground water reserves by industry where there is a threat to ground water resources also needs to be regulated legally. Particulate matter in the air can be reduced by fitting smoke stacks to factories with electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, scrubbers and inertial separators. Smoke can be reduced by using oil or gas instead of coal in factories. Machinery and equipment can be used and generators should be fitted with silencers. Almost all machinery can be redesigned to increase energy efficiency and reduce noise. Noise absorbing material may be used apart from personal use of earplugs and earphones. The challenge of sustainable development requires integration of economic development with environmental concerns. NTPC shows the way NTPC is a major power providing corporation in India. It has ISO certification for EMS (Environment Management System) 14001. The corporation has a pro-active approach for preserving the natural environment and resources like water, oil and gas and fuels in places where it is setting up power plants. This has been possible through- (a) Optimum utilisation of equipment adopting latest techniques and upgrading existing equipment. (b) Minimising waste generation by maximising ash utilisation. (c) Providing green belts for nurturing ecological balance and addressing the question of special purpose vehicles for afforestation. (d) Reducing environmental pollution through ash pond management, ash water recycling system and liquid waste management. (e) Ecological monitoring, reviews and online database management for all its power stations.



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Class 10 NCERT Chapter 7 Lifeline of national Economy The pace of development of a country depends upon the production of goods and services as well as their movement over space. Therefore, efficient means of transport are pre-requisites for fast development. Movement of these goods and services can be over three important domains of our earth i.e. land, water and air. Based on these, transport can also be classified into land, water and air transport. Railways, airways, water ways, newspapers, radio, television, cinema and internet, etc. have been contributing to its socio-economic progress in many ways. In this chapter, you will see how modern means of transport and communication serve as life lines of our nation and its modern economy. TRANSPORT Roadways India has one of the largest road networks in the world, aggregating to about 2.3 million km at present. In India, roadways have preceded railways. The growing importance of road transport vis-à-vis rail transport is rooted in the following reasons; (a) construction cost of roads is much lower than that of railway lines, (b) roads can traverse comparatively more dissected and undulating topography, (c) roads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and as such can traverse mountains such as the Himalayas, (d) road transport is economical in transportation of few persons and relatively smaller amount of goods over short distances, (e) it also provides door-to-door service, thus the cost of loading and unloading is much lower, (f) road transport is also used as a feeder to other modes of transport such as they provide a link between railway stations, air and sea ports. In India, roads are classified in the following six classes according to their capacity. • Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways: The government has launched a major road development project linking Delhi-Kolkata Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi by six-lane Super Highways. The North-South corridors linking Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) and Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu), and East-

West Corridor connecting Silcher (Assam) and Porbander (Gujarat) are part of this project. The major objective of these Super Highways is to reduce the time and distance between the mega cities of India. These highway projects are being implemented by the National Highway Authority of India (NHAI). • National Highways National Highways link extreme parts of the country. These are the primary road systems and are laid and maintained by the Central Public Works Department (CPWD). A number of major National Highways run in North-South and East-West directions. The historical Sher- Shah Suri Marg is called National Highway No.1, between Delhi and Amritsar. • State Highways: Roads linking a state capital with different district headquarters are known as State Highways. These roads are constructed and maintained by the State Public Works Department (PWD) in State and Union Territories. • District Roads: These roads connect the district headquarters with other places of the district. These roads are maintained by the Zila Parishad. • Other Roads: Rural roads, which link rural areas and villages with towns, are classified under this category. These roads received special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojana. Under this scheme special provisions are made so that every village in the country is linked to a major town in the country by an all season motorable road. • Border Roads: Apart from these, Border Roads Organisation a Government of India undertaking constructs and maintains roads in the bordering areas of the country. This organisation was established in 1960 for the development of the roads of strategic importance in the northern and northeastern border areas. These roads have improved accessibility in areas of difficult terrain and have helped in the economic development of these area. Roads can also be classified on the basis of the type of material used for their construction such as metalled and unmetalled roads.



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Metalled roads may be made of cement concrete or even bitumen of coal, therefore, these are all weather roads. Unmetalled roads go out of use in the rainy season. Road Density The length of road per 100 sq. km of area is known as density of roads. Distribution of road is not uniform in the country. Density of all roads varies from only 10 km in Jammu & Kashmir to 375 km in Kerala with the national average of 75 km (1996-97). Road transportation in India faces a number of problems. Keeping in view the volume of traffic and passengers, the road network is inadequate. About half of the roads are unmettaled and this limits their usage during the rainy season. The National Highways are inadequate too. Moreover, the roadways are highly congested in cities and most of the bridges and culverts are old and narrow Railways Railways are the principal mode of transportation for freight and passengers in India. Railways also make it possible to conduct multifarious activities like business, sightseeing, pilgrimage along with transportation of goods over longer distances. Railways in India bind the economic life of the country as well as accelerate the development of the industry and agriculture. The Indian Railway have a network of 7, 031 stations spread over a route length of 63, 221 km. with a fleet of 7817 locomotives, 5321 passenger service vehicles, 4904 other coach vehicles and 228, 170 wagons as on 31 March 2004. The Indian Railway is now reorganised into 16 zones. The distribution pattern of the Railway network in the country has been largely influenced by physiographic, economic and administrative factors. The northern plains with their vast level land, high population density and rich agricultural resources provided the most favourable condition for their growth. However, a large number of rivers requiring construction of bridges across their wide beds posed some obstacles. In the hilly terrains of the peninsular region, railway tracts are laid through low hills, gaps or tunnels. The Himalayan mountainous regions too are unfavourable for the construction of railway lines due to high relief, sparse population and lack of economic opportunities. Likewise, it was difficult to lay railway lines on the sandy plain of western Rajasthan, swamps of Gujarat, forested tracks of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Jharkhand. The contiguous stretch of Sahyadri could be crossed only through gaps or passes (Ghats). In recent times, the development of

