Physiological Studies on Groundnut in Relation to ... · A. Khan, Mujahid A.Khan, Ikramul Haque,...

Physiological Studies on Groundnut in Relation to Potassium Nutrition

Under Drought Conditions

SHAHID UMAR

Master of Philosophy JN

BOTANY

ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH

1986

*'-'T>'^jiy2

DS1192 ^•d In c ^Pufaf

A C K N 0 W L F: D 3 E M F N T

I wish to exprcas >«ith a d««p sense of <jratltude^ rny

indebtedness to Profaasor si,r4,R,K, Afridi# Department of

Botany, Aligarh Muslim univerait/# Alig»rh for h i s able

guidance, keen interest and constent encourag^ncnt. I am

also d«»eply thankful tc Dr« Ram 3nehi Dvjivedi for suqrjestin?

the pro ileti and for his able supervision, valuable cr i t i c i sm,

keen interes t and helpftil^'^ujgestiona throu'jho'jt the course

of the preparation of th i s disseartation,

I place on record n»y sincere thanks t Dr, Saniullah,

Header, .)epartnient of saiatany, Alig«rh Muslim University,

Aligarh, f:>r his advice, encoura^^nent and constr ic t ive

crit ic lam during tine preparation of the manuscript.

iy sincere thanks are au«» to the iM-reetor, National

Research Centre for Jroundnut (ICAR), Junagadh ( Jujar^t)

and to the Chairman, Departsaent of aotany, Allgiarh ^^slim

University, Aligarh, for providing the required f i^c i l l t i e s .

Thi nks are also due to Mr» ^.C, Joshi, Or, .C.Nautiyal,

Or. V, Ravindra, Dr. A , L . 'lin^jh. Dr. S.K. !^nej«, Mr.v.s.PJe^l

Mr, 3 , s , DpHap««al, Mr. A.n.Thakkar and Mr. V.o. Koradia of

Juna^adh anff ^ o i>r. S^H, Af«q, Dr. Aqll Alvaad, Dr, Arif Tna-n,

:*• M. A9l«.Ti Parvaiz, Dr. Firo? Mohammad, Dr. A 11 Oad«r,

- il -

Dr. Masood Akhtar« Dr. M.M.A.Khan, Dr. Shamlm A. Ansari,

Dr. Shadab A.Khan# Messrs Molnuddln* Nafees A. Khan, Faizan

A. Khan, Mujahid A.Khan, Ikramul Haque, S.R.M.Ata and

Miss Atlya K.Zaldl, Miss Nasreen Fatlma and Miss S. Shama

Muzaffar for their help and co-operation.

Special thanks are due to my parents, brothers, sister

and my wife Shahln Uroar for their help and encouragement at

every step.

Finally, I sn thankful to Dr. O.S. Sekhon, Director,

Potash Research Institute of India, 3urgaon (Haryana), for

granting Senior Research Fellowship.

(SHAHID UMAR)

C O N T E N T S

P a ^ •

1 . I N T R O D U C T I O N • • • • • 1 - 4

2 . R E V I E W O P T H E

L I T E R A T U R E ••••• 5 « 47

3» M A T E R I A L A N D M E T H O D S . . , . 48 «73

t

4. R E F E R E N C E S ! • xxiv

C H A P T E R I

I N T R O D U C T I O N

CHAPTER

I N T R O D U C T I O H

Groundnut (syn* peanut* !••• Ayachia hvpoqaaa L.)« a

caamber of Paplionaceaa* balonga originally to soui:h Anieriea*

out aaay adaptability of tha gproundnut halpad it in

spraadin? quickly in moat parts of the %rorld within a short

span of about ISO yaars* It is tha only cultivated plwit

that exhibits geotropie reproductive growth and geoonrpie

fruiting* Oeaidea* the groundnut contains about 25% protein

and 509( oil* The groundnut oil consists of nioatly unsaturated

fatty acids* particularly linoleic acid* %«hich ferns the

bulH* linolenic acid and arachidonic acid« which are essential

in huiaan diot* ihese fatty acids make groun tout oil a

balanced edible oil*

India is the largest producer of groundnut in the

i«orld* It acoounta for about 39? mtd 37% of world grouniftnut

cultivated area and production respectively* China and U*S*A*

occupy aecond and third positions* contributing 15^ mid IW

respectively of the total wcrld production* In addition*

groundnut enjoya prominaace among major edible oil yielding

cropa in India* It alone claims the largeat share in area

of cultivation (46%)* production (67%) and edible oil

production (59%)*

Inspite of continuous increase in cultivation area

iinder groundnut* i*e* txasn 0*35 million hectarea in 1910»11

• 2 -

to 7»4 Dillon hactare In 1984-85, productivity of this crop

has slumped from 13*4 g/ha (0*47 million tcmnes) in 1910»11

to 9*5 aAa (7*0 million tonnes) in 1984*d5 whitfh is far lower

than 29»4 3/ha in U.S.A. This IJJ ;nainly because of the fact

that our groundnut is mostly cultivated under rainfed conditions

It is noted that failure in rainfall or its improper distri*

bution* resulting in short to prolonged droi:ght conditions*

reduces pod yield to an extent of 25' to 100' . and thus makes

the groundnut an "unpredictable legtxme" (Misra« 1986) •

nils creates a paradoxal situation as the demand of

edible oil far exceeds its production, the "population

explosi<m'' in India further disturbs the balance year after

year. To bridge toe gap bet«feen deman< and production* India

has no alternative but to imoort edible oil aimually worth

Rs. 1#000 crores* which drains away considerable foreign

exchange and becomes n heavy burden on the econony. In this

oont«9tt« any major it^rovwnent in the production of groundnut,

being cultivated on a large area with its contribijtion of the

major share in edible oil production* is expected to provide

an answer. As mnatione^l earlier groun<teut is mostly grown

under rainfed conditions «fhere frequent droirghts prevail. An

understanding of its stress-agronomy coupled with Judicious

application of mineral nutrients may help improve the

• 3 •

productivity of the crop* Unfortunately* such studies hinre

so far excluded groundnut.

It has been noted that* among variotis nutrients,

potassium works efficiently in drought conditions and promotes

e muBber of physiological activities in plwsts that tend to

ir^rove their drought tolerance* For example* ftiaize roots

penetrate 60 ere deeper when recetvin; potaasiwn fertiliser*

getting access to an extra 10 cm of water (Edward* 1>81)•

Potassium activates a number of key ensyme systems (! ans and

sorger* 1966)* It also lowers osmotic potential of root cells

and increases water uptake (Hengel and Kirkby* l^^O). it

plays a specific role in moat plmt species in opening and

closing of stomata «id checks transpiration (Mengel and

Kirkby* 1982)* Sesides* potassium has many biochcraical and

biophysical functions in photosynthesis such as partitioning

and storage of assimilates affectinj the "source" more th«n

the "sink** (a«ringer and Trolldenier* 1978)« Accordingly*

during vegetative growth when the productive system (leaf area)

and the foundation for yield coni >onents and yield are -3uilt

up* potassium requirimtent of plants becomes high and indispens

able (Seminger and Haeder* 1981) •

It is* therefore* assumed that if seme of these

itfaeliorating effects of potassium can be induced in -jroundnut

• 4 •

growing uiidl«r drought conditions* it will not only heir

utilise marginal land fc r groundnut cultivation but also

iaqprove the productivity of the crop and this helps cater for

ever-»incre?»8in7 the needs of millions of people* Keepinqi

these facts in view* five field trials on groundnut are prqpose?

to be conducted in relation to diff<*rent jnoiature regimes

and potassium nutrition at Juna ladh (lujarat) • It may be

reiterated that Gujarat is one of the tqp contributin<? ^tate

as far as the the cultivation and production of .groundnut 1

concerned* l^e aims end objects of these trials will be

as follows!

1* To find out the optinniii potassium requiremcmts for

the grovth and deveiopment of selected varieties of

groundnut under (i) rainfed and (il) irrigated

conditions.

2« To determine the efficacy of split doees of potassium

applied at differwit stages of growth and development

of the crop*

3. TO study the role of potassium in developing tolerance

in groundnut against dro«i^t stress*

4* To select the most efficient method of applylni

potassiUiti (basal andf or top dressing) so as to ensure

drought tolerance in groundnut leading to Improved

productivity of the crop*

C H A P T E R I I

REVIEW OF TKI LITERATURE

C 0 N T C H T 8

P m q •

2«1 Growth mn4 d«v«lop«aent of groundnut ••••• 5

3*2 Physiological aspect of drought ••••• 14

2*3 Effaet of drought on growth «ad yiold eonipon«nt8 of groundnut ••••• IS

2«4 Physiological tola of potassium ••••• 20

2»5 watsr uso sfficianey in rslation to potassiuia nutrition ••••• 31

2*6 Nitrata raductaaa activity 24

2*7 Proline contant ••••• 26

2*8 Chloroj^yll contsnt ••••• 28

2*9 Enargy harvast affici«iey ••••• 30

2*10 Potassiua mitriticm of groundnut ••••• 34

2*11 Parfonaanoa of othar crops in ralation to potassium nutrition ••••• 40

2*12 Conclusions 46

R^iptf OF THg humi^vm.

It is generally agreed that yielding ability of a

crop depcmds on its vegetative and reproductive crrcwth* The

ai-n of all crop scientists is to maximise these factors

throuq^ genetic variability and well understood agronomy* Of

these« curtailment of the firowing period of P: etoo to «

manageable ext«mt is of parwnount lo portiM ce. It is particularly

true for groundnut as plant breeders have changed its hnbit

from perennial to annual by rigorous genetic manipulati >n, so

that groundnut can now be h«rvested within 3*6 months and is

tetraploid (2n?46)« fttm species "hypo;iaea*' includes two

sub-species described briefly belowt

Sub species hypolaeai This includes Virginia, runner

(spreading) and erect (bunch) types, these are

characterised by the absence of inflorcsence on main

stem mnd bear fruiting body in alternate pairs on the

n -f 1 branches*

Sub species festigiatai This includes Valencia and

Spanish types* They bear floi ers bn?th on -Bain 8t«n

and branches. Sranchlni is segmented (Gregory £t ^ .

lOSlt Krapovikas, 1<J68) •

• 6 •

The l l t«ratur« In relat ion to th« perfomance f t h i s

erop« covering various a^rocllmatie conditions* i s br ief ly

r€-7i<2r-' d be lows

Ali ^ j ^ . (1932) reported that there was no niat1c«d

difference between growth pattern of the two types of cu l t lvars

during seedlin? sta gre* Conversely, bunch variety profluced

l e s s leaves than aprcadlnj variety during the ent ire span days

of llfe# vAlch ranged from 93-112 and 206««»346/resr5cctlvely«

Similarly* vegetative growth period also varied for these

varieties* The period of maxitmim growth was between 56-?7

days in the case of *::«nch type and 70-125 days In case of

spr ading type*

Rao (1936) recorded periodical increase in the shoot

weight of a bunch variety «wS two spreading varieties. The

periodical gain in weight was higher for the variety 'Valours*

and low for the varieties 'local Hauritlous* end 'Judlyathaa

3unch* * Upto 49-»54 days after sowing* the increase In olant

weight was rapid# thereafter (particularly towards aaturity)

the increase gra iually tapered off* The rate f increase in

weight was more rapid during the first 30 and 35 days after

sowing and there was a gradual decrease In the rate of

Increase as the plants irew older*

- 7 -

Prevot (1949) la h i t elaborate studies noted that

there were two phases of growth In 7roundnut« fie demarcated

them (i) as slow iTTowth at the time of f lowerînitlntion emA

gynosôre formation* ufêr the lnflt>ence of internal factors*

and ( i i ) spurred grov?th aecornpanled by the Increase Intake

of nutrit ion through tynophoream

Smith (1951) reported that the p^^rcentaie of f e r t i l i s e d

flowers was very low* I t ranged from 4*9 to 53»o in spreading

and 21.9 to 67«5 in bunch types. Bven after f^Tt l l i sat ion

only about 50*5% of the potential flowers elonrjate'' as peg.

Ihere was a joneral aireement that a ^rêt r orr cent of

early formed flowers develorx?d into pods f 3re ;ory et q^. 1951#

f hear and Miller. 1955).

aunting and Anderson (1960) reported that exr>erim«»nts«

conducted at Kongwa Experimental station* ranjanfika* under

ralnfed conditions on red loaT. soi l* indicated that dry matter

production per plant in variety Matal Con-aon Q bunch type)

increased l inearly from 0.2 3 g per plant on "th d«y to 3?.74 ^

per plant on 105th day. It w«s also observed thnt nearly

45*50 per cent of to ta l dry itjattcr produced in a plant was

acojunaulated in seeds as against 16* 20* 11 and 1 per cent in

shel ls* at&Q, leaves an- roots respect ive ly .

