Phrenology-The idea that specific mental processes can be found in specific parts of the brain can be traced back to the early 1800’s when German physician Franz Gall invented phrenology.- Phrenology was the idea different bumps on the skull could reveal our mental abilities and character traits.

• Gall was the first great anatomist of brains.• His careful examination of the brains of

many different species led him to the conclusion that higher mental functions correlated with the size of the brain.

• While the correlation is imperfect, it did demonstrate the tendency for animals with larger brains to manifest more complex, flexible, and intelligent behavior.

• It was this demonstration, not argument, that convinced scientists that the brain was the center of all mental activity.

What is the problem with Gall’s theory?

• Unfortunately, because Gall was so steadfast in his theory of phrenology, he is now viewed as a bit of a “quack.”

• So where did his ideas come from?

• When Gall was young, he became angered by fellow students who he viewed as less intelligent than himself, yet received better grades because they could better memorize.

• When looking at all of them, he decided that they all had large, protruding, eyeballs.

• He became convinced that the larger your brain, the more intelligent you were. Each part of the brain would have a different function, and those areas would be enlarged in individuals who were more “intelligent” in certain areas.

Where did Gall think improved

memory function was located?

(The frontal lobe…behind the eyes)

• Throughout time, Gall would state that there were 37 different traits including:– Musical Talent– Faithfulness– Hope– Cautiousness

Gall came to believe that by measuring boys heads, you could judge their intelligence.

• What were the problems with Gall’s theory?– 1.) The assumption that the shape of

the skull accurately depicts the shape of the brain.

– 2.) His totally inadequate classifications for the parts of the brain

– 3.) His selective and arbitrary methods of observation.

Basic Neuron Structure

Basic Neuron Structure• Messages to and from the brain travel

along the nerves, which are long, thin cells called neurons.

• Neurons: The long, thin cells of nerve tissue along which messages travel to and from the brain.

• The Neurons consist of 3 basic parts:- 1.) The Cell Body: is the main, or center part of the neuron. It contains the nucleus and produces the energy needed to fuel neuron activity.

- 2.) The Axon: a tail like structure that carries information away from the cell body.

- 3.) The Dendrites: are usually small, short thin fibers that stick out from the cell body. They receive impulses, or messages, from other neurons and send them to the cell body.

• Myelin Sheath: Many axons, especially the longer ones are covered by a white fatty substance called myelin.

• This “cover” not only helps to protect portions of the neuron, but it also helps to speed the transmission of impulses.

• In order for the nervous system to properly function, there must be a space between each neuron. This space is called a synapse.

• Synapse: The gap that exists between individual nerve cells.

• What can happen if the Myelin Sheath is destroyed? Multiple Sclerosis (erratic and uncontrolled behavior.)

Multiple Sclerosis

• As we have already said, the myelin sheath is a layer of fatty cells that insulates the axons of some neurons and helps speed their impulses.

• Because it is important for the transfer of information through the nervous system, if it is damaged, the information can no longer easily reach its destination.

Multiple Sclerosis

• We now know that MS attacks the myelin sheaths of axon bundles in the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves.

• Sclerosis means “hardening” and refers to the lesions that develop around those bundles; multiple refers to the fact that the disease attacks many different sites simultaneously.

Multiple Sclerosis

• MS sufferers typically experience muscular weakness, lack of coordination, and impairments of vision and speech.

• The disease, which typically begins in early adult life, is often characterized by remissions and relapses over a period of years.

• Its development seems to be influenced by both environmental and genetic factors.

Multiple Sclerosis

• The role of the environment is suggested by studies showing that people who spent their childhood in a cool climate are more likely to develop the illness.

• The role of genetic factors is evident from the fact that MS is rare among certain groups such as gypsies and Asians, even when others around them show a high incidence of the disease.

MS Video

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qgySDmRRzxY

Endorphins• Endorphins are the brains natural

pain killers (opiates).• While pain is necessary to warn us

of danger to our physical well-being, constant intense pain would eventually incapacitate us, and so endorphins help our bodies to control the degree of pain.