the Konkan railway along the west coast has facilitated the movement of passengers and goods in this most important economic region of India. It has also faced a number of problem such as sinking of track in some stretches and land slides. Today, the railways have become more important in our national economy than all other means of transport put together. However, rail transport suffers from certain problems as well. Many passengers travel without tickets. Thefts and damaging of railway property has not yet stopped completely. People stop the trains, pull the chain unnecessarily and this causes heavy damage to the railway. Pipelines Pipeline transport network is a new arrival on the transportation map of India. In the past, these were used to transport water to cities and industries. Now, these are used for transporting crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas from oil and natural gas fields to refineries, fertilizer factories and big thermal power plants. Solids can also be transported through a pipeline when converted into slurry. The far inland locations of refineries like Barauni, Mathura, Panipat and gas based fertilizer plants could be thought of only because of pipelines. Initial cost of laying pipelines is high but subsequent running costs are minimal. It rules out trans-shipment losses or delays. There are three important networks of pipeline transportation in the country. • From oil field in upper Assam to Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh), via Guwahati, Barauni and Allahabad. It has branches from Barauni to Haldia, via Rajbandh, Rajbandh to Maurigram and Guwahati to Siliguri. • From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab, via Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and Sonipat. It has branches to connect Koyali (near Vadodara, Gujarat) Chakshu and other places. • Gas pipeline from Hazira in Gujarat connects Jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh, via Vijaipur in Madhya Pradesh. It has branches to Kota in Rajasthan, Shahajahanpur, Babrala and other places in Uttar Pradesh. Waterways Waterways are the cheapest means of transport. They are most suitable for carrying heavy and bulky goods. It is a fuel-efficient and environment friendly mode of transport. India has inland navigation waterways of 14,500 km in length. Out of these only 3,700 km are navigable by



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mechanised boats. The following waterways have been declared as the National Waterways by the Government. • The Ganga river between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km)-N.W. No.1 • The Brahmaputra river between Sadiya and Dhubri (891 km)-N.W. No.2 • The West-Coast Canal in Kerala (Kottapurma-Komman, Udyogamandal and Champakkara canals-205 km) – N.W. No.3 The other viable inland waterways include the Godavari, Krishna, Barak, Sunderbans, Buckingham Canal, Brahmani, East-west Canal and Damodar Valley Corporation Canal. Apart from these, India’s trade with foreign countries is carried from the ports located along the coast. 95 per cent of the country’s trade volume (68 per cent in terms of value) is moved by sea. Major Sea Ports With a long coastline of 7,516.6 km, India is dotted with 12 major and 181 medium and minor ports. These major ports handle 95 per cent of India’s foreign trade. Kandla in Kuchchh was the first port developed soon after Independence to ease the volume of trade on the Mumbai port, in the wake of loss of Karachi port to Pakistan after the Partition. Kandla is a tidal port. It caters to the convenient handling of exports and imports of highly productive granary and industrial belt stretching across the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Mumbai is the biggest port with a spacious natural and well-sheltered harbour. The Jawaharlal Nehru port was planned with a view to decongest the Mumbai port and serve as a hub port for this region. Marmagao port (Goa) is the premier iron ore exporting port of the country. This port accounts for about fifty per cent of India’s iron ore export. New Mangalore port, located in Karnataka caters to the export of iron ore concentrates from Kudremukh mines. Kochchi is the extreme south-western port, located at the entrance of a lagoon with a natural harbour. Moving along the east coast, you would see the extreme south-eastern port of Tuticorin, in Tamil