Dor.îraJ (1962) reportctd the*, flowering sequence showed

a rapid increase imrnediately after c^înieneement and reached

• 8 .

th« p««k in about a week* folloved by s sttidden decline, A

lower rete of flcM#«r pro^?uctlon w«a maintained »ub8*?«uently

for about 10 days. A second npell of Increased flo-f er

production, of If as Intensity than the first then occured

and finally, there was a jradual decrease until cessation

after 75 days*

Shaahadrl (196?) discussed details of varietal

differences with re7'jrd t- growth and development. He

concluded th^t th«» attributes of Ufferent variertles were

influenced by seasonal ch»n <?s »nd other environmental factors*

Accordlnj to Forestier (196 3), various runner type

varieties differed v.ith regard to the rate of coverage of

canopy* -' very high co-relation was also found between the

length of the cotylendonary latf rnls and coverage, showing

the importance of the^e rotyl^ndonery laterals In the skeleton

of plant and csnooy structure* In bunch types ml'^o, varietal

differences vere note' in leaf area index ^lAt) In relation

to the rate and time taken to reach the peak* Vhr TAI values

rang<?d from 3*? to 5.0* ' regular Increase in l*»of area and

dry matter p' r plant from the 3rd lo^f stage to peg tmation

was nbsc-ved, Ttie increase w<3 not affected by onset of

floverlng* 1axi«wm T,AT was 4*0,

Haeda (1970) reported that in the varieties of groundnut

studied ay hlmi, the total number of leaves p#»r plant showed

• 9 •

an exponcntlGl Incr^??'.© frcm a^sajt 3 weeks a f t e r sowlni ' hlch

l a s t e d t i l l *50-ltO a f t e r «50wlng, nimiljsrly, t he tot*^! leaf

area per p lan t alao varied* The leaves of the er-ret type

were l a rge r than those of 55pre«dln<j t y p e s .

Bhan (1973) noted f a s t e r jrovth r a t e on ii ]h r dry

mat ter zjccurmxlatlon ot e a r l / Etcje in e r . ^ t vpr iPt ie ' - than

in the sprearSlng one, but n^r'vth contimird f r 1 n^.jer period

In t h e spre?>'11n:j »','pe, ^^orestlrr Q'>73) CO-JCIU l - : th^^t for

maxlmuni y ie ld the lenf f»rea index at thf 14th le?»f s t -JG

should •)€? more than A, the t r t ^ l plant i r y matter shonld '•)e 2 2

SOOif per ra and leaf dry !n;»tter ahould he 175 7 per sn,

teCloud (1974) atu It©-! LM ?snd dry nii^tcer f loninr'^^ r

v a r i e t y tinder two l eve l a of poijulatlon, l.f*. 7.5 -rj ? 10.6 2 p l an t s per m, LAI c ^ l c u l a t e i a t 64th .- mr v aa 3,0» v,;h<Teai.#

a t 37th day# when flw-'erln^ v/.- s almost over i t w o 7 , 1 , i.; T

decreipse"? rap id ly t o 1,7 it harvest(137 df»y*1. I t !•>-:? .->l80

subs t an t i a t e? tha t a t hi^h populat ion, there '.-ore !50 >oda

and 15 unfll le;* pe^s per plpnt at ha rves t , ? vln^ a po t en t i a l

y i e ld of 6,9 t ®e©da^»ao le conclude 1 th^^t yi Id 'jas r>ot

limlte^! 'w t'-)'- s l^e of th ~ photoaynthetl?- nlnk, -Kit p-c b»->ly

by thG lov.' leaf rirr-.-\ nr. •: les.? effiri^->r?t lenvffi d».Trt<'q; thf*

f i n a l f i l l i n g p r i od ,

Accordin-| t o Knyi (1975), e a r ly c e a s a t l n r iry oat ter

aecutnalatlon in 3tetn miiht oe consicJt re<ll a des i r ; ol eaiivure

• 10 .

for the cropm Th« aceuimilation of dry matter In loaf blade

during the early etage «l»o contributed tovards the yield of

the crop* r»ry matter accuiwlatlon In the ve^jetauive part and

In the fruit secured slmultaneouely and« since, the v ictatlve

an'', reproductive phases overlaqpped each other* TfT-lck cessation

of vegetative cjrowth (Increase In at«« dry wf l^nt) might

result In the availability of photosynthates for accumulation

In the economically useful parts* He defined seed yield per

given area of land In groundnut crops as the prv>duct f pfx)

number* nunu er o£ seeds per pod and size -f their individual

seed* ie considered tliat the seed yield in groundnut also

cc -c-^ on the m»nber of pegs fortnec em'î c*i the propc rtlon

of pegs tnat produced mature pods at harvest (p g to pod

ratio)•

William et «jL, (l<?75,a) in Rhodesia* the early growth

of cultlvar âkalu r ed* the alternate branching type* was

slower than in the other three sequential types* which were

similar to the former until about 12 weeks after sowing* After

12 weeks* Valencia '*'«I (sequential type) accuraulat^d th«! bluest

dry matter and Matal Conv on* the lowest* he other seiêntial

cultlvar (59/66) accumulated similar amounts of dry matter

as Makalu Kec3* the eccumilation of nten tnass in the hret

sequential cultlvars vas equal xintll about 14 v-eeks* r>here->

after* cultlvar SVSS continued to rov. rapidly while the rnte

• 11 •

of atem jrowth In the* other two cultivars was reduced. Iê

dliffercne«8 with regard to tho rate of Mêunulatlons of dry

matter in these varieties continued till the end whereas

growth of stem in Natal Conrnon cease* rapidly*

wllliani j£ j^^. (1975«>>) observed that shellednut yiol ^

was not related to leaf arâ or crop growth rate* taut wus

more dependent on the nvenber of seeds developed* Jen^rally*

the tine taXen for flower initiation was about 30 dnyst from

sowing* However* variation has also been observed* Ithin

bunch types* the efficiency of flowers to produce pei was

inversely relatf d to the number of flowers produced*

/i«idanigowda (1977) observed that the total number of

flowers produced was 12S»129 per plant in variety TMV-?*

However* an increase in the number of flowrr production was

not considered to be iiiportant for enhancing fruit setting

efficiency as the number of flowers prodiaced per olant was

highly variable*

Varietal differences in five cultivars wero considered

partitioning of assimilates to be related with three physlologi*

cal processes* namely b(?twe«i vetetative mn6 reproductive

parts* the length of fillin;| period and the rate >f fruit

establishment* Of these* the partitioning of assimilates

ha<) the greatest effect on fruit yield* As such* this

• 12 -

characteristic aaenad to ba highly dasirabla as it ansurad a

h i ^ afficicmcy in convarting availabla growth into tha

aconomieally inqportant part* i«e* pod (Ducan j|t j « 1^78) •

Studios conducted at rindivanum fTamil Hadu) showad

that tho rata of grcrwth was vary rapid In tha first two

fortnights of floworing* Paak growth was noted durincr tha

sac(md fortni^t in bunch types* In tha spraadinc? types*

the naximum growth period continued till 2-3 fortnights after

flowering. An alternate decrease and increase in growth zf^te

also reported upto 6«7th week after conmencement of flowering

(Sastry, 1979).

Among various growth paraiieters* shoot length truly

represented the genetic behaviour of any plant species.

Virginia types grew taller than other cultivars* a.7. Spanish

and Valencia. However* SpimiiA and Valencia grew and levelled

off soon* but Virginia showed constant increase In height till

flowering (Reddy £^ jj . 1980).

Chou<n)ari m^ . (19*35) reported that priiiary hrant^ea

contributed 96% and 00^ to the total number of pods per plnnt

in the "Kharif** and "i^imer* seasons respectively. The Contribu*

tion of the first four nodes of primary branches* however* was

B5% in both seasons. The nutnber of mature seeds per plants

was higher in ••Sumeaer* than in "Kharif" season.

• 13 -

"astry ej j|3L, (193S) r«ported that# in bunch type

of gfoandtaut the total numfaNir of flowers par plant was not

ralated to pod yield undter field eonditi^n* It va8« thar«fora«

suggested that low flower production wa not a constraint on

productivity. However, positive significant relationship

was observed between the number of flowers prcxluced during

the first two weeks after co»nienc«nent of flowcrinji and

pod yield* rhus« the nunber of the expected nods could be

predicted as early ea 70 days after sowing*

Owivlddi (1996,B) stuflied the yield performance of

different genotypes of groundnut at Junagadh (SauraBhtra)•

He observed the develoiMwnt of different attributes of the

crop in various seasons giving emphasis to the reproductive

phase* He reported that the crop sovm during the Tionth of

March and i^vember produced higher number of flowers* pegs

Mid pods aa coQpared to other nKmths* He observed that

Verginia runner had low flower pod ratio, indicating higher

percentage of flowers turning into pods than that the bunch

type an* suggested that emer7ene<» of peg close to the jioil

in r^^nia mnn^cs raight be the main reason for this

observation*

To concludet the wcric on yield performance of groundnut

cited above indicates that a high yielding variety should

• 14 •

produce taore p«78 ( flower to peg ratio) • hlt;jher per cent

converslcm of pegs Into rtiiiture pods (Pod to peg ratio) and

higher 100 seed weight*

Water I s the most li^portant ootiponent of a l l l iv ing

beings contributing more than half the weight of the >ody«

It a t s as a -nedlau for a l l l i f e processes* Therefore*

scarci ty of water creates several disorders In the body*

plants being no exception* llowevcsr, pliwits experience more

f luctuations In the ctvallabil lty of water than animals as

they can not move a'sout to f u l f i l the ir w3t r reiuirf*t»ents*

Ftirther they lone the bulk of water absorbed through tran;''.^!ra

tion* This could le*4 to alarming situgitlon wher. transpiration

exceeds the Ui'take in plants* I t puts plants under severe

strain taul i s ca l led <lroug^t* There arc many factors cm'Sing

drought* e*g* low annual rainfal l* l a t e onset or early v/lth->

draiwl ^ mensoons or a large gap between two successive rains*

Drought cur ta i l s the prodTir-tivlty of nlnnts considerably by

impairing th^ir physiological a c t i v i t i e s *

Drou^t decreases hydrostatic pressure and rcauccs

water potential of the c e l l (sianlsjaard* 1^76^* "^his

af fects c o l l expansion and c e l l l lv i s lon adv-rsely 'fsioo*

1973)* On the other h<!ind, Cleland (1967) note^l a decre^sse in

• IS «

c«ll wall synthesis^ aa measured by Incorporatloi of labelle ;3

glucose* when plants experienced water defeclt Cfmc'ltions.

•Similarly* 8en«Zioni gt j|i« (1<J67) found that water deficit

resulted in decreased incorporation of amino ftoida into

proteins*

In addition* enzyme levels are also affected by low

water availability* Of these* membrane bound cmsymes* like

ATP ase* are likely to be Influenced adversely by the drop

in wat< r potential (Zitrnerman* 1978)* aesides* nitrate

reductase level in plants experiencing drought was decreased

for which 3ard2ick j^ j^« (1971) argued that supression f

protein synthesis could be the reason* Moreover* translocation

of {i^otosynthates is restrict<<Kl which decreases the producti

vity of the crop* Liastly* accumulation of proline and abscisic

acid is observed in the cell when drought prevails for a long

time and proline is used as a pointer to aasess the severity

of drou^t*

Plants encounter different types of stress during

their life cycle* stress may be due to low level of moisture*

very low light lntf?nsity* severe cold* hign temperature ^^

high saline conditions in the soil* Occurrence of any of

• 16 •

thea« a<)ver8« condition <Suring crop ^ rowth will alter the

plant behaviour atanormally*

It is cocamon lci~iOwled;ie that drought Cindequate

«v^)llability of water) reduces plant growth and developitient

by affecting various physiological processes adversely. The

effect of drought becomes visible when plants face it over

a period of several days* 3srrns and Klepi er (196^) observed

that fairly large water deficits «nd low leaf water potential

could develop in an hour» vên transpiration had been rapid.

Groundnut is ^rown largely und^r rainfed conditions

in our country. During tnonsoon seaaonSf slants cxf>erience

an intermittent !iK>isture stress thus suffering from drou |ht

periods once or twice during their life cycle, unfortunately*

neither the magnitude of the stresn nor its duration is

predictable. Henc«# the type of stress tolerance required

in such situations aust be of a ;{«ieral nature with emphasis

on regeneration in a normal soil moisture regiine. Soil

moisture stress affects various aspects of plant growth right

froen germination to jraln filling.

