Phonetics and Phonology for Students of English - Visnja Josipovic

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Phonetics and Phonology

for Students of English

Višnja Josipović

UDŽBENICI SVEUČILIŠTA U ZAGREBU MANUALIA UNIVERSITATIS STUDIORIUM ZAGRABIENSIS



U DŽBE ICI SVEUČL IŠTA U ZAGRE BUMAUALIA U IVERSITATIS STUDIORU M ZAGRABI ESI S

išna osiović

Phontis and Phonology

for Studnts of English

TRGZagreb 1999.



akladnikTarga

Za nakladnikaČedomr Zbovć

Glavni urednikDr sc Všna Jospovć

RecenzentiProf dr sc Dam r Horga

Prof dr sc Dora MačekProf dr sc Damr Kalogera

ektor za engleskiJanet Tškan prof

Računalno oblikovanje i izrada fotolitaDenona d o o

isak i uvez

Targa do o

aklada5 kom

Odlukom Senata Sveučišta u Zagrebu br. 9/999 od lipnja 999odobrava se nazv sveučilišni udžbenik i korištene naziva "Manualia universitatisstudiorum Zagrabiensis



o my students



CP Kataogacja u p ub kacj

Naconana sveuč šna knžnca Zageb

DK 81 1 1 1 3(075.8)

JOSIPOVIĆ VšaPhonetcs and phon oogy for stde ts

of Eng sh I Vša Jos pov ć Zagreb :arga 999 83 str str 24 cm (Udžbe c Sveuč šta u Zagreb =Ma ual a U verstats stdormZagrabess)

B b iografa str 1 721 73

IS B 9531 8644

9962947



Contents

PCS AD PGY R

SUDS EGS

CONTNTS

Preface 7

Chapter Phoetics ad Phooogy 9

Exercises 1 5Chapter Speech Productio 1 7

2 1 The speech cha n 1 72 2 Organs of speech 1 8Exercises 23

Capter Segmes of Speec 253 1 The Phoneme 25Exercises 3 1

Chapter Pho emic Sysems 33

4 1 RP vs other types of Eng l sh ponu ncaton 3342 Consonants 344 3 Vowels 38

4 3 1 Tadto nal paameters n the classfication of vowels 384 3 2 Engl sh pre vowels 4 14 3 3 Eng l sh d phthongs 46

Exercises 48

Chapter PA Sou ds ad oatio 515 1 Specal categoes of sound s 5 1

5 2 Some typcal a l lophones of Engl sh phonemes 56Exercises 6

Chapter Co ected Speech 61Exercises 67

Chapter Acoustic Phoetcs 7 1Exercises 85

Chapter eerative Phooogy 898 1 ntroduct on 898 2 Dstn ctve feature theory 9

83 PE Rules and notaton 97



CONTTNTS

84 on l near phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.5. excal phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Exercises 1

Capter Prosodic P hoo ogy . . . . . . . . . . . 1 39 1 Proodic feare and domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 39 2 he y lab le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 39. 3. Stre and accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 .4 . Prood c h era rchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 5 Rhyhm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3296. ntonaion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

9 6 nrodcon . . . . . . . . . . 3596 2 Baic ue in contemporary intonology . . 35

9.6 .2 . . Contour v one . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369622 oc v compoional approach . . . 1 39

9.6 .3 he Pierrem ber (BGC) model . . . . . . 1429 .6 3 . 1 l ntrod ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429. 6. 3. 2. Bac anaycal noion of he BGC model . . . . . 1439.6 .3. 3. he BGC model of intonatona meann g . . . . . . . 499 6.3 4he BGC model and comparatve nonoogy 1 52

Exercises . . . . . . . . 56

Capter Rece treds i poo logica teory . . . . . . . . . . 159Exercises . . . . . . 162Appendx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 of fgu re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63ab le and chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65Word ypical ly miprononced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 65Stden phonetc anem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 PA cononan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7PA vowel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Abbrevaon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7 Sggeted readng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 72ame index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74anguage ndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Subject index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

