Raising income through

PIG FARMING

UGANDA NATIONAL FARMERS ASSOCIATION

Farmers guide series

June 1999

Raising income through

PIG FARMING

UGANDA NATIONAL FARMERS ASSOCIATIONP.O.BOX 6213, Tel. 256-41-255242,

KAMPALA, UGANDA.

UGANDA NATIONAL FARMERS ASSOCIATION - 1999

Written by:

Dr. Waiswa, C and Dr. Saamanya, J.P.Afri-Firm Consultants Ltd.,

P.O.Box 21828,Kampala.

For

UGANDA NATIONAL FARMERS ASSOCIATION

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, storedin a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means,

electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,without the prior permission of the

copyright owner.

First published in 1999 by Uganda National Farmers AssociationNo

Printed in Uganda by Uganda National Farmers Association

Coordinated, by Alice Eunice TibazalikaAgricultural Advisory Manager

O

UNFA 1999

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Uganda National Farmers Association (UNFA) is very grateful to DANIDA fotfunding the production of the Farmers Guide Series. We acknowledge the Policyand Resource Committee (PRC) of the Farmers Organisation Component of theAgricultural Sector Programme Support who approved the funds.

Ms Alice Eunice Tibazalika Agricultural Advisory Manager, Uganda NationalFarmers Association is highly commended for initiating and co-ordinating thedevelopment of the books. Appreciationlgratitude also goes to Mr. AugustineMwendya Chief Executive Secretary, Dr. Flemming Eriksen Research andExtension Advisor and Mr. Sylvester Kamanyire Kugonza Coordinator FarmersOrganisation Secretariat for their invaluable professional guidance and editing thebooks.

Finally UNFA wishes to thank the farmers and extension workers for providingsome of the illustrations used as well as their constructive advice on the drafts.

FOREWORD

One of the major functions of Uganda National Farmers Association (UNFA) is toprovide agricultural advisory services to lamiers_ This is aimed at increasingfarm productivity and production in order to ensure household food security.generation of income and eradication of poverty. Publication of reading materialsis one of the ways in which improved agricultural technologies can be extended tofarmers.

UNFA's agricultural advisory services are demand driven and based on costrecovery. They are implemented by District coordinators, agricultural advisors.extension link farmers and contact farmers. The technologies are introduced tofarmers through on-farm demonstrations/trials, courses and visits to specialinterest groups and individual farmers. However, coverage is still limited due toinadequate resources.

To re-enforce these activities, there is need to avail reading materials on specificenterprises of interest to farmers. However, even such materials tailored to theirlocal needs are not readily available. This has contributed to the slow rate ofadoption of improved technologies, thus reducing the productivity andproduction.

There has been a growing demand by farmers and private organisations for booksthat can guide farmers to manage specific enterprises. To address this problem,UNFA has produced farmers' books on improved agricultural technologies withthe most up-to-date recommendations in specific disciplines of agriculture. Thebooks are aimed at giving practical guidelines to the farmer on how to manage hisor her enterprise profitably. For sustainable production, UNFA encourages allfarmers to take on farming as a business.

It is advisable that farmers get the relevant training first, and use these books as areference to re-enforce learning. In addition, they are advised to constantlyconsult extension workers in their respective areas, as this combination will leadto successes in farming.

UNFA, therefore, calls upon all farmers to utilise the information in these booksand share it with others so as to cause a multiplier effect in production.

Hon. Maikut Chebet, MPPresident,Uganda National Farmers Association.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

1.0 Introduction 1

2.0 Common pig breeds and selection of pig stock 2

3.0 Systems of pig management 6

4.0 Housing 8

5.0 Pig house plans and fittings 11

b.0 Feeds and feeding 15

7.0 Reproductive behaviour 18

8.0 Management of bar, sow, piglets and growers 19

9.0 Pig diseases, their prevention and control 24

10.0 Routine procedures 27

11.0 Record keeping 29

Appendix 31

Further reading 32

ii

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1

What is Pig Management?

Pig management is the control of a number of factors such as housi rig,feeding, breeding, health and records, to allow pigs perform to themaximum of their genetic potential at least cost.

1.2

Which are the principles of pig production?

• Appropriate housing• Control of parasites and diseases• Proper selection of animals• Proper care of replacement stock• Adequate feeding• Efficient record keeping• Proper environment management

Farmers must endeavor to adopt the recommended managementprocedures, as it is the only way they can protect themselves against heavylosses. Primarily, the requirements of pigs are sometimes the sameregardless of where they are kept and it is only reasonable that theserequirements are supplied at the minimum possible capital and runningcosts.

1.3

What are the advantages of pig production?

• Pigs are well adapted to both specialized and diversified farming• They have quick returns• The investment in swine breeding stock and in equipment may be

relatively small and it is possible to get in and out of a business in acomparatively short time

• Feeding swine on maize and other grains is usually a profitablemethod of marketing these grains that are bought at very low prices inthe season when the harvest is very big

• Pig production is an efficient way of producing meat• Swine can be raised on small or large farms and in small or large

numbers• Pigs can be raised on pasture where they will not require expensive

housing and equipment• Breeding stock and feeding stock are readily available• Almost every village has a pig slaughter place that makes the sale of

pork easy. In addition, the slaughter weight is ideal such that there isno risk of pork remaining unbought after slaughter

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• The labour requirements in pig production are low as one person canmanage a large swine-breeding herd.

• With good selection of the breeding stock, pigs carry a big advantageover the other livestock due to the multiple fetuses they carry andtherefore giving a big number of young ones. This makesmultiplication of pigs easy.