Slatyer (1955) rôrted that the rate of dry m»tter

accumulation by groundnut was first reduced when the relative

turgidity of cells dropped below 90%. Decrease in dry -natter

production of vegetative c<»iônents with nK>isture stress was

• 17 -

observed by several worlMrs(r»tsrrier and Prevot^l'i>5^) • llylAna

(1953) reported that groundnut plants were l e s s *!«««e«*i t l b l ^

to (Qoisture s t res s during pre-flowerinf? stage*

Ochs and '^nmt (1959) reported that s o i l water

d e f i c i t reduced the intemodc length more ^drastically than

i t reduced node number, - 'ater d e f i c i t during several stages

of growth was found to reduce the rate of dai ly le:^f

production •

811 as and ochs (1961) showed that the ie^ree of

part l t ion inj f esolmilatt^s to leaves durin:? '••he .lecd

formation (90-1 ?0 days) of Spanish groundnut 'was inversely

proportional to the number of f ru i t s formel r e r l i e r , Tf pod

formation wes nearly ocTrpl'^tc prior to impasinq v.ntQr def ic i t*

f}Ssirailate part l t ion in i to f ru i t s ^ 93 "ncrc :oa >y water

d e f i c i t . Mr v/ever, water d e f i c i t during pod fonjation (50 to

f> dj?ys) reduced flowering, pod fomation air fin/»l yl«»ld

m-jre thj'n at ^ny other stage. This tr*'atnent res jl^ed in

l e s s partit ioning to fr-jits {>xit more tr;- XBI^VQB) *irlng the

subsequent period of seed f i l l i n g («30»1?0 d^y?) durin^i whldh

the plants were irr igated . I t Indicates that the influence

of water d e f i c i t on partit ioning of dry "latter to leaves or

fru i t def:>ends on the timing of moisture s t r e s s . 'h-^shadri

(1^62) observ d that flower i n i t i a t i o n was greatly affected

by moisture s tress in tiurK:h type of jroundnut.

. 18 •

Miliar and Clark (1970) observed that erect typ« of

groundnut waa «iise«|>tililtt to molature str«as during sa»30

days after sowing* J tress during thia period causel more

redueti<xi In vegetative growth* flowering and pegging and

decreased more yield than atreas at any other growth period*

Lenka and Misra (1973) reported that water deficit

delayed fla.-ering by 1-? days snd reduced th© total number

of flowers* Irrigation at 25% de-pl tlon pr duced inore fl<wera«

»e«9<^pod en'i seed weight was hlghf*r per pod than obtained

in abaolute moiature atreas* Reproductive efficiency of

flowera waa alao maximum with irrigation at 25% depletion*

In fiiost eaae8«s*oil aioisfeure deficit during pegging and pod

development primarily redhaced pod number while it rarely

affected weight per pod (Vamell gj 34*# 1976| Vlve>tanand«ri

and 3unaa«ia^ 1976) *

The studies of Andanigowda (1977) rev r-led that erect

type of jroundnut plant was not very susceptible to inolsture

stress* even \'hBn the 1*vel of noisture was very lov,, ?he

work f Pallas ^ j^. '1977) on jroundnut revealed th^t soil

water tension of - 1,5 MPa during the gr:>vith seasons resulted

in a 7 per cent loss of sound seeds and 5 per cent deer ase in

germination in the most drought resistant jcnotype* .Airing

drought* newly formed pegs were also found not to p netrate

dry aoil*

• 19 -

Pandey gj. ;ai« (1934) stuUed 9roun!:imit qjrowth in eeral-

arld tropical regions by subjecting It to dlfftrent moistur*

jradlent In the field. Plant irowth analyses were o-tiputed

from saii les taken at frequent Intervals* Increasing water

stress resulted In progressively less leef ore a duration*

crop growth rate and shoot dry matter productlmi. They

concluded that the jrowth of the crop was oftem limited by

variation in the amount and duration of rain:nil*

aennctt £jt , (1984) studied the ff -ct of ?•? Jays

drying period* achieved tay withholding irri :}ation on various

mid»day physiological paranfii- ters and soil water content* It

was noted that as soil drying progressed* the reduction in

soil water content caused larger reduction in leaf water

potential sn6 c<»n8equent decrease in leaf moisturf content*

This resulted in stomatal closure and higher leaf teniT>erature

than air tttaaperature* ihey eonclud€-d that water seemed to

maintain plant body temperature besides* : articlpatlng in

various metabolic pathways*

Ong (1934) invest'igated che partitionlnc| o£ dry matter

to stem* leaves and pods under water stress c ndition* Mo

reported that mild water stress promoted pt 3 and od production*

because rcproi^ctive growth was less f»r£ectetl than the growth

of Iraves and stem* On; j|Jj* (19^5) also not* ; th^t the

lowest soil moisture content reduced the LAI^leaf number per

• 20 •

plant and l«ef a i se wera deereesofS 9a aoi l water d e f i c i t

incraased*

I t taa/# therefore* be concluded cm the baaia of the

e f f ec t s of .aoiature atreas on yield char<icterl5tlc8 of

groundnut c i ted above that drought reducâ y ie ld primarily

by deereaaing the -od nutnber* i t causes a d^^cline In the

quality c^ groundnut at h.' irvest and in i t s she l l ing per cent

as drou^t delaya the onaet of rtipiA f ru i t grrwth anrt thus

eauaea la te frui t maturation*

2.4 Phvaioloqieal role of potaaaiua

"ôtassium, en essent ia l n*>blle ?nacronutl«^nt# i s rnost

abundantly distributed in «11 plants but dvts not appear to

be a constituent of the lant body* The function o£ this

element in plant mctaboliom Is biophysical* involving ion

f luxes as i t maintains turgor pressure of the c e l l v i s

osmoregulation and act ivates about 43«53 enzymes* categorised

in three growls* na?rjely ensyrnefi transferlng pho53phoryl groups,

cnsymes catalyxln? eliminating processes aind unclas~ifled

ensEymes (e«g« starch 9yntha8<»)« Some of the common cnsymes

activated by potassium are pyruvate kinase* 6 iôaphofructokinase

liAD synthetase* fructose-blphosphate aldolase etc** cf^veriim

a vide spectrum of plant raetabolism fFvans and sorger* 1 >66|

• 21 •

Mltaoa m\6 Evans# 1969f 9u«lter# 1^70)• Thus* potassium

takes active part in opening an6 closing of stomata and helps

in the synthesis of proteins and ATP (webst«r« 1* 56, ^rinrier*

1982)• It is also involved in the translocation of

S^iotosynthatea* iRtese physiological roles account for its

ireater demand in maintaining hijli crop productivity O^srinier,

1982), Hie function of potassium b -comea indiapp-neeble in

water stress condition where it facilitates water uptake and

prevents ctsccessive wat^r loss through transpiration* There*

fore* water use efficiency of plants iner«>a8e8 in !t8 presence.

This improves the performance of crops in drought condition

(Linser and Herwig* 1969| 3rag« 19721 M«>ngel* 1977), Besides*

potassium helps no^^lation in legumes and thus enhances

dinitrogen fixation (iarseluier* 1933) •

2*S water uae efficiency in relation to potassium nutrition

t ogaler (1958) grew wheat* barley* mai«e and clover

in water culture and in soil in pot experiments* ?fe found

that ad'i«9 potassium incre>;?iae'i the permeability of root cells

to water* f- ereas plants lP!Cking potassium transpirei more

water, the addition of a small amount of potassitim greatly

r«iduced transpiration*

Achitov (1961) suggest©f1 that potassiu-n supply reduced

transpiration and incr»aa<K3 water uptake* It tiius improved

• 22 •

water use efficiency* He concluded that treatm«»ts ' hich

could reduce tr^ispirotionnl loss would be valuable under

conditions of moisture stress* Blanchet e^ « \* (1962) and

Llnscr and Herwig {196B) concluded that the effect of C'Otassium

IB Of particular i aportance In crop production* since It

reduces water loss throu^ transpiration and Incre?! e i or:iarlc

matter production in crop well supplied with potassium*

Fischer (1969) studied stomatal behaviour in relation

to potasniun nutrition* He observed that stoinatal resistivnce

depends* on the number of stotnata per unit leaf area« as well

as on the geometry of the stomatal pores* Thus for a jivmt

pl«it species* stometlil resistance (diffusive resistance) is

relate ] to the de jree of the stomatal opening* The variation

in stomatal aperture ir achieved b/ turgor change?? of au©r6

cells* Because of th< ir nonMiniform well thickness* the guard

cells are bent as their turgor (water content) inert "ises* and

this results in the opening of the pore* Ihe reverse occurs

when guard cells lose wratrr* I'he fluctuation In guard cells

water content which bring aoout the chan e In their turqpor

are ceusrd y means of an active potassium pump* ". tassium

ions are puttied into the guard cells from the mirroundini

subsidiary or epidermal cells* when stomata are about to open*

Such an influx of ions decreases the solute potential of the

• 23 -

^ard cell in oon^ariaon with that of the « pidernial cells*

thaa Causing net water Influx to the guard cflis* On the

other hand* the pump if- inactivated when stomata are about

to close* whlc^ causes a positive movement of K out of the

juard cell* The i tiportance of K**" in opening and closing of

stomata has been investigated and discussed by many workers

fPisbher and Hsiao* 1969f Humble and Raschlce* 1971f Trolldenier*

1971). t«>wever* it has been sugjested that the efficiency

of water taken up from the soil and its tranaport upwards

are more impcrtant than stomatal ccmductance in determining

drought resistance by sorghum and cotton fAckersen and

Krieg, 1977)•

According to :>lengel (1977)* potassium io the most

i?!«>ortant inorganic solute in the i>lant that is osmotically

active* Ihe osmotic role of potassiam causes this solute

to be outstanding factor in plant water relations* thnt is*

in the ebsorption* translocation and loss of water* It is

well established that plants supplied with sufficient potassium

fl^K>ws less water loss because of reduced rate of transpiration*

aerinjer and Trolldenier (1978) concluded that

potassium nutrition may support both toler«nce and avoidance

of drou^t* ^lants adequately supplied with potassium respond

almost immediately to water stress (induced by hot winds) by

• 24 «

reducing their transpiration* whlla plants with moderate or

severe potassium deficiency are obviously unable to close

their storaata efficiently. Thus, with «d*»quate potassium

nutrition* water utilisation is improved* less beln? transpired

p«r unit of dry matter produced.

Nitrate reductase is the fl at enzyme In a se iuence

of reactions leadlngr to essinllatlon of nitrate into wnlno

acids and thence into cell organic nitrojen compounds.

Incorporation of this Inorganic nitrogen to or7anlc form

requires it to be re<1uced to NH^. This consist* b«sl(=»lly

of two steps the reduction of HO* to NOj and the further

reduction of fJO* to MH-. Reduction of NO" to NOI is catalysed

by nitrate recJuctese and tak s place in the cytoplasm. This

enxyme was found to be « sulphahydryl metallofalvoproteln

(Metallo F/'iD/protcln) containing molybdenum. It wns initially

isolated from Neuzt>8pora and was later characterised in higher

plants from the leaves of Glycine max (Wason and FVans* 1^53*

Nicholas and !'Jason* 1^55). It is an Inducible ttn7yme srvJ

is synthesised only when nitrate is present In the me-'iium

(Hewitt end ^fridl* 1959f Afridi and fewitt* 1^641 'Severs

and Hagi^an* 1969).

• 2S -

Nitrate aceunulaticm in plants la du " to several

factors* among which drought is poisibly very i-n ortant one.

The response of nltrato reductase to wet^r stress wf*8 studied

Tf 9alasubramaniam e^ al, (1^74) # to detfrnine thf stability

of this ensyme in various crops. In irrigated crops* nitrate

eccumulatlon normelly did not occur unless nitrogen aoplica->

tlon was exceeslve. It has also been shown that accunnulation

of nitrate in various plants could be responsible for nitrate

poisoning of livestock*

The response of nitrate reductase to vat< r stress

over a 24 h cycle was studied In wheat* alongv fith relative

water content* nitrate anr proline ccmtwtt of le; f, ^11 the

variables showed chcnges over the 24 .h cycle. The change in

leaf nitrate content followed the change in relpttive •*pter

content, Moreover* the proline content in the unlrrijnted

plants was "naxlnuRi when the relative water content vaa loveat

which coincided with reduced nitrate reductase activity

(Hajagopal ji. 1*577),

^exek and airsynski (1979)* r4 ;>orted that presence of

NH. in nutrient sol itlon containing NH- so, with K removed*

Inhibited nitrate reductase activity in cucumber leaves. The

absence of K*** In HaHO. medium also decrr-ased NRA, The

addition of K enhanced NRA In the leaves of plants growing

In solution containing NoNO^,

. 26 •

Khanna jgt ^ # (l*^BO) fltvifH^'? th« rff«ct of potussiuin

(0, 50, W't and 200, mg/pot) on the jrowth character is t ics

and n i trate r*1ucta3« ac t iv i ty In maise se*»dlln7S 'lurinj

water s tress and su'^seotimt recovery, •titrate reductase

ac t iv i ty (MRA) rose In Irrl jatrd plants at ?4 h after potassium

application* ?;ub8e<niently as *'eter s t r e s s dcvelopet* potaaslura

helped In maintaining NRA for the f i r s t twc days.