6



Prefe

Althogh the cope of th book can be nferred from t ttle , a few wordare n order abo a poental mconcepton of the word 'dent A th book baed on a contratve approach an d meant prmar ly for natve peaker of Croatan who are tdy ng E ng l h , t hol d be treed that n En gl h the word 'tdent ha a omewha wder mean ng than t doe n Croatan Wh l e n the Cro-atan c ltre t refer prmar y and a lm ot exclvey to ndergrad ate n vertytdent, n En gl h alo cover gradate den , a well a anyone makng athorogh dy of a bject Althogh prmarly ntended for ndergradate t

dent of En gl h ak ng the fryear ntrod ctory core of phono logy and phon e-c, the preent book, partclarly t fnal three chaper, more ted to theneed of the other two categore that , to more advan ced eve of the tdy ofEn gl h, or honetc, phonology or gen era l ng c for ha matter he varetyof Englh pronncaton foced on n the book Receved Pronncaton, btoccaonal reference are ao made o other varete h may be for the pr-poe of l l tratng certa n po n, or mp ly to make the tdent aware of the fachat hee other varete alo ext and deerve to be the bject of phonetc andphonolog ca nteret A t mean prmarl y for natve peaer of Croaan , th book contratve, bt t alo a m to oer ome bac n ght nto the bject

mater for a wder l n g tc readerh p , rrepectve of mohertonge he pho-netc ymbol ed here are thoe of the mot recent veron of the n ternatonalPhonec Alphabet

wol d l ke to expre my grattde to all thoe who have he lped me to wrteh book n the frt place, my thank go o my revewer, Damr orga, DoraMaček and Dam r Kaogjera, woe comment, gg eton and correcon nthe m an crpt tage of the book have hel ped me to mprove g reatly pon the org-nal veron I mt alo hank my Polh frend and col leag e Jolanta Szpyra,whoe work ha n pred me n wrtng th book and whoe rendh p ha meanta great deal to me n erm of mora ppor n my work am alo very gratef o

Janet škan for her helpflne n proofreadn g the text and general ly ervnga my natvepeaker lang age advor My tha nk ao go to the ta of argafor ther helpflne n ndertakng the techncal part of the job Fnal ly, amgreatly n debted to al l my teacher and col eage from the Depa rtment of Eng-l h, a wll a to my tdent, who np red me o wrte th book, for whom t wrtten and to whom t ded cated M y dere that they wol d enjoy t

išnja Josipović

7



CPTR

P C S AD P GY

Any n verty tdent of Engl h tak ng a pho netc and phonology corewil l probably g e n advance that the apect of the En gl h l ang age that wl l be

dealt wth n th core wi ll be pron nci aton or at leat omethi ng to do wth pro-nnc aton o pefl ly at leat ome of them wl l alo know that the approachtaken in l ng i tc nverty core lke th decrptve rather than p recrptve hat i n o one i going to teach them how to prono nce Eng li h p roperly orcorrectly bt rather they are gong to learn omethng abo t pron ncati on t th vage noton of omethin g about pronncaton that al ly make p thetdent n tal idea of the poibl e bject matter of thee two l ng tc dcpl ne So or frt tak to expla n what exactly t i abot the pron ncation ofEng lh that we ha l l be decrb ng J t a mportantly t mt e explan ed whywe need two dc pl n e to deal wth whatever the bject matter i

ke any other l ng tc dcpl ne p honetc and pho nology gve ng htnto the apect of lang age they are concerned wth by analyn g t nto ome relevant nt o begn wth we can provional ly ame that the nit throghwhc h we hal l be decrb ng the pronn caton of Engl h are peech ond Weha ll do th becae peech ond are nt tvely the eaet entte to grapAlthogh at ome later pont we hall abtract away from the noton of peechond and ntrodce ome more abtract analytcal nt for the tme being wemay look at phonology and pho netc a dcpl ne deal ng wth peech ondln partc lar we may pecfy that n the core enttled Engsh Phonetis andPhonology we hall be dealng wth Englh peech ond he qeton con-