• Pigs suffer less from metabolic and nutritional diseases. This sbecause pigs can feed on things ranging from grass as herbivores tomeat as carnivores do. In the process they properly balance theirnutritional requirements.

• In addition to being omnivorous pigs enjoy digging the soi, with theirsnout and they access the minerals in the soil to meet their nutritionalrequirements.

• Therefore pig production is a very good avenue for improvement nf`house hold incomes.

2.0 COMMON PIG BREEDS AND SELECTION OF PIG STOCK

2.1

Common pig breeds

2.1.1 Hampshire breed

This breed is black in colour with a white belt around the shoulder forequarters. It is a medium size breed that originated from Southern EnglandIt has a straight face, erect ears, good nursing ability and also produces anexcellent lean carcass.

Picture I: Shows the Hampshire Boar

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2.1.2 Large white breed

This breed is white in colour, has erect ears and a ditched face Itoriginated from Yorkshire, England. Although it is not quick in maturing,it is a good feed converter.

Figure 2: Shows the Large White Boar

2.1.3 Landrace breed

This breed is white in colour with a long and big body that has deep sidesIt has a straight snout and loped ears which cover most of the face. T hisbreed originated from Denmark and has been widely used for crossbreeding especially with the large white to produce prolific breeding sows.The breed is mainly used for bacon.

Figure 3: The Landrace Boar

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2.1.4 Duroc breed

This breed is mahogany to red in colour. It has good mothering ability.It is resistant to stress and is adaptable to various environmental conditionsand is very useful in crossbreeding programs.

Figure 4: Showing a female Duroc breed

2.1.5 Crossbreed

Cross breeding is practiced because it combines the desirable traits in theparent breeds into one animal. The major traits that a pig producer shouldtarget to improve in a crossbreeding program include, fast growth rate,good feed efficiency, resistant to diseases and good litter size andmothering ability.

All cross breeding programs should be followed by good management practices inorder to benefit from the good characteristics that are targeted.

2.1.6 Local pigs:

Most of the local pigs that are kept in villages have arisen as a result ofimproper management of the exotic or crossbred pigs. It is only those thatcan survive the poor management practice that stay. The biggestadvantage of these pigs is that they are able to survive on low quality feedsand are resistant to some diseases. However, such pigs have low growthrate.

2.2

Selection of pigs for stocking

2.2.1 One can select pigs for stocking using pedigree

When selecting a pig for rearing, base on the following:• Individual merit whereby the pig selected must have the desired

characteristics. The pig must be a good feed converter and the femalepig must have atleast 12 to 14 well developed teats.

• Based on records, where the pig will be selected using the availablerecords. The records used must have the information about the sowand boar and their performance. Such pigs will be selected with a viewthat they will be able to exhibit the characteristics of theirpredecessors.

When selecting pigs basing on individual merit, the pig must be of' thefollowing characteristics:

• Females:

Females to be selected must have a good body condition, teats shouldbe well developed (atleast 12-14 in number), the pig must not haveabnormalities like lameness and the posture must be normal (SeeFigure 5).

Figure 5: Showing the characteristics of an ideal female pig

• Males

The male selected as a future boar to be used for mating must beselected from a sow which gave birth to atleast 10 piglets with s ormore at weaning. The male should be selected from a sow with 12 ormore fully developed and well spaced teats. In addition it must havestrong feet and legs with a weight of about 110kg liveweight at 155days.

2.2.2 Selection of replacement stock from farmers own farm

Many farmers obtain their replacement stock through breeding andreproduction on their own farms. Farmers that adopt this practice mustnote the following:

• Under poor management, losses due to sterility, abortion and death ofimmature animals can reduce the number of animals available forreplacement.

• Farmers must avoid underfeeding and other factors that retard growthand delay puberty.

• Always have a pool of' young females and males from which to selectreplacements.

+ Caution must be taken to avoid over feeding as it can lead to:excessive fatness, high expense on feeds and may be a danger to theproduction and reproductive ability of the animals.

3.0 SYSTEMS OF PIG MANAGEMENT

There are basically 3 systems of pig management. The classificationdepends on the levels of inputs in raising the pigs and therefore the systemto be adopted depends on the capital available.

3.1

Backyard or Scavenging System

• The pigs are completely left on their own to scavenge for food all thetime. Usually the pigs are left to the compound of the owner and someform of supplementary feed either as family food leftovers oroccasionally commercial pig feed is offered.

• Indigenous pig types are predominantly used because they are tolerantto low quality feeds and are resistant to some parasites such as ascaris.

• As might be expected, the growth rate and body condition of pigsunder the scavenginglba.ckyard system of management are generallypoor.

• The meat quality of the pigs kept under this system is poor.• It is difficult to control the spread of diseases under this system and

there will be high piglet mortality caused by disease infections andother factors like malnutrition, predators, crushing, and chilling.

3.2

Semi-Intensive System

• This is the system practiced under situations varying frombackyard/scavenging conditions to conditions similar to that of anintensive system.

• Commercial feed is commonly used as kitchen leftovers are notsufficient to sustain the requirements of the pigs.

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• The pigs are housed at night but are allowed to gaze out. Farmers areusually able to keep about 20-30 pigs under this system ofmanagement.

• 1f this system is well managed, the performance of the pigs will be aswell as those managed under intensive system.

• It requires plenty or land and pigs must be confined in fencedpaddocks

3.3

Intensive -Large Scale Commercial System

Under this system,• Pigs are kept in total confinement• Herd size ranges from 50 sows and more

• Commercial feed is used• There must be good husbandry practices with respect to feedi,lg,

hygiene, disease control and housing• The growth rate is fast., there is good feed conversion ratio, high sow

reproductive efficiency and good quality carcass

3.4

Requirements for a commercial pig production enterprise

For proper management on the farm, the pigs should be separated intodifferent units according to their age, and/or reproduction stage Thefollowing are the common groupings:

• Breeding: these are the pigs that are mature enough and are ready tomate and reproduce.