Endorphins•Endorphins can also be

activated through psychological stress, strenuous exercise (runners high, boxing, football, lacrosse, weightlifting, etc.).

•Woman lifting car example.

STOP

Parkinson’s Disease• Parkinson’s disease is named

after James Parkinson, a London physician who described it as “involuntary Tremulous Motion” in 1817.

• For more than a century, the disease was thought to be an illness of the spinal cord, the muscles, and motor regions of the cerebral cortex.

• In the twentieth century, some suspected that a chemical deficiency was the root cause and that Parkinson’s might be alleviated by replacing the chemical.

• In the 1960’s, neuroscientists concluded that the tremors of Parkinson’s disease result from the death of nerve cells that produce dopamine, and thus the affliction became the first illness attributed to a neurotransmitter deficiency.

• Awakenings Clip

• Michael J Fox

• Hoping to treat the disorder by giving their patients dopamine, physicians quickly realized it could not be done because it could not cross the blood-brain barrier.

• In 1967, pharmacologists found that L-dopa, would cross the barrier and the brain would then convert it into dopamine.

STOP

Tickle….Tickle….

Why Can’t We Tickle Ourselves?

• Sarah-Jayne Blakemore and her colleagues at University College, London, have addressed the interesting question, “why can’t we tickle ourselves?”

• For their study, the researchers had six volunteers lie in a brain-scanning machine with their eyes closed.

• A plastic rod with a piece of soft foam attached to it moved up and down, tickling the participants left palms.

• The experimenter and the volunteers took turns moving the rod, so the volunteers were either tickling themselves or were being tickled.

• In a third condition, the foam was secretly, so the volunteers moved the rod, but felt nothing.

• Throughout this process, the researchers used functional MRI scans to compare activity in different parts of the brain.

• On the basis of the results, they concluded that during self tickling, one part of the brain tells another: “It’s just you. Don’t get excited.”

• The cerebellum is involved in predicting the specific sensory consequences of movement.

• It provides the signal that is used to cancel the sensory response to self-generated stimulation.

• In short, it tells the somato-sensory cortex what sensation to expect and this dampens the tickling sensation.

STOP

Einstein’s Brain and Genius

• When Albert Einstein died of a ruptured abdominal aneurysm in 1955, pathologist Dr. Thomas Harvey removed the brain and, with the family’s consent, kept the organ for scientific study.

• At the time, Harvey reported that from all appearances Einstein’s brain was well within the normal range. For example, it was no larger or heavier than anyone else’s.

Einstein’s Brain and Genius• From time to time, Harvey has provided

samples for other researchers to study.• In 1996, Dr. Sandra F. Witelson and her

colleagues at McMaster University obtained photos of Einstein’s brain before it had been sectioned as well as a significant portion of brain tissue itself.

• For comparative purposes, Witelson maintains a brain bank of normal, undiseased brains that have been donated by people whose intelligence had been carefully assessed before death.

• The brain bank enabled researchers to compare Einstein’s brain with those of men close to his age.

Einstein’s Brain and Genius

• Witelson and Harvey have reported that while the overall size of Einstein’s brain is average, the region called the “inferior parietal lobe” was 15 percent larger than normal.

• “Visual-spatial cognition, mathematical thought, and imagery of movement,” reported the researchers, “are strongly dependent on this region.”

Einstein’s Brain and Genius

• Einstein’s brilliant insights were often the result of visual images that he translated into the language of mathematics.

• For example, his theory of relativity was based on his reflections of what it would be like to ride through space on a beam of light.

Einstein’s Brain and Genius

• The researchers also reported that the “sylvian fissure” (a groove that normally runs through the brain tissue) was shorter than average.

• This meant that the brain cells were packed more closely together, permitting more interconnections and thus more cross-referencing of information and ideas.

Einstein’s Brain and Genius

• Although other researchers studying Einstein’s brain have reported differences such as more glial cells and more densely populated neurons, Witelson suggests that the most recent findings are ore compelling because “the differences occur in the region that supports psychological functions of which Einstein was a master.”