cern ng the need for two d cp l ne can mot adeqately be anwered wth refer-ence to one of the baic dea of li ng tc hi i a d tncton which wa introdced at the begnnng of the 2th centry by Ferdnand de Sare DeSare wa a Sw cholar who gen erally conde red to be the fond in g fa-ther of modern l ng itc e dtn g hed between the abtract ytem of com-m ncaton hard by a gven l n g itc comm n ty referred to a aguage andt concret phycal realaton n actal taton speech h ba c dit nc

Te dis tincton between angag e and speec i oen referred to n ng ustic iterature by teorg n a renc terms i ntroduced by d Saussure i msef and Some recent ng uist cteories in a rater sim iar sense (wic wi be d iscussed at some ater point) emp oy te distncton

between o and o

9



JOSI POVIĆ: PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY FOR STUDENTS OF ENGLISH

tion between these two eves of ing uistc anays is bears d recty on the d iference

between phoo logy ad phoetics Whi le phoology deals with speech soundsas abstract units functionin g as ' bu i d ng bocks' of anguage phonetics ooks atthem n tems of the r physica reaity which can be observed in speech There arebasical y three aspects of ths physical realty o speech soud s that phoetics sconcerned with and accordi gy three branches of phonetics are dstng ushed

Aiculatory phonetics deals wth the articuaton of speech sounds e theactivty o speech o rgas the couse o speakig Acoustic phonetics deas withthe disturbances of air moecues du rng the transm ission of speech Fn a y audito phonetics is concerned with te perception of speech

lt is oten observed n th s coection that phoo ogy is more abstact tha

phonetics owever this observation about the abstractness of phon oogy cansometmes ead to a misconception On e can often hear stdents define p hono logy as abstact i the sense o dea g w th l agu age i general ' as op posed tophonetics whch s supposedy focused on one particuar anguage his however cannot be any further from the truth because both d sci p nes can be con-cerned wth hum a agua ge or respectvey speech i gee ral Likewise theycan both ocus on one pacuar anguage or respectivey its ea sation nspeech hus there are phonoog ists an d phon etcians a over the word whodeal with gen eral phooogcal o phoetic issues cocerng more than one a-guag e as we l as those dea in g with phonoogca or phonetic sses of some par-

tcuar angu age n this context it may be said that the present book wi be focus-ing o some basic phooogica ad phonetic issues cocernig g sh

The d ierence between the fun ctona v ew of speech sounds taken by pho-no ogy and the phys ca on e taken by phonetics can be ustrated with referenceto some ea ssues dealt wth by these disci pl nes t is perhaps easier to imag en what sens e phonetcs deas with speech sounds since by defin it ion it deaswith observabe and measurabe physica phenomena concern g the productiontras mission ad percepto of speech sou ds By cotrast the vagueess o thenotion o the function of speech soun ds which according to our defin it on s theconcen of phonoogy equi res some further clarifcaton

orde to explain what s rea ly meat by uctio t hi s sese it s ap proprate to ntroduce yet another fundamenta noton of geera ingustics This isthe n otion of doube aiculaio introduced by the French ng ui st Andr Martiet Do ubl e artcuatio o du al ity of patterg refes to oe of the esseta ea-tures o hu man anguage as opposed to other systems of comm un icaton such asthe la ng uage of varous an ma species or systems such as the taic code Matiet obseves that n cotrast to these othe systems hu ma l ag uage s ogased structura y i n terms of two abstact eves On the first hierarchicay the

ncdentally n contemporary l ngu stcs t s gen erally agreed tat apat from tese two levels

o structural organi satio some oter evels are idetiab le w ic by aalogy sould be reerred to