• Gestating: these are the pigs that are pregnant• Farrowing: these are the pigs that are about to give birth.• Growers: These are the young pigs that have been weaned. They can

be kept for fattening or as replacement stock.• Finishing: These are the growers that are nearing marketing for pork or

bacon

Depending on the market situation one can decide on one or more of thefollowing enterprises

• À. furrow to finish operation: This is where the farmer rears piglets upthe age when the pigs are ready to slaughter for pork or bacon.

• Furrow to wean operation: This is a system where by the farmer rearsthe piglets up to weaning and sells them to the other farmers forbreeding or fattening.

• Finishing pig operation: In this system the farmer buys pigs which arealmost ready for slaughter, gives them feed for purpose of attaining therequired market weight and meat quality before they are slaughtered

Whatever the system of management chosen, the following are thetargets/goals for a profitable pig production enterprise:

3.5

Pig production Targets and Goals

• Farmers must always adopt a system that will ensure that all thefemales that are for mating become pregnant. At least farmers shouldaim at about 85% conception rate at first service and 100% with repeatservice.

• The sows kept should give birth 2-3 times per year with at least 8piglets per litter at weaning. The practice of early weaning will enablethe sow give birth three times a year. If weaning early is practiced, thepiglets must be fed on high quality creep feed to enable the pigletsweigh 18kg at weaning.

• The feed conversion efficiency should not be more than 3.5 (i.e 3.5kgof the feed used must be able to add on 1kg of meat to the pig beingfed).

• The Production life span of 5 years for the sows.

• Farmers must aim at marketing the pigs for slaughter at 4 to 6 months.At this age, the fatteners should have attained a weight of 45 to 65kgand can be slaughtered for pork.

4.0 HOUSING

4.1

Importance of housing

Housing of pigs is important as it provides an environment which willimprove feed efficiency, reduce on the labour in husbandry andmanagement tasks like feeding and handling. In addition, housing willincrease efficiency in control of diseases and parasites thus it willminimize mortality and encourage production of healthy pigs.

4.2

Requirements of an ideal Pig house

An ideal pig house should have proper drainage and should always be keptdry. The house must be well ventilated and should have adequate spaceper pig. There must be enough light in the pig house as this will enable theattendant to carry out the management routines properly

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The following factors should be considered while planning the layout of apig house:

• Feeding arrangement: the feed troughs and water containers must beput in a place where the attendant is able to put in feed and waterwithout entering the pig pen.

• Feed store: the feed store should be located. near the pig pens as thiswill enable the attendant to supply the feed to the pigs without liftingfeed for long distances. There must be enough room to enableweighing of the feed.

• Observation of animals: The pen must be constructed in such a waythat the fanner is able to observe all the pigs without entering the pen.

• Access to pens: For systems where many pens are constructed, eachpen must have a gate near the corridor so that the farmer can entereach pen without passing through another pen. This will ass() facilitatethe movement of pigs when being shifted from one pen to the otherduring the different management undertakings.

4.3

Where should you build the pig house on your land?

The siting of the pig house should be based on the following:

• The house must be constructed at a well drained ground as this willavoid dumpiness in the pig house.

• The place must be accessible for the people working on the farm andmust be in an area where it is easy to deliver incoming feed and otherfarm inputs

• The house should be constructed in an area where it is easy to loadoutgoing pigs and their products

• The area must have access to a source of water

4.4

Parts of a pig house

The type of house depends on the system of production. Whatever systemis adopted, the following must be put into consideration while constructinga pig house.

• Roof

It is important that the roof is able to protect the pigs from directsunlight and rain. It should be preferably thick so that the undersideremains cool and water tight.

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• Wall

The wall must be partially open to allow movement of air through thehouse. Some walls may be solid to give protection against the outsideenvironment and predatorsMovable partitions can be put as walls. Such partitions if used can bemoved and the layout is changed according to need.

• Floor

The floor must have proper drainage such that it is possible to keep itclean and dry. Dung and urine on a damp floor create conditions idealfor the spread of disease organisms.To achieve this, the floor should be made of concrete and sloping, orslatted so that water drains away. A slope of at least 5% (a fall of y arnfor every lm) is recommended. Ensure that water troughs and feedersare placed at the lower end of the sloped floor so that the floor remainsdry.

Slats as a floor for your pig house: Slats are a good way of keepingthe floor clean and dry. However, they are less suitable for younganimals because the feet get stuck between them.Slats can be made using different types of materials, which includewood, split bamboo, concrete, wires or expanded metal mesh.The space between slats should be big enough to allow manure to drop

easily but small enough to prevent the feet from passing through.

4.5

Materials used for construction of a pig house?

+ Local materials

These reduce on the costs. However, their greatest disadvantage is thatthey are easily destroyed by fire and are less durable. Examples arewooden poles, bamboo etc.

. Purchased timber, concrete and galvanized: iron

Although these are expensive, they are the best to use because theyare more long lasting.

Note:

The bi ggest problem observed in pig units is poor hygiene, whichconsequently causes parasitic infestations in pigs. Contrary to the widelyheld view that the pigs are dirty animals, they are actually clean animalsThey usually defecate and urinate in a specific area far from their resting

to

or sleeping place. To enhance hygiene in a pig unit, it is highlyrecommended that the floor of the pig houses be made of concrete.