Sinha «nd TTlehoXas C1991) sa<2g«sted that plants with

higher IWRA under drought condition raay have better potent ia l i ty

for water s tress res is tance .

2.7 Proline content

Proline is one of the major constituent of bioloilcal

proteins Bttt^ is synthesiscK!! from glut«nilc acid (Voeêl and

Davis 1952). During a period of water deficit, a range of

amino adds aecunulate to a greater or lesser de:iree in

different orânlsmy but the most frequent and extensive

rr sponse is an increase in the concentration of proline.

AccuRulation of proline upon dehydration due to water -leflclt

has be4»i recorded in bacteria (Tempest jj^ a^. l^Ôt Measures,

1975) and in higher plants (Palfi et ^ , 1373).

Proline acts as a comoatible solute to regulate

***otic potential, reducing wat«"r loss from the ceil during

- 27 -

water ditficit* Pvolln« is •xidlsed re»dlly in turjid tissue

gluta nst and amino -jroup* IhuSf it bccomas a ready aovsree

of vnergy which is releasad when glutamate passes tnrou^ Kreb

cycle* Secondly, a^no ?rou^ becomes available where r<»qulred«

During stress periods proline acctamulation is the process of

energy and amino group conservation. It accutiiulat<»s in young

leaves and shoots under water stress and is non-toxic. It

also serves as sink for soluble nitrogen and protects enfymes

from the effect of toxic compounds. As nitrogen uptaXe is

curtailed anS i RA reduced under water stres:j# nitrogen

accumulation in eonqpounds like ammonia could be toxic to

plfloits while aeeuaulation as free proline is not. :k>od

corelation with proline accumulation and drought resistance

have been worked out in different crops (Singh ^ . 197?).

I^is may serve as attribute for drought resistance screening.

The relationship between nitrate reductase and proline

acciMRilatimi was examined in several crop apecies. inhere was

a sharp decline in enayaie activity in response to water

stress in wheat# barley* sorghum* aMiise« ^CAosica, and safflower

end m rapid and considerable simultaneoua accumulation of

proline in all these species. In barley and wheat* when was

fed to plants stressed with polythyleneglycol* the loss

of HRA was reAieed. this suggested that exoTcnous (and

possibly endogenous) proline protects the ensyme from

inactivation during water stress (Sinha and r ajaiopal* 1<)75).

• 28 •

H^tri jft j ,» (1977) minrey«d 10 jrounrlnut cultlvars

for fr«« proline •ceuaulation in leavos and found that, under

8tr«88 conditions* the drou^^t tol«ri»it cultivars accunulated

taora prolina and fixed nnore CO^ tti&n the other cultivars.

However* proline cont<mt was not specifically correlated with

relative water content as hig i or low temperature and snlinlty

also indticed proline accunulation. ^arcano (1^31) reported

that potassium significantly increased free proline accwnulation

in beans.

aoger (1964) observed that potassium influenced the

photosynthetic processes by controlling chlorc^hyll synthesis*

^•ihtn potassium is withheld from the <7rowin9 meiium of

Chlorflla vuloraris suspensions a structural protein in the

ohloropXeet is not filled entirely with chlorophyll but,

after potassium is added to the cells, chlorophyll in forme*

even in dark*

"^lotkovslcy and Dsybenko (1970) and Coneva (1971)

showed that potassium increased the photo-chemical activity

of chloroplast in maise* The experiments in nutrient solution

showed that the effect of potassium in increasin;i chlorophyll

- 29 -

content was aoeoa^anied by Increased activity of chlorophyll^se«

Foreter (1976) dernonstrated the dependence of chloroohyll

content in the fleg leaf of spring wheat on leaf potassium

content. The <rtilorophyll ccmcentration was increase l by

aax at the highest potassiuoa level*

Khmme ej j^m (1930) reported that potassium increased

leaf area expansion leading to increased leaf area per plant

with decreased chlorophyll content under drought condition*

During recovery from water stress^ potassium helped In main

taining higher leaf area expansion rate and chloro )nyll

ccmtent'Chlorophyll content has an iaiportant Influence on

the rate of photosynthesis.

f eddi j|]« (1930) studied the cholorophyll content

of loaves in groundnut varieties under drought cancUtion*

Chloroi^yll reduction wa noticed in all the cultivars due

to moisture stress.

3ax1c and Chein (19S3) reported that groundnut cultivar

grown in pots given 270 mg KAg soil, lost iron deficiency

syaptoms. Potassium as KCl was better than as KT90, or K ffPO.

and It increased the chlorophyll content b/ 73% to reach 'iO%,

Potassium fertilisation* at the rate of 135 to 405 n»g kAg

soil, ameliorated iron ^lorosis in groundnut grown in nn

- 30 .

«xtrenely calcacioua soil (63ic, CaCX> )« Biuch tr«>ntinent

doubled and even tripplod ***• chlorophyll cont«mt» J otassium

availability in soil is ia >ortant in achieving this effect.

KjSO. was found to be more effective than KCl, fhesf results

are attriliuted to the cation '***** balance and consequent

rhizosphere acidity*

2.9 Enerjv harvest efficiency

The basic process of energy metabolism is the conversion

of radiation enerjy into che nical energy* Being ^he energy

source* lig^t intensity and lighc quality are the most

in >ortant environmental factors influencing assimilation*

The wnergy efficiency of crops generally does not exceed

1-294 of **hotosynthetically active radiation (PAR), fn

improvement in the efficiency of solar enerjy utlligation of

Pi'-R upto 3«>5% is feasible for enhancing plant productivity and

intensification in agriculture* The rate of energy h«rveat

by • crop on a unit land area is totally dependent upon leaf

area indcw« geo netry of canopy and per unit leaf «rea energy

harvest* At early atagf of crop growth, the cenopy develop:ti<»nt

is slow as a reavlt of whtch energy Interceptior? in lov; even

when all the conditions are f vourable 'rH'.'ivedi li«?6 c),

It should be eriphasised that crop production is one of

the few production processes with a positive energy balance*

- 31 -

It nam 9m»m» likely that in order to mtet future energy needs*

this aoquisitioix^^ ener^ by plwits vrl 11 play an increa tlngly

i!«l>ortant role* Hall (1977) cites 5 plant species, eucalyptus

trees, hibiscus shrubs, Hapier ^ass (a tropical fodder ^rass)^

sugarcane, «id cassava, which are consirlered tc be suitable

tor *sun energy harvc>sting«* A«K!cntly species of Buphorbiaceae

have also been considered as possible *enor^ crops.* The

advantage of ^ese s iecies is that they hove a low water

requirement m%6 can girov; in rather arid regions. <>ome workers

have found relationship between energy harvest and pctaasiuai

nutrition of plant. The available literature on this aspect

is briefly described below*

According to Stoy (1962) photosynthesis in "Saastra's

(1953, 19S9, 196?) experiisents increased upto li^ht intensities

between about 40,000 and 60,000 lux in maise, wheat, beat,

red clover and sugarcane, the plants were unable to utilise

higher light intensity.

Amberger (1963) reviewed the function of potassium

in carbohydrate laetabolisa ani elucidated the connection

that has for a long tine 1:M«II known between potassium

nutrition and light utilisation in photosynthesis. The

rate* of photosynthesis per unit leaf area depended upon light

- 32 -

in tens i ty and aX«o on a numhmr of physiolo7ic^l and niorpholo-

gicAl i&ctorB* Potassium has an important role in thr>29

metabolic processes*

t^ieke (1973) worked with oats in pot culture and

found that potassiuis uptake was increased by increasing l ight

int«^nsity and that i t s increased uptake led to better

u t i l i s a t i o n of l ig^t enerqry* Haeder and Mctigel fl 75) and

Mengel and Haeder (1976)« grev oats in solution cultur<»« They

reduced l i ^ t in tens i ty during the generative phase to half

the normal i n t « s s i t y and found that enhonced potassium supply

during the ehtaxge from vegetat ive to reproductive developmcmt

largely compensated for the reduction in l i g h t . Increasing

potassium increased yie ld s ign i f i cant ly at the mature stage

in normal daylight.

Smid and Peaelee (1977) grew maise in the open in S' r?

culturi» at dens i t ies of 33#0O0« 98«800 «id 1* 19,000 per ha and

l i l h t intens i ty varied by a r t i f i c i a l shading, ot.'»ssium vas

applied in solution at 15« 45# 135 and 400 jug/cm. sf^i.milation

rate depended u von th*" point of insert ion <>f the leaf .

Assimilation rate f e l l as lic|ht intens i ty was rrduced s l i jhtly

between 7.5 end 3.2 lumen/cm and more stron-jly tncr' af ter .

Potassium ccncentrativ>n in the plant incr«?a3ed with Inrrrasing

• 33 -

potasslwn content of the nutrient solution at all light

intensities* The aesimilition rate inenâsed with increase

in potassium content and bhis increase was more -narked at

high intensity* At 1»6 lumen/em potassium supply had much

less effect on asslnilation rate* Thus potassium wns clai-ned

to irnprove the efficiency of li<)ht utilisation*

steineek and Haeder (1973) report«< th t potassium

promotes « at r storage In the cell« turgor of the cytoplasm

and enzyme protc?ins« thus providing favourable conditions

for rôtosynthesl3 and the succeeding stepe in nnet'bolim*

Turgor has an ioôrtant influence on leaf slighmont and

affcK:ts light interception*

itie specific function of potassium in energy conv«»r»ion

process is not yet canpletely understood* ?iowev<»r# it is

recognised that potassium is involved In meta'xilic reactions

including tha«<p of TP sjrnthesis and energy transfer fpfluger

and Mengel 1972| Lauchi and ^fluger# I'iJ^t Serein er 1183).

Jwlvedi ^ «1* (1985) report€»d that * nergy conservation

in the phycObiomass of groundnut is significantly higher

than that of whent and Cypodon dactvlon* mainly becmise of

the fact that groundnut accutmilates ener ty-rich organic

sut>stenc< s sui^ as oil and protein* rhu8» 7roundnut harvest

• 34 -

cons«nrtts more solar envrgy than othar crops. iiowever« it i.*

dasirable that rasaaroh into insprovlng :>lant type of groundnut

for higher dry mattor productivity and partitioning In seeds

Intensified since It has « mx<Ai higher potential for harvesting

solar energy*

In the end* the excellent as yet unpublished review

of Dwlvedi may be cited wherein he observed that potassium

auguments solar energy harvesting efficiency of groundnut

during both "Kharlf" (lo* light Intensity) »irS* *«'a?!er*fhlgh

light lnten<;lty^seasons In bunch and spreading genotypes of

groundnut (>wlvedl, 1985) •

3enerally# groundnut is grcwn In soils th?»t are hi jh

In potassiim. I e level of exchangeable potasslunn in groundnut

growing soils of the >/orld In jeneral ranges between 4D kg/ha

and 1«?00 kg/ha* However* In practice* soils having less than

150 HgA)a« 150«»?50 kg/ha and more than 250 kg/ha potassium

are considered as low* medium and high potassium soils

respectively for groundnut* Exciqpt the soils of Kerala* Mhar

and Orlssa* RK>st soils of other states of India* wht re

jroundnut 1;; grown* (including Jujarat) are rich in potasslu-n.

Hie stuntc'd growth of jiroundnut and drying up an<3 necrosis of

• 35 •

leaf margins are manifested tinder potash de£lcit<?ncy. Reddish

colour of sten at the tips of branches Is nlso observe;!*

Deficiency of potasu^iun has been reported to reduce the number

of flower forming pegs* Sufficient quantity of potash is

required for sound growth of pegs* Root growth Is dr?»3tlc«ll/

reduced due to potash deficiency* The deficiency ">f this

nutrient is also evident when high proportion of pods are

produced but with only o«e se«?d each (rjwivedl, 1'>16 b) *

Harris and Bledsoe (1951) reported thnt jrotminut plant

is quite erratic in its response to fertiliser application*

Groundnut la sensitive to an unbalanced nutrient supply and

this is considered respcmsible for conflicting results*

Black (1968) observei that hi<^ levels of potassium hastened

the flo%«ering in groundnut* this might be due to the better

growth and vigour in early stages of the plants ns » result

of applied potassium* Tf%m nutrient increased the nu'vber of

pegs formed per plant* Appreciable delay in maturity due to

potassium deficieiwy was also reporte'3* Anon (1972) found

that for «*very one tonne of unshelled nuts rind two tonnes of

hay, groundnut crop removed abovt 38 leg potassium*

3adn«ur (1976) conduct«kl fiel<i experiment at e^ngalore

(Kamatalca) to study the response of various crops to potassium

fertiliser application* Groundnut and^owpeii "Jav-e naxlmum

• 36 •

y ie ld vl th 30 Ic3 *',0/h»#^*^ malse anri r^gl responded

niaximnlly to 60 kg KÔ/ha. Applications of 120 kg KÔ/ha

and ?40 kj K-O/ha d.*d not Increase the yie ld 9l';ril*lc*ntly,

Ctopalas^vny jH^ ^* (1976) worked out the economical

optiRMn dose for irrigated bunch groundnut* I t vma

extrapolated to be 75 kg K/ha which was 22 kg K/ha iiore than

ear l i er recommendation« i*e« 53 K kg/ha for the amm gottndnut.