1 0



PHONETICS AND PONOLOGY

hig her of the two eve s an guage consists of mea n ngfu un its As ths observa-tion hods for angu age in genera as we as for any particua r angua ge we may i ustrate the p oin t with reference to one possib e sentence of ng ish

/ ke sweets

One does not need any specal l i ng uistic train in g to identify un its such as /ke and sweets as we as to decompose the ast one into sweet + s I n itsef thskind of combination of meaningful units is not specfic to human language, butrather, can be found in other communicaton systems as wel owever, whatmakes human an gu age so speca is the exstence of yet another ower eve of

organ isation o n which these basic mean ingfu un ts can be further decomposedinto sma e r un its I ntuitivey speakers of n g is h, even f they are i l iterate woudtend t o decompose t he word sweets into sma e r unts as fo ows

s + w + i + + s

t s im portant to note that these u n its by themseves do not have any mean-ing but combin ed they create mean ingful un its and thus function as bui di ngbocks in th e creation of unts on a h igher evel ntit ies of ths nature cann ot be

identfied in any other knd of commu nication system What we sha be dea ingwith n ou r phonoogca ana lysis of ng ish concerns issues such as the dstribu-tion of such u nts n the n g s h a nguage a nd the patterns und eryng the intut iveknowledge of ths d stributio n which makes it possb e for speakers of Eng s h topronounce and recognise acceptable Engsh utterances

A phon oogy course ofen rem nds o ne of a game that was popu ar amon gCroatian teenagers a decade or two ago ca ed 'sistemi' ( 'patterns') t s asopayed in the ng shspeakng world under the name 'shr ink' t is a game in whichone person payng the roe of detective, goes out, wh e the rest of the groupagree upon som e pattern which their responses are gong to fol ow Th en the de-tective comes i n an d asks al knds of qu estons to everyone , l ike ' What day s t to-day?' r Where do you come from?' with the p urpose of fgu ring out the patternbehi nd their responses which need not be truthful So, by way of i l ustraton, oneof the mos trans parent types of pattern, which is easil y detected , cou d be the fol-owing whenever someone is ying they discreety cross their egs, and whi esomeone has their egs para le l , they have to te l the truth in response to the detec-tive's queston s n the cou rse of the game each peson can swtch the two modesof behaviour at wi as ong as this is d one accord ng to the agreed pattern Animag inative i ndivd ua can easi l y think of many other potentia ly interesting pat

as tird ou an d so on is owever, does not bear on te topic o te present capter and wi be

ignored at tis point

1 1



JOSIPOVIĆ: PHONETCS AND PHONOLOGY FOR STUDENTS OF EN GLISH

terns The conventon may e, for examp e, that whenever one egns a response

wth some gapfi er ke 'er , on e answers n a simpe c ause and otherwse, nthe form of a comp ex sentence I any case, the task of the detective is much i kethat of a phonoog st who tres to figure out the un deryn g patter eh nd the d struton of speech soun ds

Let us ustrate the comparae detecton work a phono ogst is invoved n,by tryig t o account for the phoo ogica rule that ena les a ny natve speaker ofgi sh to decide which of the fol owing s oud patterns are possib e words of g i sh

hvI

hIvIIv

IvI

Both ad 2 soud accepta le , irrespectve of the fact that 2 does ot happeto exst as a word in ngi sh otay, one can easy imagne a new commerca prod-uct on the ngishspeaking market to e caed iy !hIvI tems 3 and 4 how-ever, are not fet to be possibe ngish words, nor coud they easiy become newwords in g ish I n terms of our 'patters' game , we ca say that the pattern i this

particuar case s that the segmet h can be wordintia , ut canot occur word finay This woud perhaps e the easiest, and most transparet knd of pattern whchdoes ot requi re any knowedge of theoretca phonoogy for its exp cation