5.0 PIG HOUSE PLANS AIN FITTINGS

5.1

Farrowing Unit

This is the unit where pregnant sows or gilts are taken. when they are clueto deliver (starting at clay 110 of pregnancy). The components andequipment of a farrowing unit include the following:

e Farrowing rails

These are metal bars which guard young ones against being crushed bythe mother sow when it lies down (see Figure 6)

Figure 6: Showing a pregnant sow in the farrowingunit.The farrowing rail can be seen as ametallic guard running behind the sow

Creep feeding area

This is a section in the farrowing pen where the feed for the piglets isput. A simple creep feeding area can be made quite easily bybarricading off the corner of the pen. A small inlet door is put to allowpiglets to enter and nat the sow. This is done because the nutritionalrequirements of piglets are different from the sow and the feed for thepiglets is very expensive to feed to the so.v.

Il

• Water and feed troughs

These are placed near the corridor passage where the farmer passeswhile giving the pigs feed and water.

The lay out and measurements of the different areas are given in Figure 7,

Figure 7: Drawing of furrowing unit with dimensions

The farrowing unit should always be kept clean. It should be scrubbedwith soap and water, disinfected and left unused for 5-7 days before a newsow is introduced. Cleaning can be accomplished by using a stiff scrubbrush. Disinfectants are ineffective unless the cleaning is thorough.

5.2

Minimum size rearing pen

After farrowing, the sow and its piglets can be transferred to the minimumsize rearing pen. This is the pen where the sow and its piglets are kept upto the time when the piglets are weaned It has prevision for the creep feed

and it is very important for the first weeks of the piglet as it helps them :oavoid extreme cold and thus chilling. Figure 8 shows a typical design of aminimum size rearing pen.

1.5

(Pft)

12

pu^G,irrG

'

•_ ^N . --g3u.3'.s.TFCOUCt H

!•5m -

-3m

q<--04

'GAM

¼..?~ ►' WATE`^

Figure 8: Showing the design of a minimum size rearing pen

5.3

Fattening/Growers Unit

The fattening or growers pigs houses the young pigs after weaning. Theyare housed in groups of 10 -30 pigs. However, there should be provisionfor individual pens to isolate sick pigs. Figure 9 shows part of afattening/growers unit.

Figure 9: Papa of a fattening/growers unit

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The plans and fittings can be constructed and arranged in a homestead nsshown in Figure 10a. The arrangement of the pens in the house of theintensive system is shown on the ground plan in Figure 10b. Themeasurements for the different pens and space requirements per pig shouldbe maintained as given in the specific sections for these units. The size ofthe rearing pen depends on the number of pigs to be kept in the pen andtheir age group.

Figure 10a: Showing the farm arrangement in a senti-intensive system

of pig management

Slo e

_Drainage

_

Exercise area

Exercise area

Creep area

Boar pen

^g

l

1

1

Growers pen

gate

Pregnant sows and Farrowing pengilts pen F_.l _iI

I-

Feed passageII'

Growers pen

Boar pen Pregnant sow, andgilts pen _

Farrowing pen

Exercise area Exercise area

Creep area

Dra^na eSlc_ae ----►

Exercise area

Figure 10b: Ground plan of the intensive system pig unit

Slope

-en

Drainage pit \--'

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6.0 FEEDS AND FEEDING

6.1

What are the important facts about feeds and feeding of pigs?

• Feed costs represent 60 - 70% of the total cost of production in the pigindustry. Therefore the profit from a pig enterprise is affected by theefficient and economical use of the feeds.

• The pig is omnivorous, i.e. it can eat all types of food except that it cannot digest too much fiber and therefore can not live entirely onroughage

• Pigs thrive best on foods that are suitable for humans and fortunatelythey also thrive on by-product feeds and other materials that arepractically useless as food for man.

• Farmers should always aim at using cheaper, lower grade feed stuffs tothe fullest extent and to supplement them by the more expensivenutritious feeds to the point that true economy dictates.

• Nutrient requirements vary with age and physiological condition (e.gthe nutrient requirements for piglets is different from that of weanersand similarly the feed requirements for a pregnant sow are differentfrom that of a sow with suckling piglets.

• Diseased pigs cannot utilize feed efficiently and therefore farmersmust ensure that the pigs are in good health. 4lso, poorly fed pigs aresusceptible to diseases.

6.2

What should you feed your pigs on?

Feeds for pigs are classified as: carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals,vitamins and water.

• Carbohydrates

These provide energy and are necessary for fattening.he following are the common feeds used in pig production as a sourceof carbohydrates

• Cereals and cereal products

Corn and cob meal: This is a meal made from the whole maize cobWhile feeding pigs on this meal, farmers must know that it has onlyabout two-thirds the nutritive value of maize. It is commonly used asfeed for sow and boar.

Maize or corn: Of all cereal grains, maize is one of the richest incarbohydrate and fat.

15

• Proteins

This is a nutrient required for forming muscle, internal organs,skin, hair, hooves and also milk in adults

Sources of protein

Blood meal: this is one of the common sources of protein duringthe formulation of pig feeds. It can be used at a rate of 5 0/0 of thefeed ration

Cotton seed meal: this is another good source of protein. Howeverits inclusion should not exceed 10% of the ration because of therisk of gossypol poisoning if it is fed in excessive quantities.

Fish meal: This is another source of animal protein, and itsinclusion in the ration should not exceed 10% This is the bestsource of animal protein for pig rations.

Meat and meat plus bone meals: This one can be used at the taleof 5-10% of the ration. Farmers must always exercise cautionwhile feeding pigs with meat left overs as pork left overs fromeating places may serve as a source of disease.

Milk and milk byproducts: These can also be used as a source ofprotein and ratios vary from 10-30% of the ration

Soya bean meal: Soya bean is best source of plant protein for pigfeed formulation. Its quantity should not exceed 10% of the ration.