Einstein’s Brain Video

Why Einstein Was….And You Are Not…

The Sensory Homunculus

• Each nerve fiber carries a message about the location and intensity of touch to the sensory cortex, so that together the nerve fibers form a spatial “map” of the body skin surface in the cortex that is called a “sensory homunculus.”

• The largest portions are devoted to the areas having the greatest sensitivity, for example, the lips, tongue, and hands.

• Let’s Test…

STOP

Hemispherectomy

• The hemispherectomy provides a vivid example of brain plasticity.

• Dating back to 1928, the hemispherectomy was devised as a treatment for malignant brain tumors.

• However, not only did it fail to cure patients, but it was also associated with high mortality and morbidity.

Hemispherectomy

• The surgery was used again in the 1940’s and 1960’s as a treatment for seizure disorders, but each time it fell into disfavor because of postoperative complications.

• A number of medical advancements have contributed to its more recent success.

• As the text indicates, one Johns hopkins medical team, which has followed up on the 58 child hemispherectomies they have performed, are “awed” by ho well the children retain their memory, personality, and humor after the removal of either hemisphere.

• According to Jason Brandt, a Johns Hopkins Neurologist; “a child with half a brain can indeed be a whole person. This speaks to the maleability of both the human brain and human spirit…”

• Surely, some drawbacks will always remain.

• For example, some neurological functions do not transfer from one hemisphere to the other.

• All of the “hemis” remain blind in one half of each eye. They also continue to have some degree of paralysis on one side of their bodies.

• Fine motor movement is lost in one hand.• In general, the effect of removing one

hemisphere is inversely related to the age of the child at the time of the surgery.

• If performed early enough, the surgery does not seem to cause deficits in the higher mental functions of adulthood.

• Two different conclusions can be drawn from this finding:– One is that no shift from one hemisphere to

the other has occurred because lateralization of function is not present during infancy.

– The other is that hemispheric differences are present very early in life, but the young brain has the ability to reorganize itself in the face of damage to specific areas.

• Recent studies comparing the abilities of persons with left and right hemispherectomies suggest that th latter plasticity explanation is more likey to be correct.

• For example, research on those who have had hemispherectomies (some in the first few months of life) indicate that those who have had the left hemisphere removed have some continuing difficulty with both syntax and the processing of speech sounds.

• When asked to judge the acceptability of the three sentences:– 1. “I paid the money by the man.”– 2. “I was paid the money to the lady.”– 3. “I was paid the money by the boy.”

– Those who had the left hemisphere removed failed to recognize that the first two were incorrect.

– The researchers concluded that the right hemisphere does not accurately comprehend the meaning of passive sentences. There are limits to plasticity.

Specialization of Hemispheres

• Noting that hemispheres control opposite sides of the body, you can easily see what happens when you overtax one hemisphere.– Rotate dominant hand in one direction,

opposite foot in another.– Rotate dominant hand and foot on the same

side in the same direction.– Rotate dominant hand in one direction, and

rotate same foot in another direction.– Tap right index finger as rapidly as possible

and recite alphabet backwards.– Now try left.– Balancing and speech. (Alphabet, Afghanistan)

STOP

What do you think?• If it were possible,

would you want to take a genetic test telling you which diseases you are likely to suffer from later in life?

• If you or your spouse were pregnant, would you want your unborn child tested for genetic defects?

• Do you think it should be legal for employers to use genetic tests in deciding whom to hire?

The Genetic Revolution

• In May 2002, a Harris poll of U.S. adults reported that, when offered a free genetic test for a disease for which there is a treatment or other ways to greatly reduce risks, only 26% said that they would be “very likely” to do so.

• When asked, “if you could have a comprehensive genetic test, which would tell you about the likelihood that you might get several major diseases, and it was not at all expensive, how likely do you think you would be to have it – Very likely, somewhat likely, or not very likely?,” 39% indicated “very likely,” 30% indicated “somewhat likely,” 29% said “not very likely,” and 2% said unsure or refused to answer.