Another, a somewhat ess trasparet exampe of impicit phooogcakowedge shared by native speakers of glish cocers the proucato ofthe regu ar pura ed ng Any natve speaker of ng is h, ncu ding terate ones,woud agree that ths ending s pronou nced dferenty n the fo owing words

cakes, p s, cats, c is s

ags, i ds, as, cars zchurches, judges, ushes Iz

owever, very few of those peop e, u ess they have some i guc trai -ng, are ae to tate the rue exp icit y, et aone accou nt for the reasons why therue operates exacty as t does We sha not yet at this point go i nto expa nations

s formul aton of te n gls rule on te dstrbuton of s somewat sm plfed n ta t tdoes not say anytng a bout te dstrbuton of te segment ns de te word owever as lon g as taccounts for te data at and t can be consdered as a satsfactory soluton to te problem posed byts very transparent knd of pattern A more detaled account of ts rule relyng on te noton ofsyll able, w ll b e oered n te cpter on prosodc doma ns

1 2



PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

of this ki d because for the tme beig we sha cotet ou rseves wth havg o-ticed some patter behi d this variato

Aother typica phool ogical is sue ca ow be i u strated by a somewhatmore complex exampe Ayoe wth a decet kowledge of glish wi agreethat the fa soud segme t of the adjectve 'electc' ca be idetified as k

I ' lkt k

owever, w he we attach the 'ity' suix to derve the reated ou 'electricity' what we get is ot just a mere sequece of the two compoet parts of theA+B=AB type hat is, rather tha gettig I lktkItI as a resu t of ths

operatio we ca g et a whole rag e of other prouc iatos, the most commo oe beg I l k ' t sI tI without the o rgi a fia k of the adjective or tsor g a acct o the secod sy ab e

Perhaps a eve more fasciatig phe omeo c a be i ustrated by theproucia tio of the words reated to the word

bom b

bomg ' b

bomard b

ow s it that the b idcated the spe g of a three words s proou ced o y ad ot ad bom bi g? Oce agai , theremust be some hi dde patter behi d that whch phoo ogy is to accout for ow-ever crazy it may appear o the su rface, hu ma aguage turs out to be hig hysystematc h s refers to a eves of its ogaisatio but what we sha be co-cered with s the way g is h orgaises the physica su bstace of sou d i to tsphoooica system

Although certa uiversa pricipes are shared by al aguages, everyla gua ge orga ises the physica reality of soud its ow specifc way Aygive ag uage comm u ity ca be compared to a group of peope payi g at pat-ters hat s proou c g the r agu age they are behavg accordi g to somearbitray rues which are accepted by covetio he phooogist ca the becompared to the detective the game who s tryg to fgure out these ruesWhe d oi g that , he may occasoa y get frustrated, whe the patters becometoo much of a chal ege , but eve the he fids the game to be great fu , which s,aer a why he has chose to p lay t

he aim of a gsh phoology course at uiversity leve shoud be otoy to provide expla tios for soe im portat phoo ogca ru es of gl is h butaso to teach studets how t ste to g ish with a ig uists ear ad a aysepheomea cocer g g sh pronucato a exact, scietfic way he u t i

1 3



JOSI POVIĆ PHON TICS AND PHONOOGY FOR STUDENTS OF NGISH

mate goa of the phono ogica ed ucaton of a u nversity student of Eng ish shoud

then be to deveop the abi ity to capture an d make exp ct any regua rity und ery-ng any aspect of En g is h p ronu ncation without necessari y havng been taughtthe xp ct formuaton of the rue

o sum up the purpose of our phonetics and phonoogy course wi be toteach studen ts how to ook at the pronu ncaton of En g ish fom a in gu stic pont ofview We sha be dea i g with Eng ish p rouc iatio both in terms of the phoneticdescrpton of the physca reaity of En g sh and n terms of the pho noog ca system into which E ng ish organises this physica rea ity

t is im portant to note that the two discip nes are isepa rabe a though theyook at their common subject matter from dierent points of view Phonetics does