• Minerals:

Most essential minerals for pigs are calcium, phosphorus and iron.Calcium and phosphorus can be fed to pigs by including bone mealin the ration Iron is very important especially in piglets and can begiven to pigs by allowing them access to clean red soil otherwiseiron sulphate can be given to the pig as an oral formulation or as sLoinjection.

Other nutritional requirements include vitamines which must be purchased andput in the feed ration as feed additives, Water must always be available to the pigand water containers must not be empty at any one time.

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6.3

Nutritional requirements for the different pig catagories

• Piglets

Each newborn piglet should be fed on colostrum within the first 18hours after birth. If the sow is hostile, bottle feeding of the colostrumto the piglets is recommended.Sow's milk does not contain enough iron to meet the requirements ofbaby pigs. Iron should be given to baby pigs within their first 3 or 4days to prevent anemia. Iron formulations are available and can begiven by injection ok orally. Figuire 11 shows how to administernutritional fluids to piglets using the oral route. The nutrients to begiven must be measured out correctly, preferably using a syringe.

Figure 11: Showing administartion of nuitritional fluids using the oral route

Creep feed: starting at one week of age, piglets should be givencreep feed. Creep feeds should be fed dry and piglets preferfeeding them when pelleted. Water shculd always be availableCreep feeds are commercially available in feed meals. It is veryimportant that the creep feed used between one week and threeweeks of age contains 20% crude protein. At 3 weeks farmers mayswitch to starter feed which contains 18% crude protein and this isfed to the piglets until they reach weaning age where the weightwill also be about 15kg.

• Weaners/Growers

After weaning the pigs should be switched from the creep feed to alower cost pig grower feed which contains 16% of crude proteinClean fresh water should be available to the pigs at all times

• BoarBoars may be fed on rations containing 14% crude protein. Watermust always be available for the boar.

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• Pregnant sow

During gestation the sow is limit fed for 2-3 Kilograms per day of a14% protein diet (Sow and weaner meal). Close to farrowing, maizebran may be added as 25% and this will be mainly the source ofenergy. Maize bran will also increase bulk and this preventsconstipation. Water must always be available for the sow.

• Lactating sow

Bulky ingredients should be removed from the sow ration soon at}erfarrowing. Sews are fed on rations containing 14% protein and thosenursing large litters need full feeding during lactation. Sows that finishlactation with excessive weight losses have delayed estrus beyond theusual 3 to 7 days post weaning. Sows nursing fewer than eight pigletsmay be fed an amount of 3 kg per day with an added bonus of 0 25 kgfor each piglet being nursed.

7.0 REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR OF PIGS

7.1

Female reproductive behavior

Female pigs can corne on heat at any time of the year and they don't showseasonality in their reproductive behavior. They come into heat on averageat 21 day intervals (19 to 24 days) throught the year with gilts having ashorter period than sows. Within this cycle the heat period lasts 24 hoursonly. The signs that will indicate that the sow or gilt is on heat include thefollowing:• Grunting• Restlessness• Swelling and red appearance of the vulva• Gilts or sows on heat will stand still when pressure is exerted on their

hind quarters

The period of maximum fertility in pigs occurs during mid-estrus andfarmers should mate their pigs during this time. Because of the complexityof farmers not knowing the exact time when the heat signs began, farmersmay mate the sow twice. In this practice, the first mating is doneimmediately the first heat signs are seen and the second mating done l224 hours later. Farmers may use different boars at the two matings as thisis thought to increase the litter size.Gilts should be bred for the first time on or after their third heat period.This should occur when they are about 6 to 8 months of age.

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Sows normally come on heat 3 to7 days after weaning and may be bred atthis first heat period if they have good condition. If the sow is not in goodbody condition after weaning, then it should be bred on the second heat

After mating, the gestation period lasts 114 days (3 months, 3 weeks and 3days). Otherwise the gestation period falls between 112 to 120 days. Thisallows the sow to reproduce 2 to 3 times a year.

7.2

Male reproductive behavior

Boars may be used for the first time when they are 7 to 8 months old aslong as they are well grown. A mature boar of more than 15 months of agecan serve 20 to 40 times a month if he is managed together with thefemales. Immature boars under 15 months of age should not be used forservice more than 25 times in a month. The average boar to female ratio is1:50 (1 boar for every 50 female pigs).

7.3

Inbreeding

Farmers should avoid using the same boar on the farm for a long timehowever good the boar may be as this will result into inbreeding.Inbreeding will result into expression of the hidden bad characteristics.These bad characteristics may result in bad performance of the offspringsBoars must not be used to serve their own offsprings or their own mothersow. To avoid inbreeding, farmers must arrange to buy boars from otherfarms.

8.0 MANAGEMENT OF BOAR, SOW, PIGLETS AND GROWERS

8.1

How to Manage a Boar

The purpose of keeping boars is to use them for mating with gilts or sowswhen they cone on heat. It is recommended that boars are kept inindividual pens to eliminate fighting, riding and competition for feed.Besides, the time when the boar remains serving is improved by penningboars separately.

Boars in confinement should be kept in individual pens about 8 x 8 feet. Inthe semi-intensive system, the minimum space requirement is 75x 100 feetand under this system, housing and feeding areas should be separate toencourage exercise.

Newly purchased boars must be put in an isolation pen for 30 days. Thepen should have been disinfected two weeks earlier, should be locatedaway from the rest of the herd and should be well protected from extremeweather conditions. This will enable the farmer to observe if the boar has

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any disease that may not have expressed itself and thereby avoidingintroduction of diseases to the farm

Young boars need to be reared in-groups so that they have the opportunityfor physical contact and interaction with other pigs during development.This will help in the development of normal sexual behavior.