Nadu. This port has a natural harbour and rich hinterland. Thus, it has a flourishing trade handling of a large variety of cargoes to even our neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka, Maldives, etc. and the coastal regions of India. Chennai is one of the oldest artificial ports of the country. It is ranked next to Mumbai in terms of the volume of trade and cargo. Vishakhapatnam It is the deepest landlocked and well-protected port. This port was, originally, conceived as an outlet for iron ore exports. Paradwip port It is located in Orissa, specialises in the export of iron ore. Kolkata It is an inland riverine port. This port serves a very large and rich hinterland of Ganga- Brahmaputra basin. Being a tidal port, it requires constant dredging of Hoogly. Haldia port was developed as a subsidiary port, in order to relieve growing pressure on the Kolkata port. Airways The air travel, today, is the fastest, most comfortable and prestigious mode of transport Air travel has made access easier The air transport was nationalised in 1953. On the operational side, Indian Airlines, Alliance Air (subsidiary of Indian Airlines), private scheduled airlines and non- scheduled operators provide domestic air services. Air India provides international air services. Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd. provides helicopter services to Oil and Natural Gas Corporation in its off-shore operations, to inaccessible areas and difficult terrains like the north-eastern states and the interior parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Indian Airlines operations also extend to the neighbouring countries of South and south-east Asia and the Middle east. Communication Ever since humans appeared on the earth, they have used different means of communication. Long distance communication is far easier without physical movement of the communicator or receiver.The Indian postal network is the largest in the world. It handles parcels as well as personal written communications. Cards and envelopes are considered first–class mail and are airlifted between stations covering both land and air. The second–class mail includes book packets, registered newspapers and periodicals. They are carried by surface mail, covering land and water transport. To facilitate quick



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delivery of mails in large towns and cities, six mail channels have been introduced recently. They are called Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel, Green Channel, Business Channel, Bulk Mail Channel and Periodical Channel India has one of the largest telecom networks in Asia. Excluding urban places more than two-thirds of the villages in India have already been covered with Subscriber Trunk Dialling (STD) telephone facility. In order to strengthen the flow of information from the grassroot to the higher level, the government has made special provision to extend twenty-four hours STD facility to every village in the country. There is a uniform rate of STD facilities all over India. It has been made possible by integrating the development in space technology with communication technology. Mass communication provides entertainment and creates awareness among people about various national programmes and policies. It includes radio, television, newspapers, magazines, books and films. All India Radio (Akashwani) broadcasts a variety of programmes in national, regional and local languages for various categories of people, spread over different parts of the country. Doordarshan, the national television channel of India, is one of the largest terrestrial networks in the world. It broadcasts a variety of programmes from entertainment, educational to sports, etc. for people of different age groups. India publishes a large number of newspapers and periodicals annually. They are of different types depending upon their periodicity. Newspapers are published in about 100 languages and dialects. Did you know that the largest number of newspapers published in the country are in Hindi, followed by English and Urdu? India is the largest producer of feature films in the world. It produces short films; video feature films and video short films. The Central Board of Film Certification is the authority to certify both Indian and foreign films. International Trade The exchange of goods among people, states and countries is referred to as trade. The market is the place where such exchanges take place. Trade between two countries is called international trade. It may take place through sea, air or land routes. While local trade is carried in cities, towns and villages, state level trade is carried between two or more states. Advancement of international trade of a country is an index to its economic prosperity. It is, therefore, considered the economic barometer for a country. As the resources are space bound, no country can survive without international trade. Export and import are the components of trade. The balance of trade of a country is the difference between its export and import. When the value of export exceeds the value of imports, it is called a favourable balance of trade. On

the contrary, if the value of imports exceeds the value of exports, it is termed as unfavourable balance of trade. India has trade relations with all the major trading blocks and all geographical regions of the world. Among the commodities of export, whose share has been increasing over the last few years till 2004-05 are agriculture and allied products (2.53 per cent), ores and minerals (9.12 per cent), gems and jewellery (26.75 per cent) and chemical and allied products (24.45 per cent), engineering goods( 35.63 per cent) and petroleum products (86.12 per cent) The commodities imported to India include petroleum and petroleum products (41.87 per cent), pearls and precious stones (29.26 per cent), inorganic chemicals (29.39 per cent) coal, coke and briquettes (94.17 per cent), machinery (12.56 per cent). Bulk imports as a group registered a growth accounting for 39.09 per cent of total imports. This group includes fertilizers (67.01 per cent), cereals (25.23 per cent), edible oils (7.94 per cent) and newsprint (5.51 per cent). International trade has under gone a sea change in the last fifteen years. Exchange of commodities and goods have been superseded by the exchange of information and knowledge. India has emerged as a software giant at the international level and it is earning large foreign exchange through the export of information technology. Tourism as a Trade Tourism in India has grown substantially over the last three decades. Foreign tourist’s arrivals in the country witnessed an increase of 23.5 per cent during the year 2004 as against the year 2003, thus contributing Rs 21,828 crore of foreign exchange. Over 2.6 million foreign tourists visit India every year. More than 15 million people are directly engaged in the tourism industry. Tourism also promotes national integration, provides support to local handicrafts and cultural pursuits. It also helps in the development of international understanding about our culture and heritage. Foreign tourists visit India for heritage tourism, eco tourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism, medical tourism and business tourism. Rajasthan, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir and temple towns of south India are important destinations of foregin tourists in India. There is vast potential of tourism development in the north-eastern states and the interior parts of Himalayas, but due to strategic reasons these have not been encouraged so far. However, there lies a bright future ahead for this upcoming industry.



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