Oopalaswwny (1977) conducted an e^q^rinent for thre« yeiers*

Mis resu l t s revealed that the rainfe^d bunch iroundmit 'îd rot

respCMnd to the application of r and PJ-K* However, there

war; a s ignif icant interaction between ?v and K at N level o

applicaticHi of 40 kg K significantly incre ned the yield*

The eoonomieal optimum dose was computed to be 45*2 kg K/ha

for the sandy loam soil with low potassiun content*

i eddi £t JbL» (1977) conducted the experiment under ^he

a?roelimatic condition of Royal* seeaa region of Andhra ^radesh

for rainfed buncdi groundnut in red sandy loam* The yield

maximisation level of potassium was found to be 109*3

kg KjO/ha whereas profit maximisation level w«s 7o,7 kg

KjO/ha with a net rotum of Ro 1*20 per rupee spent on

potassium*

The results of two years study revealed that maximum

production of pod occurred with the applied potash at the ^^^^

- 37 •

of 80*5 kg/ha but th« •cronosnical optlraun dose was cofoputed

to be 77*2 kg/ha« which êe expected to yield 2«676 kg/he

c roundnut pod with in^t cost end output price ratio iis

0*5 I 1* When the cost of potash remained constant the

•eooomical Ot tiaiua dowi of potato increased with an increase

in the price of pods* On the other hand« en incr«ar$e in the

cost of potash reducc-d the economical optimum dose irrespective

of price of pods* The study emphasised the need to liTiit

potash application according to input cost and anticipated

output price in irrigated groundnut fOopalswamy et j^m 1^78)•

Lakshminarasinhan and uirendran (1973) concbieted a

field experin(i«»nt cm groundnut variety H«13 (sxUtaale for table

purpose) to study the effect of split application of potash

given at lil« 1|2 and 2tl ratios <soil i foliar) on the cnaality

of the seed* Among the various ratios tried* 60 kg KÔ/ha

the 2il ratio recorded hi^êr nitre gen and potassium uptake*

Reducing sugars increased to 4*2% with this lavp-l of potash

application* Increase in total timi reducing sugars with

application of potash at 30 kg KÔ/hn In 111 ana ''il ratio

was observed* The oil content w«s not influenced -»•«/ the

treatments*

lutstein (1979) studied the effect of 0, 150, 300 or

450 kg K/ha on the yield response a Valwficia type groundnut

• 38 •

cuXviated on a l luv ia l grumso so i l* Potsasium application

proXon7«d the v«<7«tatlv« period and delayed reproductive

developnMmt* Treated plants yielded more than control plants

of 300 ki/ha reeelviiKT the optlrmsa potassium rate and i*nprovec3

the ir r^rodNictive eff iciency*

Reo et al* (1180) conducted f i e l d exi erlaents in two

seasons (summer and rainy seaacn of 1978) at Tirupati (Andhra

Pradesh) to study tho individ'âl and cofabined ef fect of

potassium^calciuai and -aajnesium ' n irrigated TMV-::' qrroundnut.

There vere 16 treatments in summ<ir and IB treatments in rainy

season with various rat ios of KtCaiH'j with two controls in

which the source of iôsphorus was either sinqrle superphosphate

or dianrflonium phosphate. A eoTiraon f e r t i l i s e r dose of 30 kg !T

and 17 k^ P/ha wan also applied in the fom of urea «nd

dianvnonium phosphate respectively* I t was fo\:nd that ^0

k? K/ha in aumier and 40 "kq K/ha in rainy season jave naxinum

number of flll4»d pod per plants* Addition of ?0 kg Cn/hm

and 30 kg K/ha s igni f icant ly Increased pod numoer* 30 kg K/ha

proved Oi>timuni for pod weight in both seasons* Mixlmum pod

weight was found with the cojnbination of 90 kg K + 40 kg Ca/ha

in sjncier «nd 120 kg K 4- 40 kg Ca/ha in the rainy season*

Test weight was s igni f icant ly inert ased with 40 and 30 kg r</ha

in both the seasons* Hi jher t e s t weight was obtainec^ in 30

kg K/ha + 40 kj Ca/â in sunnier and 120 kg K + 40 kg Ca/ha

- 39 •

In the rainy senson* with ev^ry Increase in th? level of

potassium, the shelling pr c«nit was Increase i In both the

seasons* For pod yield, 40 kg K/ha proved optimum, rield

Increase with 40 Xg K/ha *»«s 90.3?i over the control. The

effect of calcium and magnesium was found to be si jnlfleant

In some of the perimeters at different levels of potassium,

Hair e^ j L. (1981) conducted a flold trial In red

loam soils at Vellarîani (Kerala), They notel fist potasnlum

at hlêr levels upto 50 leg KÔ/ha slgnlflcjjntly lnrre'»sed

%m height ©f plant and number of leaves per >lant. Potassium

at higher levelr upto 75 )tg KjO/ha decrejxaed the time taken

for flowering and Increased the number of pegs forme«i per

plant* The test weight of pods and hundred pod v el Tht were

Increased significantly by potassium application upto 56

kg KjOAa* "-igher level of KjO/ Increased the /lelf' of pods

and haulm* Optimum and economic levels of potassium were

124 9n<5 116 kg KjC/ha respectively*

Heddy and >.ed'11 (1991) performed a flelc experlmi»nt

to study the response of p >tasslum on two groundnut varieties

(A*H, 1192 and TW-2) in* »«««'2r loam soil of Tlrupatl

(Andhra Pradesh), Botli varieties gave maximum /average yield

of 322 kg/ha at the level of 99 kg K/ha during the rainy

season. In the second year, 40 kg K/ha gave 1,663 kg podsAa

• 40 •

which was 8t par with th« y i e l d f l , 774 kj/hfi) obtslns^l v;lth

90 kg l ^ a *

DwlT«di (1985) reported that a p p l l e a t l o n of potasalum

Increased o i l and prote in content ^nd energy va lue of seed .

I t wea 8U].?e9ted that potaasjlura app l i ca t ion au^umented aolar

ener<jy harveatlng e f f i c i e n c y of yroundnut dur inj bct?i "Kharlf"

(low l l j h t I n t e n s i t y ) and •*R«bl" sensvon (h l ih l l^ht i n t e n s i t y ) .

Incrt^aae In s tona ta l re«i»t«ince and d e c l i n e In tresn'-'-lratlon

ra te wafc note^l due t o potassium app l i ca t ion 1* 'i'*'f:3-l fbunch)

an- l 3AUG-10 (spreading) genotypes of groundnut,

Kwisarla (1936) studied potash dep le t i on rat® and

uptalce of potash by crops Including groundnut In me-'lum hlssek

c e l e r r l o u s s o i l s of Junagadh ann concluded tnat pot«?->i

a p p l i c a t i o n eiAanced y i e ld* He reca-n-nended that potaish

f e r t i l i s a t i o n should be considered for I n t e n s i v e cropo inj of

groundnut.

Potassium w?»R f i r s t rrcogniaed ne Bvt e89e!iti-»l <-le-^rnt

for p lant jrowth fol lov;ing tho work of Ho-ne in 1762, fe c?»rried

out an I n t e r e s t i n g experiment by growing :>arlcy In sj^ndy s 1 1 .

In one treat'nant# Hone added potassium sulphate to the s o i l

and t h i s r e s u l t e d In Increased irovth of oar ley . I t showed

• 41 -

that potassium or sulsâts has a benaflclal effect on plsit

growth* Later researêrs ouch as de Saussure an^ ' prengel

reeognisad that potash was present In plant ash obtained

from differwit plant species (" ngel and Kirkby« 1930)•

Lleblg (1941) proposed after reviewing the analytical

data of his time that potassitVQ was in some ways Involved in

plant metabollflm* ^he experience of farmers around liessen«

the 3erman University tv.wn in which he worked^ indicated the

beneficial influence of manuring crops with plant ash. He

recognised that potash was the essential growth factor in

the ash* FurtheniK>re« ULiribi 7 was also awar« of the f ACt that

the clay fraction of the soil provided a source of potassium

for plant growth* In his book# "Die organiche Chemie in Threr

Anwendung auf Agrilculture Und Physidogie* (Organic Chemistry

in Relation to Agriculture and Physiology) he wrote "meir

must be a component in clay which has <n influence on plant

life and which directly participates in plant development*

tîs component is the ever present potash or Sodium**

Vea\ Per Paouw (1959) compiled a report on fertiliser

response of potato* wheat* grass and been over the 15 years

from 1935 to 1949* Cro-a differed in th<*ir responr e to

potassium and the optimum level depended upon the crop* If

there were more than 46 rainless days after planting^ potato

• 42 •

yield J<telin4idl In prc^ortlon to the nunber of rainless d»ys

In th« (control treatment) but was maintained if the potassium

supply vas <|ood« Potassium uptake was reduced In Jiry ye irs.

On the other hand« wheat* bein? imich less responf lv*' than

potatoes showed an Increases in yield vl8»a«>vl8 an Increased

in potassium supply in dry years* Such effects were not

evident on grasses and beans*

Barber (i97il fowsd that resp^se of eoyebeen to

potassium dep«:)ded on rainfall in the 12th ^ eks follovini

planting* If rainfall was below 3dO mm« response was nearly

linear*

single grain weight depended much on the potassium

status of the plant at flowering stage* Late application

of potassium had little effect on jraln deirelopm«nt. Further

rate of potassium uptake by cereals after flowering was

probably very low* However* the potassium status of leaves

and eulmns at the grain filling period had a substwntial

Inpact C4» photosynthesis and on translocation vf photosynthates

from these or7«ns towards t^e ears ('"lengel and Forster#1971) •

Diffusion is the major transport melanism for pot issium

in the soil and soil moisture content plays an Important

role for nutrient availability to plants* 'lany irrigatl<m

experiments have demonstrated positive Interactions between

• 43 •

irriqration and fertiliser application* S«veral findings

hi«v« shoim that diffusiva flux ineraaaaa with soil nfx>istura

(bengal loid Von Ita'aMnahtraig 1973) •

wied^ans (197S) found that LoH,ure par anna coul<3 taka

up vary larja quantities of non<»axchangaabla potassium vfhan

soil rnoistura was satisfactory* However* under drier

conditions* relaasa of non*axehiingaabla potassium was much

rastrictad* Thus* undar moist soil conditions* only occxsional

response tc i otassium fertiliser was recorded* but crmifiistent

response was obtained when conditions were dry* This finding

was of practical imrortanee showing that even rlant species

with a high potassiwa exploiting power' night be inefficient

to extract soil potassium undar dry conditions and sub-optimal

potassium supply might result in lauch reduced yield*

mnl^ (1976) found that drought resistance in vinaa

was increased by heavy preplanting aEn;>liC8tion of potassiura*

Forster (1976) made the observation that under optimum

potassiirai nutrition* the sensrnce of the fla-| V ni was drlayed

in wheat* itiis resulted in a prolon led "leaf area dur?»tion"

which* according to Bvana ^% ^* (1975)* wa» iraportant for

grain development*

Ral^ (1976)* conducting field experiment an clay

aoils in England* found th<<it grain yield of winter wheat

• 44 •

waa inor««9«d by imtrtrwinq th« single grain weiqiht as

ccn»9q\x§nem of potassium applicaticm* The treataent often

increased the muabeiL of <|rain per ear* He o'-'aenred that

potaaaiivn eapeeially promoted the rlevelopnirnt of the proximal,

central, and distal spiXeleta*

Schon £J l» ?1976) conducted field trials for ?0

yeara on a loess soil containing imch non-axcân^s^ble

potasaiun* They showed that Vici^ faba and a gr.-ima clover

nixture reaponded most favourably to potasaiuin f»>rtlliser« It

indicated that legumes were not very effective in exploltinir

soil potassium* Potassium markedly increased the yield of

potatoes, but affected the grain yield of cereals slightly. Memando and A^rihuel (1977) noted tCMatoes to be niore responsive to notaasiuT

under drier watering schedule*

?iour and v;«ihel (1978) reported that dlffuaion of

nutrients to the root surface was restricted and root vas

forced to ^row towards regions which still contain ?«vai labia

nutri«f)t8* Crops liHe legumes or row crops, had a les' dense

root sy8t«a than drought resistant species or the small

âin cereals* Therefore, they were obviously less capable

of absorbing n^vêxehainfeable inter layer potassium, 3arber

(1978) also reporte:] that legumes re<îred hi jber doses of

potassium*

• 45 -

s«e«r (1978) ob««rv«d that« shortly aft«r pollination*

a substantial aflKMint of nitrogen was still stored in the

eulas and leaves of wheat in the form of protein. These

proteins were mobilised at the stage of most rapid growth

of the grain and were used for the synthesis of grain proteins.