8.2 Management of the sow

The major goal of managing a sow is to obtain a large litter of healthy pigsat birth that will remain healthy and grow rapidly up to weaning. Toachieve this, farmers must ensure the following:• Properly balance the feed ration and ensure that it is fed in the

recommended amounts so that newborn pigs are well developed andstrong.

• Sows are dewormed about 2 weeks before moving to a farrowing pen.The most common dewormer used is piperazine.and antihelminticdrugs that contain levamisol. Treatment for external parasites, at leasttwice, should be done within a few days before moving to a farrowinghouse.

▪ Before a sow is placed in a farrowing pen, wash her, especially theunder side and hindquarters using a mild soap and warm water. Thiswill eliminate soil and fecal material that may contain bacteria andworm eggs, which could infect the nursing pig Figure 12 shows afarmers washing the sow before taking it to the farrowing pen

t-

RIOZIMMINMIMIOW ^^.

Figure 12: A pregnant sow being washed

• Farmers must make sure that they attend to the sows at the time offarrowing as this will decrease on the number of piglets that die duringthe farrowing process or a few hours afterwards. The duration oflabour ranges from 30 minutes to 5 hours on average, although it mayextend to 12 hours. If the labour is unnecessarily long, then call in aveterinarian for assistance.

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• Piglets may be enclosed in the afterbirth or may be covered withexcessive mucous. In such circumstances, remove the mucous andafterbirth to prevent suffocation.

• Farmers must ensure a health program that minimizes exposure of thenew born piglets to disease carriers. Hygien practices must strictly beadhered to.

• After farrowing the sow must be well fed to ensure that it maintains agood body condition. This will make it possible for the sow to comeon heat within the recommended 3 to 7 days after weaning

8.3

Management of baby pigs

ln management of baby pigs farmers must note the following:

• Improved management at farrowing and on through weaning willresult in more pigs weaned per sow per year. On the average, farmerslose more than 25 percent of the live pigs farrowed before they areweaned. Many of these deaths occur in the first few days after birth.Stillbirths, injury and starvation account for more than 60) percent ofthese deaths which normally occur within the first four days after birth.Proper management can reduce these deaths and result in weaning twoor more additional pigs per sow per year. Therefore extra time andeffort spent is essential for the litter.

• One management factor that will save piglets is to be present atfarrowing. The baby pig should have assistance in removing mucusfrom its mouth and in starting to breathe. It should be wiped dry, andbe assisted in nursing for the first time. The farmer can assist with adifficulty of a prolonged birth that might otherwise result in stillbornpigs by summoning for professional help from a veterinary officer.

• Soon after birth the navel should be cut 3-4 cm from the body and ifstill wet, treated with iodine tincture. The navel is a good route forbacteria to enter the body. Treating the navel could reduce on the navelinfection with bacteria. If excessive bleeding occurs from the navel, tiethe navel cord off with a piece of string about 2.5 cm from the body

• Ensure that each newborn piglet takes colostrum from the sow withinthe first 18 hours after birth. Piglets start suckling immediately afterbirth. The strongest pigiets find the best teat and eventually after a fewhours of interchange each piglet keeps to its own teat. Therefore noattempt should be made to make the sow raise more piglets than itsnumber of teats. however many piglets are born. However in a wellmanaged system the surplus piglets can be raised by hand or on a

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foster mother. This is why it is important that breeding pigs shouldhave at least 12 to 14 teats.

• Sometimes sows may give birth when they have niastitis orinflammation of the mammary glands caused by one or more micro-organisms. Similar)/ the sow may have a condition known as agalactiaor failure to secrete milk. In such circumstances the sow will not havethe milk for the piglets to suckle. If there is failure of the sow torelease milk, then do foster nursing by getting milk from another sowwhich has given birth and bottle feed the piglets with a bottle.Alternatively the piglets can be given to a foster mother.

• Piglets are usually born with relatively small reserve of iron in theirbody and their mothers milk does not normally provide sufficient ironfor their requirements. Consequently, piglet anaemia caused by irondefficiency often occurs. Therefore to prevent piglet anaemia, it isrecommended that farmers put clean red soil in the pen each day asred soil is a rich source of iron. Also daily oral administration of 4mlof a 1.8% of ferrous sulphate solution is recommended. Alternativelyfarmers may inject the piglets with ferrous sulphate or it may besmeared on the teats of the sow where the piglets will take it in whilesuckling.

Figure 13: Piglet being given iron sulphate

After considering these aspects the piglets must be well fed as alreadyrecommended in the section of feeding until weaning time. At weaning;the sow should be taken away from the piglets and not the piglets from thesow. Weaning should be gradual and not an abrupt process. At first thesow should be taken away for a few hours, then for a whole day andfinally all the time. After weaning the piglets now must start to bemanaged as growers

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8.4

Management of growing and finishing pigs

The routine is to mix the pigs and make weaner pools, which consist of20-25 weaners. These will initially fight but will settle after a while andstart feeding and drinking normally. After this, the pigs are put in-groupsand the number of pigs in a group depends on the size of the pen and thefinal body weight to be reached. Therefore space and feed requirementsmust be considered as critical factors in the management of growers andfinishing pigs.

• Space requirements for growers and finishing pigs

Generally 4 x 5m is enough for 10-12 pigs up to marketing forslaughter. Growing pigs 23-57 kg require 1 square meter per pig whilefinishing pigs of 57-100kg require 1.8 square meters per pig.