not descrbe just any knd of soun d but rather those sounds which have some func-tion n the phono ogica system of a given anguage L kewse phono ogy cann ot refer to any of its ana ytica u its without referring to thei r physca rea ity So for ex-ampe when estabishing the identity of a segment ike which functions as abuidig bock i the construction of a word ike key phonoogy does so by referring to such nformation as the manner and pace of artcu ation as we as the activity of organs such as the voca fods and the so paate du ring its pron unciation

n conventiona i ngu istic notation the diference between the phonetic andphonoogica stand points is refected amog other thigs in the dierece between the type of brackets emp oyed So for examp e when we refe to the physi-

ca rea ity of the sou nds of a word such as bet we encose the transcription symbos nto square brackets bet whereas in the ph ono ogica ana ysis of the wordwe emp oy sants be The former type of transcrp tion is reeed to as na rrowtranscri ption whi e the atter type is b road The symbo s of the I nternation a Phonetic Aphabet are used for transcrption As phon etics is oen concerned with detais of prou ciatio not reevant to pho oogy phon etic aa ysis oen requi resthe use of subte notationa detais n add iton to the basic symbos from the aboveexampe s owever at this poi t we eed n ot go nto detai s of such subteties ofnotation as these w be discussed n a ater chapter

aving defied the subject matter of phoetics and phonoogy we sha

now say a few words abou t the ir practica app ication Athoug h ang uage probaby represents oe of the most fascinati ng aspects of hu ma n ife and as such pe r-haps deseves to be the subject of pure phiosophica contempation to manypeope the idea of studyng something for purey contemp ative reasons soundsun acceptab e So one of the most natura questions arsing at the beg nn ing ofany in trodu ctory i ng uistc cou se concerns the app icab i ity of the knowedge of-fered by the dsci p n e uder cosiderati As for phonetcs and p hooogy theareas of the r app icaton that students of Eng ish are primar iy concerned with arenatura y ang uage earnin g and a guage teachin g he more insight oe has intoEng ish phonetics and phonoogy the easier wi one earn new aspects of Eng is hpronuciatio ad the better wi oe be at expaini g pheomea cocerin gEng sh pronunciation to others Even those students who do not end up as teach

1 4



PHONETICS AND PHONOOGY

ers w not make competent specia i sts n the n g ish a nguage wthout some basic insights nto g ish or aguage in genera provided by these two discpl es

Other to us more remote appl icatios of phoetcs and phooogy woudnc lude speech pathology deal ig with t he treatment of speech d efects; clinicalphonology deal ng with a ngu age disorders such as aphasia for nstance forensic phonetics most commony emp oyng the knowedge of acoustic phonetcs bypo ce or court experts The knowedge of the two dsc p ines is aso he pfu n a r-eas such as speech synthesis for a kinds of computer programmes nvovng orainteraction between the computer and its user; or the training of actors whoseprofession oen requi res the performance of tasks such as putting on a n accento m persoatg someoe wth highy dosyncratc features of pouncatio t saso ceasin gly commo for pub c fgu res to seek the hep of phoetcias thefom of elocution lessons i which the kowedge of phoetcs ca be a geathel p ia ly the kowledge of phoetics is vauab e the fields of and telephone engineering

Exercises

What is the dierence between the prescriptive and descriptve app roach toprouciation pheomena?

2 xpla the d erece betwee phonetics and phonology with referece to the

distcto betwee lagu age an d speech3. What are the three braches of phonetics and what does each of them dea wth?

4 Why is it o correct to say that phonoogy deas wth an guage n ge nera whi ephonetcs deas wth one particuar a ngu age?

5 Anayse the sentence 'his is a boo k' on the eve of Martnet's second articuation ow many anaytica unts hae you dentifed on this eve? ow do youaccount for the fact that ths does not correspond to the nu mber of etters n thespe l ig?

6 Thi k of a possbl e but oexistet word of Eg i sh7 Try to thik of some phoologcal ru le of gl i sh whi ch you eaed to formulate

exp city at schoo8 Can you thn k of any n g s h speech sound that does not normay occur in Cro

atian Which symbo do you use to represent it in transcripton?