Plants with high potassium status were found to be more

efficient in mobilising the stored leaf proteins and in

translocating the resulting amino acids towards the irain*

Prom Secer's results ift is also clear that the beneficial effect

of potassium on gr^in filling was not related to the potassium

content of the grains but resulted exclusively from the

influence of potassium on the translocation of asnimilates

from the vegetative plant parts towards the ear* on soils of

medium potassium availability in Ohio* response of maise in

dry years to potassium was aa much as 2,700 kg/h^ compared

with only 198 kg/ha in years with optimum rainfall fJohnson,

1979) • <31ass (1980) found that potassium requirement was

likely to be higher in the tropics then in the temp«cate

climate*

Optimal potassium requirement of crops ir dependent

on the potassium availability in the soil and on its rf>qulrement

- 46 -

by th« respectiirc crop, t t « ava i lab i l i ty i s determine d by

th« potassiuni coneentratio-i of tha s o i l solution and the rate

at which i t i s buffered }yf the potassiuni reaerv<?s. Diffusion

i s the major meehanistQ of potassium transport to the roots,

f^B the cUf^usion paths are short, the roots have to 'jrov

towards the nutr ients , " lant specir-'- having only a po»res

root system, are, therefore, at si di?«?Kivanta«7e and need

h l f i r doses of f e r t i l i s e r . imiarly, rafdern higfh y i ' l< ing

var ie t i ' s have higher potassiuni requirements, espec ia l ly

during th Ir vegetat ive Trcn th 'Iterlnger, 1'*^?).

saxena (198S) in h i s exce l lent review on 'the role

of potassium in drottght tolermice** emi^^asised the importance

of potassium in water uptake and in the r e f l a t i o n of water

lo s s thrmig^ stcxnata under bot|» t controlled as v e i l ma f i e ld

conditions .•5nd established that the water relat ions of plants

an< water use e f f i c iency coiild be iaiproved by the •ppllcation

of potassium that in turn would affect the f inal y i e l 1 under

water stres? condit ions.

la conclusions

The l i t erature reviewed &x>ve includes studies on

physiological analysis of growth, y i e ld , enstymer l ike n i trate

redutase, chlorophyll and proline cont«>nt in v ^ i o u s plants

with respect to the application of potash under normal and

• 47 -

watttr stress ccmaitlons* It app ^ rs fron th« review that

there are very few reports concerning the effect of potash

fertilisation cm various physiological proeessf s Including

productivity of groundnut* The work on groundnut la

Invariably aimed at Increasing the final pod yield without

much understanding of the physiological processes leading

to It. It Is considered logical to study those factors that

llrnlt the grovth and yield of the crop aad may help under

stand these processes to ensure enhamc^^d productivity of

better quality jroundnut*

It Is generally recognised that groundnut is mostly

cultivated In this*- parts of the world wh**re fre-fu nt drought

prevails and requlat s the productivity of the crop. The

role of potassium in r*~latlon to drouq^t c rditlon has been

well established In various crc^s other than groundnut.

Keeping In view the stimulating effect of potassium on these

crops under droui^t conditions* It Is proposed to undertake

the present Investigation cm groundnut In order to exi::lore

the possibility of au^Mntlng Its per capita pr«>ductlvlty

for catering to the need of the ever»lncr«>aslng population

of our country.

C H A P T E R ZZI

MATERIAI. AHD ?4rrH0D8

C O N T E N T S

3,1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3,6

3 . 6 a

3«6.2

3.7

3.7.1

3.7.2

3.3

3.3.1

3.9

3.10

3.10.1

3.10.2

3.10.3

3.10.4

3.10.5

3.10.6

3.10.7

3.10.8

Pxop08«d Study •

Field preparation •

Soi l oharaeterlat lcs •

Seads •

Creation of drought •

"Kharlf" t r i a l s

ExpfUrlBMHlt 1 .

E'xperi:aent 2 •

"Rabl" t r i a l s

Experiment 3 .

£iQ>ttriaent 4 •

Summer t r i a l •

Experiment 5 •

Sampling technique •

Growth «id y ie ld parameters •

PlttTtt height •

Z«eaf number •

l eaf area •

Leaf area index (LAX) •

Leaf area duration (LAD) •

3rop growth rate (ccjR) •

aiomass production •

Energy harvest e f f ic iency •

P a g e

• ii -

P m q B

3.10.9 Yield analysis ••••• 62

3*10*10 Harvest Index (HZ) ••••• 62

3*11 Physiological* chemical «nd

biocheadeal paraimeters 62

3«11*1 Relative water content (RWC) 63

3«11*2 Leaf ten^erature« diffusive resistance and transpiration ••••• 63

3«11«3 Solar radiation <SZ & PAR)

perception by leaves ••••• 63

3*11.4 Nitrate reductase activity (NRA) ••••• 64

3»11«5 Proline content ••••• 66

3*11*6 Kstiiaation of chlorophyll ••••• 67

3»11«7 Plant analysis for MP and K ••••• 6S

3«11«8 Digestlcm of s»i^les 6a

3«11«9 Estimation of nitrogen ••••• 6

3* 11 • 10 Estioiation of phosphorus ••••• 70

3*11*11 Estimation of potassium ••••* 71

3*11*12 Estimation of crude protein ••••• 71

3*11*13 Soluble sugars ••••• 71

3.11.14 Oil content 7?

3*12 Stetistical analysis 73

CHAPTER III

•HAyERIAL- AND HETHODS

It is proposftd to conduct five «xpttrinient9 (ûrinq

''•KherlfS '*Rabl»' imd'^'Zaid" (sxvaner) season* under ralnfed

(natural drought) and irrigated conditions' (incuded drought)

at the farm of the National êsear^ Centre for 3roun' nut

(ZCAR), iTanagadh* C3ujarat«

3«2 F4fM P¥fl?flgaUgB

Before sowing* the field will be thoroughly plou<q ed

to ensure rnaximum soil aeration* It will also help to

elisainate weeds* The standard farm practices requlrod for

groundnut cultivation will be uiK!iertak«n* The plot size

will be sixteen sq «»A q«p of 3m between two plots will be

left so as to avoid seepage of watfi'r from one plot into

another in induced drought experiments*

3.3 îl gnBffa9tfftf4ffi 4gff

9efore sorting* soil san^les from various places in the

experim«ntal field will be collected from a depth of about

0*15 cm and 15«>30 cm* these samples from the two depths will

be mixed separately and will be analysed for various physico-

chemical characteristlca of the soil* The details of this soil

analyses will be recorded for eadh ex^ eriment as per the

proforma given in Table 1*

•• 49 •»

Tabl« i» Pro£orma for reocrding soil analysis of the

fl«ld for various physico-chamlCAl properties

(i^Q>«rini€mt8 1">5)

Cheracteristies T f

Experimcmt T

(1) Tisxturs

(?) Particle sise

distribution.

Sand %

Silt %

Clay %

(3) pH ( 1 • 2 )

(4) Conductivity

i«e« E«C« 1 I 2

(m nbos/em)

(5) Available nitrogen

(Xg N/ha)

(6) Available phosphorus

(7) Available potassitm

(8) Calcium carbonate

• 50 •

Auth«ntle 8«'ds of groundnut w i l l be obtained from

vHiJarat Be«J Nijani* Jttnagadh. Xn these studies two vsrif^tles

w i l l be Included*

(1) 3AUa • 1 • Small seeded bunch type mnturln^ In

105-110 days.

(2) 3AU0 «• 10 • sold seeded spreading type rnaturlnq

in 130*135 days*

The five experiments will be conducted in three

seasons two in ''Kharlf% two in Rabi* end one In sufwier.

In all experiiaents* varieties^ levels of nitrogen nnd

phosphorus* sources of fertilis<^rs« number of replic^ttes*

size of plots and seed rate will be kept uniform*

3*5 Creation of drought

Under induced drought conditions. Irrigation v'ill be

given at 20 days intervals (Experiments 3 mt^- 4}and . Iso after

15 days (Es^erinent §) o

3.6 "muXt" yjalff

IWo experiment will be conducted in this season* One

experiment in one year an^ the other in the consecutive

year* The crop will be- completely rainfed ^natural drouiht)

• SI •

in th«se t r i a l s . Th« design of aach •xperiment w i l l b«

factor ia l C«tiaosiia«d block.

3 « 6 a

Th« •xp«riau»nt will be laid out according! to factorial

r«iK3onis«a block d«8i<3n» Tha object of this experiment will

be to find out the optimum potassium requir^mrnt of two

varieties of groundnut (GAUO m 1 and GAUQ • 10) under rainfed

conditions (natural drought 1)• Potassium will be applied

at the rate of 0$ 26# 52 uid 78 kg K^O/he* In addition* a

uniform basal doses of 1? kg M and 25 kg P^o^/ha will be

applied to all plots at the time of sowing as per the

recomnuKidation of Oujarat Agricultural University* Junagadh.

ttie sources of potassium* nitrogen and phosphorus will r>e

muriate of potash* urea and fuperphoephate respectively.

The sise of each plot will be sixteen sq m. The se<?d rate

for 3Auq - 1 will be ^0 kg/ha and for 3AUO - 10* 50 k7Aa.

Ea^ treatment will be replicated three times. The summary

of the experiment is given in Table 2.

. 52 •

Table 2, Stunmary of proposed treatment (Experlnnent 1)

T Treatnents (kg KjO/ha) f Varieties

Remarks

^26

^52

'78

no potj^sh

26 k3 KJO/hm

52 kg K.O/ha

78 kg KjO/ha

the follOKTliig paramet<< r8 w i l l be studied in a l l experitoents

at 30« 60 snd 90 days after sowing*

^forphologieal parsflMiters

Physiological parameters

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(1) Plwit height

(2) Leaf number

(3) Leaf area

(I) Crop growth «ate (C3?i)

Leaf area index (LM)

Leaf area duration (LAC)

Leaf temperature (Lt)

Diffusive resistance Cc^)

Transpiration rate 'TR)

(7) Relative water content (Rwc)

(8) solar radiation interception t'?! «. P/R!

- 53 -

Chemical and biochvaloal parameters

Yield eharacterlatics

(9) Blomass production (" P)

(10) Eneriy harvf st efficiency (THE)

(1) Chlorophyll content

(2) Proline content

(3) Nitrate reductase activity

(4) NPSC contents (in leaf* stem« root* shell «n1 seed)

(I) Tlutaber of pegs per ul^nt

(?) Number of p<:>ds per plant -nature and iimature)

(3) Peg/pod r a t i o

(4) Hature/imnfiature pod r a t i o

(5) Pod y ie ld q /ha

(6) r>eed yi«»ldq/ha

(7) Shelling ner cent

(a) 100 seed weight

(9) Harvest index

(10) Oil content

(11) Protein content

(1*) Sugar content

(13) Oil yield q A a

This experimtint will be conducted in the next

consecutive year in Kharif season*

• 54 •

Tb« aim of th« •9cp«rim«nt w i l l be to find out the

gzofw^ sta^o of gncwndnut var ia t i e s at which potasaium

requireRi«nt i s mascLraam. Potaaaltsa w i l l be npplied at the

rate of 0« 26« S2 and 78 kg K^O/ha in s p l i t clcsea# h<-?lf at

the time of sowin? and half at pod development stage. The

•uiamary of the experiment i s given in the Table 3 , M l the

attributes mentioned in Experiment 1 w i l l be observed.

Table 3« Summary of the proposed treatments (EXperimwit 2)

f r Treatments S Varieties S (kg KjOAa) I V, T v , 1

Remarks

K • 4- NO potassium

*' B13 • T13 • ••• 13 kg KjOAa «a a basal

and 13 kg K-O/ha as top

dres. ing at 45 days.

826 • T26 • • 26 kg KjO/ha as basal and

26 kg Kj^/ha as top

dressing at 45 days.

^339 • T39 • • 3<? kg KjO/ha ns basal and

39 kg KjO/ha as a too

dressing at 45 days.

• 5S -

Thtt Rabi" trials will include two exparlniGnts

(Experinants 3 and 4)« ona following Expariment 1 of '' Kharif'

saason and tha other one (Experiment 4) following the

experiment 7 of ^Kharif^ season* These experiments will be

conducted under induced drou^t conditions by irri^atinqf the

crop at two sets of intervols i«e« 10 days interval (nomal

irrigation) and 20 days interval (50% cut in irricration) •

lliese- schedules of irrigation will be followed in both

experiments* The design of the experiments will be st lit

plot*

^•7*1 Eypyy|iny| ?