When paddocks are used like in the semi-intensive system, it isrecommended to keep 50-65 pigs per hectare for the. growers while thefinishers should be stocked at 40-50 pigs per hectare.

• Feed requirements for growing and finishing pigs

Growing pigs should be fed to appetite if the farmer can afford. Thisgives a faster growth rate but it is expensive. Finishing pigs should belimit fed on a scale of body weight. Restricted feeding avoidsdevelopment of fatty carcasses. Growing pigs can also be limit fed asfollows:

Body weight (kg) Amount of feed (kg per day)

20 1.2

40 1.7

60 2.0

80 2.3

100 2.5

The feeds given must contain at least 16% crude protein and pigs on pastureshould also be given a full daily ration once a day. Feeding once a day will reduceon the labour requirements.

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9.0 PIG DISEASES, THEIR PREVENTION AND CONTROL

9.1

How do you tell that a pig has ill health?

A pig is suspected to have ill health if it shows any or a combination of thefollowing signs:

▪ General signs: these include dullness, loss of appetite, laboured orrapid breathing, sudden deaths, loss of weight, low weight gain andfever usually manifested by shivering of the pig.

• Signs expressed on the skin: these include reddening of the skin orskin discoloration, loss of hair and hardening of some parts of the skin,itching of the skin and cracking of the skin.

• Others signs commonly observed include: lameness, cough,abnormal nasal discharges, diarrhea with bad smelling feces, abnormalcontents and colour of feces and abortions. Figure 14 below showssome of the signs which can be observed in sick and malnourishedpigs

Figure 14: Showing a pig with signs of illness

9.2 Common diseases of pigs

Pig diseases can be caused by bacteria, viruses, protozoa, nutritionaldeficiencies, poisonous substances, internal and external parasites.

* Bacterial diseases include swine erysipelas, swine dysentery,infectious poly-arthritis etc.

• Viral and mycoplasrna diseases include African swine fever, swineinfluenza, enzootic pneumonia of pigs, vesicular exanthema of swine,transmissible gastroenteritis etc.

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• Helminthiasis as a health problem in pigs is mainly caused by wormslike the Lungworm, Ascaris worms etc.

• Nutritional diseases include piglet anemia, parakeratosis etc

• External Parasitic infestations infestations include mange, lice, jiggersetc.

The common diseases of pigs, their clinical signs, treatment and controlare given in the appendix.

9.3

Guidelines of disease prevention/control

To be able to manage and control pig diseases, farmers must take care ofhousing and ventilation including cleaning and disinfection of the pigpens, manure disposal, proper disposal of the dead pigs and isolation ofthe sick pigs.

• Housing and ventilation

The way the house is constructed should facilitate proper cleaning,disinfection and maintenance of sanitary conditions e.g suitablefloors, adequate waste disposal, absorbent bedding.Good ventilation is essential in disease control and air must movethrough the building such that foul air is replaced with fresh Thiscan be secured by using an open shed, doors, windows ana incompletewalls

• Proper manure disposal

Disease causing agents may be contained in urine, feces, exhalationand nose and mouth discharges. These may act as media for growth ofdisease causing agents. Excrement must he removed frequently fromthe immediate surroundings. Manure may be heaped so that the heatgenerated kills the parasites and microbes. It is recommended thatmanure be kept in a covered concrete pit and the manure in the pitsprayed with insecticides to inhibit development of disease causingor ganisms and flies.

• Pigs kept on pasture should be rotated in the paddocks

Rotation on pasture will disrupt the life cycle of many disease causingagents as these agents are sometimes specific for certain hosts.Pastures may be rotated between different species.

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• Provide suitable feed and water containers

Use feed and water containers which will avoid water and feed spillingover the floor. The feed and water containers must be easy to clean

• Isolate new animals

When introducing new animals, secure a health certificate from thefarm where the animal is being purchased and thereafter isolate themfor a minimum of 3 weeks. Thoroughly clean and disinfect theisolation stall after each animal is removed and before animals areintroduced.

• Dispose of dead pigs properly

Pigs that die can be a source of infection and should be disposed off byburning to eliminate contamination of the surrounding ground. Burialis another disposal technique and the pig should be put in a 4 ft deeppit if this method of disposal is used. On death of an animal, call aveterinarian to carry out examination and ascertain cause of deathbefore disposal.

• Use of disinfectants

Disinfectants are used to create conditions unfavourable for survival ofmicrobes. Proper cleaning removes most microbes, but in case of adisease outbreak, the buildings must be disirtfected Foot disinfectionfor visitors visiting pig pens is a good arrangement in diseaseprevention and control

• Use a Veterinarian

Effective health control program calls for co-operation between the pigfarmer and veterinarians.

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10.0 ROUTINE PROCEDURES

10.1 Castration of male piglets

Male pigs that are not required for breeding are generaly castrated toavoid indiscriminate breeding. Castration of male piglets can be doneimmediately the testicles are palpable in the scrotum. It is howeverrecommended that it is done a week or ten days before weaning.

10.2 I)eworming

Deworming should be carried out routinely at least after every threemonths. Pigs start to be dewormed after weaning. Adult pigs may fightwhen being dewormed and must therefore be held properly to avoidpouring of the dewormer. Figure 15 shows how a pig can be given adewormer using a bottle.

Figure 15: Shows oral administration cf a dewormer to a mature pig

10.3 Identification

Farmers must be able to identify their pigs always. In pig management, theeasiest way is to do the ear-punching pattern. Punching of the differentparts of the ear will give different numbers. The numbers given for eachregion punched are given in Figure 16 while inset is an example of apatten for identification number 1178.