• Finally, when respondents were askd who should be allowed to see the results of their testing, 90% agreed that their doctor should see it, 39% said their health insurance company, 25% said their life insurance company, and only 17% said their employer.

• Thanks to the mapping of the human genome, scientists are rapidly identifying the genetic codes of various diseases.

• Genetics tests are presently available for two dozen illnesses, including; Huntington’s disease and cystic fibrosis.

• In some cases, the ability to predict is accompanied by the ability to cure.

• For example, the genetic predisposition to hereditary hemochromatosis, a potentially fatal disease that causes iron to build up in the blood is easily treated.

• On the other hand, Huntington’s disease is incurable. Knowing your vulnerability is a mixed blessing at best.

• For some, the most worrisome development of the genetic age is the likelihood that knowledge of a person’s genes will be used against them.

• A drop of blood or a lock of hair could tell a potential insurer or employer whether someone was at risk of contracting a disease.

• In 1993 James Tatum, a 43 year old postal supervisor from California, suddenly lost his sight.

• Although the U.S. Postal Service approved his request for a disability retirement, the Department of Labor subsequently denied it, arguing that Tatum’s blindness was caused by a genetic disorder.

• Thus, his condition predated his employment and was not covered by employment benefits.

• At present, more than 47 states have laws against genetic discrimination in health insurance and about 33 have laws against it in the workplace.

• Fears concerning the misuse of genetic information could be addressed with the legislative passage of clear national standards.

STOP

Infidelity

• Do the gender differences in sexual attitudes that evolutionary theory attempts to explain extend to different attitudes toward infidelity?

• Dr. Kinsley, a noted psychologist, and his associates found that 36% of husbands and 25% of wives reported being unfaithful in studies.

• A more recent survey found that among individuals born between 1953 and 1974, the figures were 27.6% for men and 26.2% for women.

• Gender differences in motivation for infidelity suggest that marital dissatisfaction tends to be higher among unfaithful women than unfaithful men and that male’s infidelity is more likely than a female’s to be a “one night stand,” to involve someone of limited acquaintance, and to include sexual intercourse.

• In exploring the psychology of jealousy, research has most commonly found that men and women do not differ in either the frequency or the magnitude of the jealousy they experience.

• An evolutionary analysis, however, suggests that while both sexes will experience jealousy, they differ in their sensitivity to the cues that trigger jealousy.

• Would you be more depressed if you found out that your romantic partner was:– A. Having a sexual relationship with

someone else?– B. Was emotionally involved with

someone else?

• David Buss reports that when 511 college students were asked to compare the two distressing events, 83% of women found their partners emotional infidelity more distressing, whereas only 40% of men did.

• What accounts for the huge gender difference?

• Evolutionary psychology suggests that the answer largely revolves around the question of paternal uncertainty.

• Males never have absolute certainty of their biological percentage, whereas females do.

• In the pursuit of reproductive success, a man must always consider the possibility that he is investing all of his resources in another man’s children.

• For a woman, the greater concern is that her partner may channel his energy, and effort to another female and her children.

• Freed from the anxiety surrounding the biological percentage of her offspring, she is more sensitive to the possibility of male abandonment, for it would decrease the survivability of her children. Thus, she is more concerned with her partner’s emotional involvement with another woman…

The Coolidge Effect

• In certain animal species, a male that has become sexually exhausted from repeated copulation with the same female will demonstrate renewed vigor if presented with a succession of new females.

• The phenomenon is called the Coolidge Effect because of the reported exchange between President and Mrs. Coolidge.

• While touring a farm, Mrs. Coolidge is said to have been impressed by the untiring sexual activity of one rooster.

• “You might point that out to Mr. Coolidge.” She told the farmer. Hearing her remark, the President asked the farmer whether a different hen was involved each time.

• When informed that this was indeed the case, he replied “you might want to point that out to Mrs. Coolidge.”

• According to evolutionary psychology, the fundamental motive is to pass on genes, which occurs by having offspring.