The aiti of this experiment will be to study the

effect of 8&-Qe levels of potassium (Experiment 1) under

induced drought conditions* The sumnary of the experiment

is given in Table 4*

This experiment will be conducted in the Rabi^ season

in the next year as Experiment 2* 'Rie aim of this experiment

will be to find out the growth stage of groundnut at which

the potassium requirement in maximum under in<-?uced drought

condition* Potassium will be applied in split doses s in

• 56 •

Table 4 i Sunmary of the proposed treatments fExperiment 3)

Sub-plot

KQIJ

""oh

^ ^ 1

^1

•f

•

•

Main p l o t

•

•

•

t Remarks

t

Vlo potash and 10 <lays i r r i g a t i o n

No potash and r>0 days

i r r i g a t i o n

26 kg K,0/ha and 10 days

irrigation

Kjlj + ••• 26 kg KjO/ha and 20 days

irrigation

Kjl- • • 52 kg KjO/ha and 10 days

irrigation

K-Ij • • 52 kg K-O/ha and 20 days

irrigation

K-I, • • 78 kg KjO/h)^ and 10 days

irrigation

K-I- • + 7 8 kg KjO/he and ?0 days irrigation

Bjqperioent 2« All the attributes of the Experiment ^ will

be observed* The summary of the experiment is given in

Table 5*

- 57 -

Tabl« 5 t !?uani«ry of th« proposed tr«atm<»nt (Experiraent 4)

^ u u Sub plot S Main plot C ApuarXa

i—C—T-nr i , y ^ X ^ y ^

KQX- • • HO potash 4-10 days I r r i g a t i o n

KQIJ • • M O potash + 2 0 days

i r r i g a t i o n

Kg-J •••^13^1 * * 13 kg KjOAa basa l • 13 k7 KjOAa top dres s ing 4-10 days i r r i g a t i o n

Kg,- + T j - I j • • 13 kg KjOAa basal • 13 kg KÔAa top dress ing • 20 days i r r i g a t i o n

Kg2g + '^26^1 **• + 2 6 kg KÔAa basal + 26 kg KjOAa top dress ing + 10 days i r r i g a t i o n

* B26 * ^26^2 * • 26 kg KÔAa basal + 26 kg K.O/ha top dress ing + 20 days I r r i g a t i o n

^839 "*" "^S^'l "*• • 39 kg KÔ/ha b a s a l + 39 kg KÔ/ha top dress ing + 10 days i r r i g a t i o n

V 4- T I 4 • If kg K-aA^" b«a«l * 39 kg •^839 39 2 ^

*'.-<•* tOff cir*»««5if>"t * * !*ays

t f ^ * 7 » t i o n .

3.8

3.8.1

3.9

• 58 •

C'Ssid*) onXy €mm «Kp*ri!ii«ftt will hm In this season

conducted. The main aim of this aiqperiment vill oe tc study

the effect of potassium nutrition at different irriiation SUMMNT

intervals (tering season. In this study cnly one

variety GAUO • 1 (bunch type) will be taken.

The experiment will be laid out f»ccordim to factorial

randomised block design, -^tassium will be applied at the

rate of 0# 26 or S3 kg K^O/ha at the time of sowing. 'ater

stress will be created by irrijating the plot at an Interval 4«pl«Uon)

of 15 days (25% depletion) or 20 days (50? rhe

control will be Irrigated every 10 days (norojal) • All the

of Exp>eriment 1 will be observed In this study.

The summary of the experiment is given in Table 6.

Random plant samples will be takim in triplicate from

each plot at all experin)ent8# 30# 60 and 10 days after 80win<)

and at harvest.

- 59 -

Tabl« 6 I Sumti«ry of the proposed treatments (^xp«=rl«©nt = 1

T—ZTTz: r Treatamnt J Variety J R«nar)cs

1 L KQI- -4- Ko potash enJ 10 days

i r r i g a t i o n

KQIJ -f NO potash and 15 days i r r i g a t i o n

K I_ + No potash an<5 '>0 days i r r i g a t i o n

K-1- • 26 kg KjO/he «Bnd 10 days i r r i g a t i o n

K j l j ••• 26 kg K^o/hm pnd 15 days i r r i g a t i o n

K-I^ + 26 kg K^oAie erA 70 days i r r i g a t i o n

K-I* «•• 52 kg KjO/ha and 10 days i r r i g a t i o n

K . I , * '^^ ^^ KjOAa and 15 days i r r i g a t i o n

K j l j • 52 kg KjO/ha and 20 days i r r i g a t i o n

• 60 -

The following growth cha rac te r s w i n b< studied In

each saumplei

3«10.i Plant hei<^t

3«10.2 }4itt ffMfrff

3,10.3 Leaf area

Plant height will be neasured frcm

the base tc the tip cf the uppermost

leaf*

ijtmber of leaves per plant will i>e

OMinted*

Ueaf area will be Tiea ured by using

LI-3100 AREA ?4ETER and the total area

of all the leaves of a sln- le plnnt.

will be obtained by adding the readings

for individual leave •

3 IQ I Leaf area index (LAl) ' eaf area index will be determined

by using the following formula suggested by watson '1947)t

LAI Leaf area per plant

Area occupied per plant

3,10,5 Leef area duration (LAD) LAO will be determined by

using anothpr formula also suggested by ''Jatson (1947) i

• 61 •

Where i U • LAI et time T^

L2 « L/tl at time T^

3»10.6 qgpp aro%rth ratf (CPU) C<» w i l l be calculated b/ usiiv?

the fommlai

w <• w CC3R • -^ -a ig 5^ day*^)

v*»ere, w, and *<- ^^^ ^® ^ - f'w»«8 P**" s* J™ • at

tii»e Tj and Tj respectively*

3.10.7 Biomaaa production The to ta l bloraaas prod\:ctlon o* each

cul t ivar w i l l be the ctafoulative e f fec t of biomass of leaf*

etmtkt petiole* root* peg and pod an& w i l l be ccmputed

aK7cordin']rly»

3.10.8 Energy harveet e f f ie iencv ^^.9tiY conservation wi l l ->«

determined after harvesting the plants and aubjectinj them

to energy estimation* Dried powdered sanqples wi l l 'ne prt s' ed

into p e l l e t s . The eontbustible value of each part of the plant

in terras of energy* w i l l be deterralned in t r i l i c a t e samples

with the help of ,•» "PAR-CXY:1EH 30M^ CALC; I-1FTFS". ?he energy

values w i l l be expresses? as Cal g dry matter. To ietetmlne

energy conservation* the energy values of -Ufferent part v i l l

• 62 -.

be iiultipll«d by total diry w«ight of the respective parte*

For simplicity all the recorded values of ri in the form of

w B and PAR in the form of I 5 for a period of 150 days

will be converted into K Cal S 120 days* The energy

conserving efficiency %fill be calculated on total PAR and

SI basis*

•2 the energy conserved (K Cal ta ) by the plant will be

divided by PAR or SI (K Cal i^) and the result will be

laultiplied by 100 to et energy efficiency* ThU8»

3*10*9 Yield analysis Plants will be harvested when the majority

of the pods have matured* The per plot yield will be recordefi.

The wei<3lit of air dried mature pods will be recorded. Thr

pods will be shelled by h«nd and the Kernels will be separated

into fully filled (mature) end shrivelled (immature) kernels.

They will be counted and weighed*

3*10*10 aayy^ft ln<^r <ltl) - ij!^?*?.^ °g^ x loo

The following parameters will be studied using

standard procedure briefly described for each*

• 63 •

3 .11.1 Relative water o o n f n t (RWC) »wc w i l l be determined by the

method of Sarrae and weetherly (1962), Tur-jid weiiht wi l l

be determined by M>aking the leaf d i scs In {>etridishes

containing water for 3 hours and wi l l be calculated by the

following foraulai

RWC - ^t ^ fl 3, 100 t * d

WhereI w^ « Fresh weight

w. m Oven dried wl^t

w^ • Fully turgid weiq^t

3.11.2 Leaf teaperature, diffusive resistance and transpiration

Leaf temperature^ stomatal resistance and transpiration

rate will be measured by using the LI*1600 ste iidy state

poronter.

3.11.3 ?ftitf gfl m iffl {n ^ y^? fftycwUgn Y innyw

Integrsted photosynthetically-active solar radiation

<PAR) and total solar irradiation (SI) for a d<sy, and thereby

for the whole jrowth period* will be sneasured with the help

of LIOOR SOLAR MONITOR (Spectrorsdio .-neter) • These o --servation!

will be recorded from early seedling sta?e till the maturity

of crop.

3 a i . 4 N i t r a f r»duct«a# aetiiritv (tWA)

HRA w i l l b« estimated by the int«ict t i s s u e assay

method o£ Jaworski (1971)« which i s based on the reduction

of n i trate to n i t r i t e* This n i t r i t e w i l l be determined

co lor iae tr i ca l ly by the Srless I l losvay method (f^nell und

anell* 1949)* The following reagents w i l l be used:

A* Q.l M. Phosphate bttfferi t h i s w i l l be prepared by

dissolving 27.2g/ l ICHjPO and 45*63 g/1 K^nPO^^ln^O

To achieve pH 7*4« 16 ml of KH« PO and 84 ml of K HPO

solution w i l l be takwi and - di luted to 200 ml with

d i s t i l l e d water*

8 . 0 * 2 H^ KHSO^t I t w i l l be made by dissolving ?0*2g /

potassium ni trate in one l i t r e of water*

C* 5% isQpgopanolt S ml isopropanol w i l l be diluted with

d i s t i l l e d water to 100 ml*

D* 0*SX ChlorMPheni^^i 50 mg chloramphenicol w i l l be

dissolved in a l i t t l e cjuantity of d i s t i l l e d water »nd

the f inal volume made upto 100 ml with d i s t i l l e d water*

E* Ifi gtt4Ph«>4XOTiay in 3H ^9l* l ? sulphanilamlOe w i l l

be dissolved in 3n HCl (1 ml HCl •»• 4 ml water)*

P* 0*02% ll»l M^tlpyl ethylene diamine di»hydorchloridei

20mg N»l iNlaphthyl ethylene diamine di-hydrxx^loride wi l l

be dissolved in water and the f inal volume made upto 100 ml,

- 65 -

Proc«tur»t 2S0 mq of l«af ptmchea will be suspended In

•crew em^«d vials eontaining 2*5 ml of ^, 0.5 ml of B, 7,S

ml of C Mid 3 drops of D. Aft«r scaling* the vials will be

incubated at 30*c in the dark for about 7 houra, MRA in the

au Sium will be determined by taking 0*4 ml incubated solution

«nd 0*3 ml of eaeh of reagants i and F« After 20 minutes*

the solution will be diluted with 4 ml of w^ter to nake the

volume upto 5 ml and optical density will be tneasured at

540 ren. If nitrite concentration/ found to be too high. It

will be further diluted*

Standard for RRAi Kmiping in mind that 1*5 mq M«^K>J/100 ml

gives 10 yug ! 2/ffll« 0« 2»5« 5# 7»5» 10 ••••• 20«0yug ^O^

will be taken and 0*3 ml each of reagents E and F as above

will be added* After 20 minutes* the solutions will be

diluted with distilled water to make the volume upto 5 ml

and their r tieal density measured at 540 nm and plotted on

a graph paper to obtain a standard curve* The amount of

nitrite produced by the activity of nitrate reductase in the

assay will be estimated with the help of this standard curve. of

1B)e amount of nitrite formed as a result/reduction of nitrate

will be used as «n index of the activity of the enzyme*

A standard curve will be plotted by taking various

conoentrationa of potassium nitrite* The optical density

• 66 -

of th« BAtaplea will b« compared with this calibrated curve

and NRA expressed as n mol )90*/0i XQ fresh leaf tissue*

3«11»5 Proline content! It will be determined in lenvee f^ceording

to the method of Bates i| al« (1973). The following resgents

will be usedi

Acid ninhvdrint It will be prepared by warming 1.75 g

ninhydrln In 30 ml glacial acetic acid "»nd ?0 ml 6M

orthophosphorie acid (407 ml/1) with agitation until dissolved.

It will be stored at 4^C« being stable for ^4 hr.