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Example of Number 1178

Figure 16: Illustration of identification by punching

Pigs should not be ear-punched too early. The recommendation is that thisis done at six weeks of age. Some pigs are purchased when they are grownup and it is necessary that such pigs also get an identification numberPunching of such pigs and other routine procedures may be done afterthorough restraint of the pig as shown in Figure 17.

Figure 17: Showing restraint of a pig on a pole using a rope

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10.4 Cleaning of the pig pens

This should be done on a daily basis in order to maintain hygiene. Allmovable equipment must be removed, cleaned and returned. The fécesshould be removed before washing with water.

10.5 Breeding and mating

Breeding and mating is one of the activities that a farmer will carry out onalmost a day to day basis. Farmers must check on the pigs in the breedingherd and ensure that they know the gilt or sow on heat and give them tothe male. Breeding is of two types:

• Pen breeding: In pen breeding, a boar is left to run with a group ofsows as opposed to keeping the boar in a pen to which sows on heatare brought for service. Pen breeding requires less labour and there isless stress on the boar in getting a large number of females mated tohim. When using pen breeding divide sows or gilts into groups of 8-10and one boar be put with each group. It is advisable to rotate boarsamong groups every 12 .-24 hours.

• Hand breeding: This is where the pig on heat is taken to the boar forservice. The boar is kept in a separate pen It has an advantage that it iseasy to know the exact breeding date.

11.0 RECORD KEEPING

11.1 Importance of record keeping

Record keeping is important because records provide: early warning ofdeveloping problems, clues to basic weaknesses in the managementprogram, information for budgeting or feasibility studies and can be usedto monitor herd health. Records are also used to identify major costs,comparison with other producers and to provide a basis _or seasonaladjustments in management.

1L2 Types and characteristics of good records

Records must be as simple as possible and kept where they are easilyaccessible in a way which minimizes transfer from one record sheet toanother. There are many types of records and they are broadly categorizedinto individual, herd and financial records.

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• Individual records

These include, animal identification number, age, breeding date, healthstatus, date of birth, weight at birth, growth rate and weight atweaning. This type of records is mainly used in culling of non-productive animals and in selection of animals for future breedingpurposes.

• Herd records

These are the records where information is kept regarding feedconsumption by different classes of pigs, new purchases, death lossesper a given period, herd reproductive performance which gives numberof breeders and the number that has farrowed in the herd and still havesuckling piglets.

In pig farming farmers first and foremost ensure that they have recordon the expected date of farrowing, correct identification of the sow andboar with which it was bred. Also keep the feed and liveweight recordfor measurement of feed efficiency, cost to produce a kg gain inweight, mortality record and use health record cards to showvaccinations and treatments.

Other records which must be kept by the farmer as a row ine include:• Heats and services record where farmers must record the dates when

the pig was on heat and the dates when the next heat is expected.• Financial records which include: feed costs, pig purchases, and sales,

health and treatment costs, labour costs, charges for electricity,taxation, fuel costs, machinery operation costs and transport costs forfeed, animals etc.

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APPENDIX

Common diseases and disease conditions that affect pigs

Disease Clinical signs

_....]_Treatment _ ControlAfrican

swinefever

Restrictmovement of pigsor

meat

fromaffected

areas.Slaughter

of

allpigs

on

the

Fever,

dullnes,

loss

ofappetite,huddling

together,incoordination,

coughingdiscolouration of the skin

tobluish,

serous

nmcopun ►lentocular

and

nasal

discharges,

Attempt

controlmeasures only.

vomiting and diarrhoea.__

affected

farm.Disinfection

Swine erysipelas Sudden death, loss of appetite,red and bluish appearance ofthe

skin and ears.

Diamondshaped skin lesions which maybecome necrotic

Penicillin

is

veryeffective and is thedrug of choice

_esClean the pen :andldisinfect. Treat theincontact

pigswith penicillin

_Mastitis, metritisand

agalactia(MMA) __

Sow fails to release milk afterfarrowing. The udder may beswollen and mil _`

Use

antibiotics

andoxytocin

Good hygiene

.

the pig pen

Foot and mouthdisease

Fever

and

vesicles

on

thecoronate and sometimes on thelips and tongue

Advisable to institutecontrol

Slaughter of pigsin

the

affectedhouses.Vaccination

Piglet anaemia_

Signs appear mostly in pigletsof 3 weeks of age, pale mucousmembranes and skin, dullnessand diarrhea

Give

Ferroussulphate injections eroral formulations

Put red soil in pigpen or give

ironinjections

toyoung piglets `

Mange Itching

and

scratching,especially al mid-day, scabs onthe

skin,

wTinlding

andhardening of the skin, loss ofhair and shaking of the head ifthe ear is affected.

_Use

Iver ►nectin(lvo ►nec),

tactic

atrecommended dosagelevels

_ _

Treat

the

pigswhen

ever

theyare entering a newpen

which

hasbeen cleaned anddisinfected

garakeratosis_

Similar signs to those of mangebut

with

no

itching

andscratching

Give Zincformulations like zinccarbonate

or

Zincsulphate

Ensure that thereis enough zinc inthe diet.

-Lice Louse will be seen in the folds

of the pig skin epecially in theneck and at the base of the ears

Use

insect ides

likeIvomec

arid

Tacticacaricide

seRoutine

sprayingwith

tactic

ortreatment

withTactic

Worms

I

Poor performance of the pigsWwith low growth rate, coughing .in case of lungworms

Antihelmintics

like1„ evamisol

andPiperazine are helpful

^_

Deworm

pigsevery

threemonths

afterweaning1 _

- - _--

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FURTHER READING

1. Animal husbandry in the tropics by G. Williamson and W.J.A Payne

2. Pig diseases by D.J. Tayt,er

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