• Thus the genes of males who fertilize many females should be major winners in the genetic sweepstakes.

• Natural selection may therefore have favored such males.

Stop

The Minnesota Twin Study

The Minnesota Twin Study had two different parts.

The first part began in 1979 and involved a week-long medical and psychological assessment of identical and fraternal twins separated early in life and reared apart.

• The psychological assessment included multiple measures of personality, mental abilities, values, interests, psychomotor skills, reading, spelling, and writing.

• The medical assessment involved a psychiatric interview, a medical life history, a standard blood battery, and even detailed dental exams.

• The second part of the study is a 10-year longitudinal study of aging.

• Adult twins who were between ages 24-66 at first assessment return to Minnesota for a repeat of the initial assessment.

• This massive study provides many examples of separated identical twins showing remarkable similarities.

• Separated as infants, twins Gerald Levey and Mark Newman grew up to share characteristics ranging from their firefighting avocation to their taste in beer.

• Neither knew of the other’s existence until a shared acquaintance brought them together.

• Upon meeting for the very first time, each saw his own reflection.

• They had grown the same mustache and sideburns, and each even wore the same glasses.

• As the brothers talked, they discovered that they had even more in common. Levey went to college and graduated with a degree in forestry. Newman planned to go to college to study the same subject but opted to work for the city trimming trees.

• Both worked for a time in supermarkets. Levey had a job installing sprinkler systems. Until recently, Newman had a job installing fire alarms.

• Both men are bachelors, attracted to the exact same type of women, “tall, slender, long hair.”

• In addition to both being volunteer fireman, they both enjoy the same things such as hunting, fishing, going to the beach, watching old John Wayne movies and pro wrestling, and eating Chinese food late at night after a night on the town.

• Both men were raised in the Jewish faith…but neither is very religious.

• Both men only drink Budweiser beer with one pinkie under the can. Both men crush the can after drinking.

• The twins of the study completed a number of interviews and tests.

• Thomas Bouchard and his colleagues reported that heredity accounted for 64 to 74 percent of differences seen in IQ between identical twins. Researchers would go on to state that almost all traits in identical twins (leadership, stress, etc) are about 50% hereditability.

• Clearly the Minnesota Twin Study does not provide a perfect assessment of hereditabilities role in determining our traits, but has some significance.

• Others question twin studies.– When were the twins separated? How

important are the first 9 months?– Separated identical twins are rarely

separated at birth.– The twins in this study had an average

of 5-6 months together.

Guess What…Mom Always Liked You best!

• A mother has two children, 14 month-old Susie and her 30 month-old brother Andy.

• Susie is assertive, determined, and a handful for her mother, who is nevertheless delighted by her boisterous daughter.

• In contrast, Andy is rather timid, cautious, and compliant; at best, he seems to be tolerated by his mother.

• An exchange between the mother and her children provides insight into these differences.

• Susie persistently attempts to grab a forbidden object high on the kitchen counter, despite her mother’s repeated objections.

• Finally, she succeeds, and Andy overhears his mother make a warm, affectionate comment on Susie’s success: “Susie, you are a determined little devil.”

• Andy, sadly, comments to his mother, “I’m not a determined little devil!” His mother replies laughing, “No! What are you? A poor little boy?”

• This example not only illustrates the differences between siblings’ relationships wit their parents, but also suggests that children may be extremely sensitive to those differences.

• Research indicates that from a very young age, children monitor and react to their parents’ interactions with their siblings.

• Andy monitors and responds to his mother’s exchange with his sister, promptly and with self-comparison.

• Furthermore, from the end of their first year, children are interested in the behavior of other family members, especially in terms of their emotional behavior.

• This perhaps explains the findings that both the first-born and second-born children are profoundly affected by their mother’s interactions with the other sibling.

• For example, children who receive less affection and attention than their siblings are likely to be more worried, anxious, or depressed than other children.

• The difference in treatment also affects the quality of the relationship between the siblings, now, and later in life.

• This causes siblings to show different degrees of attention to one another.