Pro^edur^t

(1) 100 mg to 200 mg (depending on availability) of plant

material will be honngenised in 10 ml of 3 4 sulphosalicylic

acid and the homogenate will be filtered through a

'-'hatman No.l filter paper*

(2) 5 ml filtrate will be reacted with 2 ml acid ninhydrln

and 2 ml jlacial acetic icid in •» teat tube for 1 hour

at lOO^C in a water bath and the reaction will bo terminate

in ice box*

(3) itke reaction mixture will be extracted in 5—10 ml or

more of tolumi^e after mixing vigorously with a test

tube stirrer for 15-20 second*

- 67 •

(4) Thm chrammtophoem containing toXu«ne will be aapirmtttd

from the aqueous phase* The abaorbance will be re?*6 at

520 nm at room tea4>erature« using toluene that has reacted

with the reagents without the sample for blank«

(5) Thm proline concentration will determined from a 9t?>ndard

curve prepared by taking graded concentrations (0, 10«

20« 30« 40* 50« 60* 70 and 80 ug)« of proline an i it

will be calculated on fresh or dry weight basis in

leaves*

3*11*6 Estimation of i^lorophvllt

For estimation of chlorophyll* the method of ^mon

(1949) will be followed*

100 mg of freshly cut leaf material (from the

ui^exTROst 3 leaf blades) will be grinded in a mortar and

pestle with 30K acetoie* the extract will be filtered through

Whatman !lo*t filter pnper* The washing of tho extract will

be done using B0% acetone* The solution will be made upto

50 ml* Optical density readings will be taken at 645 nm

and 663 in a spectrophotometer*

. 68 •

Itie amounts of ehlorophyll e chlorophyll b ard total

chlorophyll will kM calculated using the following (otmxlaet

ChU a m 12,7 x (D 663) • 2.67 (D 645) mg Chl/litre.

Chl. b • 22.9 X (O 645) - 4.68 (D 663) nig Chl/litre.

Total chlorophyll • 30.2 x (D 645) -f 8.02 (r 663) rag Chl/litre

Where D represents the optical density readlnj. The

chlorophyll contont will be finally expressed es mg

chlorophyll per gram fresh veljht.

Handotn plant samples will be t^ken in triplicate.

Different plant parts will be separated front each other

?»nd will be dried in en oven for ''4 lifours. The samples of

leaf# stem* root# kernel and shell will be m -ide into fine

powder* using a 72 mesh screen. The powder thus obt ilned

will be kept at 70 c overnight before dl^f stion :^r.6 nnfily^ia.

The nitrogiKi* phosphorus, nnd potassium content will be

estimated using standard methods.

3ai«8 »iayg^4<ffl ojf ffi

100 m^ of dry leaf powder will be t^ken In a 50 ml

kjeldahl flask. 2 ml of chemically pure sulphuric acid vill

be added end the flask heated for about two hours to dissolve

• 69 •

the powdsr* This heating with acid will turn th« contents

black* Aftar cooling tha flaaV for about 13 minutes* 0,5 nl

of chemically pure 30 per cent hydrogen peroxide will be

added droxwiae* The solution will now be heated again for

about 30 Alnutes till the colour turns light yellow, it will

be cooled and again 3 ^ drops of hydrogen p« roxide will be

added* followed by heating for about 15 mimites to get clear

extracts* Excess of hydrogen peroxide will be avoided as it

would oêrwiae oxidise the nnmonia in the absence of organic

matter* the pf>roxide-i>di7ested material will be transferred

to a 100 ml volumetric flask with three or four washin is with

double distilled watf>r and the volume will be nde* uo to

the Tiark* This will serve as a stock solution for the estima

tion of nitrogen* phosphorus and potassium*

3*11*9 E^n«âtt9n 9g Ûy<»ifn

TTie estimation of nltrojen in the sample? viil >>e made

according to the method given by Lindner <1^44)*

A 10 ml ali^Ht of the peroxide digested material

will be transferred to a 50 ml volumetric flask* ? ml of

2*5 a sodiiim hydroxide vill be added tOf|«ty rAli«m ^^* excess

of th« acid partially* To prevent turbidity, 1 ml of 10

per cent sodium silicate will be added to the flask and the

- 70 -

volume will be mad* upto the mark. In m 10 ml graduated

test tube« a S ml aliquot of this solution will be taken

and 0*5 ml of Nessler's reagent added and mixed thoroughly,

the final Toluiae will be made up with double distilled water

and the tu'-ie kept for about 5 minutes for maximum colour

derelopment* This solution will be taken in a colorl tie trie

tube and its optical density measured at 525 nm« A blank

will also be run si:nultancously« A standard curve of >tnown

dilutions of ammonium sulphate solution will be plotted. The

reading of eadh sample will be compared with this c^^libration

curve to determine the quantity of nitrogen present in each

swnple*

Phosjf^orus will be estimated by the nethod of Fiske

and iubl a i^em (192S). In a 10 ml graduated tube« a 5 ml

aliquot will be taken ani 1 ml of molybdate reagent(3.5 4

wnmonium molydate in 10 MH^SOJ will be added carefully*

followed by addition of 0.4 ml 1|2|4 • amino»nephthol

sulplKmic acid. This will turn the contents blue. The volume

will be made up and the solution will be allowiki to stand for

about S mimites for inaxiiauBi colour development. Then* it

will be transferred to a colorimetric tuoe and the optical

d«nsity read at 620 nm. A blank will be run for each

- 71 •

determination* A CBllbratlon curve uilX b« pêp&red yy using

Xnoim di lut ions c€ m stimdard monobasic potassixvn phor^phate

solution*

Potassium w i l l be estisnated using m flame photcvnetor.

A blank wi l l be run aide by side* The readinjis w i l l be

compntt& with a calibration curve plotted for 'differ nt

d i lut ions of a standard potassium 8ul|::âte solution*

The protein content w i l l be ©stl'nate<^S h/ ^lultlply-inij

the nitroîen content with 6*?5 for leaf* stem and other plant

parts and with 5*46 £ r seeds which ij? the or>tein factor

for groundnut (Jones* 1931}*

3*il«13 soluble sugars

Soluble sugars v i l l ' e extracted tr^ per the riethod of

Qubois £J ^ * (1956) and estimated by the procedure I'ven in

AOAC (1965)*

iêagents t Anthrone rea-jerit

A* 0*2 per cert anthrone in concentrated S^ ^4*

!3* standard •jluco'ê solution 50 uj/rnl).

• 72 •

For •xtmetion 100 mj of finely powder«d[ material

will be taken in a 100 ml ecnieal flask containing 40 ml of

double distilled water* The contents vill be shaken «in<l

autoclavak} at 15 pai for 4 hrs* After coolin r* t^« supernatant,

will be filtered in a 100 ml volumetric fleak throu(|h

ncm-abaorbent cotton with 4 Wdahings vfith distilled ^ater

«nd volume made upto 100 ml*

lb estimate the quantity of soluble sugars 1- each

swsple* a suiteble aliquot of the respc^ctlve extr.?ct will be

taken and final volume made upto 1*0 ml with dlGtilled wf»ter»

"To it# 5 ml of anthrcme reaqr nt will be added and 4««ted in

a boiling water bath for 10 minutes* After coolingt a jsorbence

will be read at 620 nm* Sugar content of the samples will be

determined by usin^ a standard curve prepared for glucose

(10*50 ug) and results will be expressed as mg/gra dry wt* of

tissue*

3*11*14 Oil contatitj Oil In the plant material will >e extrr^cte'

with petroleum ether (40*60^C) and estimat«»d gr^'vimetrically

(Nicholas 1968)*

?g9gf0ttrf («) ^5ggSJ***» ^° '**"» **' ***• P^*"^ tissue

will be token iff tube and the lipids vill be extracted usini

- 73 -

8 soadUet li paratus at SCMIO C t«mperatur« for 3*10 hm?rs till

all the oil la aictraetad ttom tha giroundbnut povder. ^ftar

tha eonplata avaporation of patrolaoa ether# the lipid or

oil extract will iiamiMliataly be uaed for further study,

(b) Total oil eontentt Itia anxmnt of dil present in the

tissue will be determined iravimetrieally. rhe oil extract

will be taken in pr*»%N»i! hed pro<l lin crucible c nd iried in

a vaceun oven at 35^0 C to a eonatant weigh' and oil content

will be expresaed on per cent basis*

All data will he analysed stetiFtically according to

the deaiqin of the experimmt* The results of the ex$jeriiients

/ will be discussed in the light of relevant literature published

by other workers* Correlations will b« v.crk rl out to establish

the association of various physlo-K'norphol07lci*l parssrneters

with seed yields oil yield and protein content and yield in

each jround»)ut variety* If e8tablished# these corr: Istion

studies oould be utilised to predict yield an luallt/ of the

seed of this crop* In case of adverse predictions« this

Inforraation could help in takinj tiraely corrective measures at

an early stage aa sujjested for other crops t"i*i«m *fr-

Wasiuddln# 1975| Akhtar £^*s^«f 1934| Afaq e; * i*,! >35,Ansari

J|S.jai«l985# Samiuallah Jil .^ 1985)*

R E F E R E N C E S

R E F E R EM C E S

ACHITOV, M, 1961« Review of literature on the Interaction

between potash and water in plants. Potash Rcviev«

15th Suite* Int. Potash Inst. lem» pp.1-15.

fKCKmSEN, R,C. and KftlEd, D.8. 1977. tO!a<«jt«l an6 non-stomatal

rejulatlon of water use in cotton com »ns.i

sorghum. Plant liysiol. 60 t 350-B53.

AFAQ,S,H., KHAN,f4,«4.R,^SA«UHAH and AFRIDI,^.-I.R.K, 1^15,

Predicting aolasodine content in frviltr o^

nako *»«SKS ni irwa L..) by leaf nltr :7en

estimation. J.Rcs.Edu.Indo.M* 1. £ i 13-15.

AFHiDI.ri.H.R.K. and HEWITT, E.J. 1964. The inducible formation

and stability of nitrate reductase In higher

plants. I. Effects of nitrate and »iyb<S«n»»

on enayrae activity in cauliflower (3rassica

olerjccj var. Sotrytis)* J.Exp.Qot, 2_5 i ?5l-?7l.

APRID1,M.M.R.K. and VfASIUDDiN 1979, Poliar fertillaation of

crop plants • A review. Tnt "Rygent 'Researches

In Plant 3cifences.** s.-' . ir (ed.). Kalyanl

Publishers* Hew Delhi, pp. 390-394.

AKHTARfM., SAJ IULLAH, AFHIDl.M.M.R.K. and ANSARI,«^.A. 1994,

Effect of l e a f - a p p l i e d H and P at two basal

f e r t i l i s e r levplg on the y i e l d of l e n t i l .

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• ii -

A U , ^ . * ALA?4,Z, and K\lMmh,K,L* 1932, Studies on g«mln»tl->n

and growth In groundnut. Agricul ture an ^ l i v e s t o c k

In I ^ U n . Z I 91-115 ,

AM3ER0Kt,A, l<^6d« Function of potash In p l a n t , ''otash R- viow,

3rd Suite* In t .Potash Inst»9em« p . ? 7 ,

ANDANIOOWOA, 1977. Molsture S tre s s ^nd hortional Inf lusncr on

th« f lowering end y i e l d in groundnut. M.sc .Thes i s ,

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ANON, 1972. Area anrl production of |r<Mindnut. Agriculture

s i t u a t i o n in India , 31i633«

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in p y * i ^ * i n « sprayed fsung ?3e»n fVijna rndiata L.

W U c s ^ ) ev . K^asi, P I ant Phys io l , fsuppl,) 77 10,

AOAC, 1965. Assoc iat ion of O f f i c i a l Ana ly l i co l Chemists

• O f f i c i a l end t e n t a t i v e methods cf a n a l y s i s " , 10th

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ARNON, D , I . 1949. Copper enzymess in I s o l a t e d c h l o r o p l a s t

polyphenoloxldases in 9r^e Vulgar i s , Plant P h / s i o l ,

24 t 1-15,

ARMOK, I , 1969. Transi t ion from Extenslvr t o I n t e n s i v e Agriculture

with F e r t i l i z e r s . Proc.7th Col loq. I n t . Potash I n s t ,

3 e m , pp. 13*25.

• ill -

3ADNAUR,V,P. , SATYANARYANA,T, a n d H A V A M J I . I . V , 1 9 7 6 , E f f e c t o f

fK>tash on (groundnut* c»>wpej9« maize (^n6 r a i l .

Indlnn Potaah J , ^ t ?2o?6*

9ALASU3RAMANIAM, V , , tU^J^omLMi^V, and SINHA, S . K , 1 0 7 4 ,

s t « b i l i t y of n l trat« reductaae under nnolsture and

aalt atress In some cropa. *3reedlnqr Research in

Asian and Oceania* Indian J, 3enet, 34Ai 1055-1061,

BARBER £;,A« 1071. soyabMui do reapond to f e r t i l i z e r in rotat ion '

Better cropa with Plant Pood 55i ^ - l l ,

fJARSER, '^.A, 1978, Irowth and nutrient uptake of soyabean

roots under f i e ld condit ions, Agron, J , 7£ t 457,

aro DZICK, J .H, , 4ARSH, j , v . J r . , and HAVIS, J,R, 1^71, Effects

of water s tress on the a c t i v i t i e s of three enzymes

In nelze seedllngfs. Plant ^ y s l o l , 42 • H^R-BSl,

aARK, P. and CHKXM, Y, 1993, Effect of potassium f e r t i l i s a t i o n

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44 I 945-1»50.

3ARRAS, *J,D, and KLEPPER, B. 1968, Cyclic variat ions In olant

properties under conat^^nt erviron!flental conditicMis,

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