Aphasa whch s an example of a neurolngustc dsorder treated wth th h elp of knowledgefrom the feld of ncal phonology, s a d sorder of the central neous system charactersed by loss ofthe ab lty to s peak

A case n pont woud be te use of the knowedge of phonetcs n the dentfcaton of a

suspects voce n ano nymous p hone calls avaa be on ecod.

1 5



JOSI POVIĆ PHONTIS AND PHO NOOGY FOR STUDNTS OF NGLIS H

9 Wh at is the dierence bewen the use of santed an d square brackets n tran-

scription? Name a few areas of practical a pp i cation o phonetics an d or phool ogy

1 6



CPTR

SPC PRDUC

2 The Speech Cha n

We are goi g to start ou r exporatio of prou catio pheome a from thepoit of view of articu atory phonetics the b ranch of phon etics dea ig with theproduction of speech souds Beig the east remote that is the east abstractad the most easiy observabe subd iscip i ne of phonetics it is commo y taken asthe startig poit i i trodu ctory courses of pho oogy ad phoetics oweverbefore goig to detas about the way we produce speech sou ds et us pacethe production of souds with in the framework of a whoe series of events occurring in connection with any utterace Both the speaker and the isteer are invoved i n a nu mber of activiies reated to any utterance These activities wh ich forthe most part are u cosco us costitute what is ofe reerred to s the speechchai I thi s speech chai the productio of speech soud s techcal y referredto as articu ation is on y oe of the three stages which sh ou d be i dentiied Articuation invoves the movemet of the orgas of speech an d is comm on y referred toas the physiological sage It shoud be noted that ay such movement ofspeech orgas is ecessariy preceded by the psychologica sage thecourse of whi ch the speaker formu ates the concept in the brain ad the messageis trasmitted to the organs of speech through the nervous system As the movement of the organs of speech causes disturbances of air moecues resuting invaryig air pressure the message is trasm itted to the isteer his stage of thetras miss io of speech i s kow as the physica stage of the speech cha

At the i ste ig ed the order of the three stages i s reversed eari g beg iswith the varying air pressures reachi g t he isteers ear These disturbances o theair associated with the physica stage are received by the outer ear hus beginsthe physologica stage i the isteer The a r pressures cause the eardrum to vibrate These vibrations are transm itted troug h the bon y ossices situated i the mid -de ear The mechan ica vibrations i their turn are coveed into hydrau ic vibra-tions in the fu id of the coch/ea a saishaped tube of the ier ear Fia y theseare trasformed to eectrochem ca impu ses by some 3 erve fbres servgthe cochea a d ormig the a uditory e rve The ci rcle o the speech chai s closedby the psychoogica stage at the istein g ed d urig which the soud patterns of

speech are extracted from the acoustic informatio ad speech is perceived

1 7



JOSI POVIĆ PON ETICS AND PONOOGY FOR SUDENTS OF ENG IS

psychoogc

sge

physioogic

stge

phys c stge

1: he speech chain

22 rgs f see

psychoogce

physoogcstge

A descrpton o speech p roducton shoud naturay begi n with the ident

cation o the sou rce o ene rgy that we use when speaki ng orma y the stream oair emp oyed or the p roducton o ng sh speech soun ds as we as those o Croatan and the majority o the words anguages comes rom the ungs as we areexhang So we say that the airstream mechanism used or the production othose sounds s pulmoi and egressive. hese two terms commo ny empoyedn this context in articulatoy phonetics are atinate words reerring to the lungsand exhaaton respectivey he pu mon c egressve air stream is cross ingu st-cay the most common type o arstream used or the production o speechsounds owever there are ots o anguages whch make dstinctve use osounds produced us ng a rstream rom other sources than the u ngs and whi ch s

not necessari y egressive Besid es t shoud be n oted that n angu ages ke n g sh whch norma y empoy the pu mon c egressve airstrem some aternatvea rstream mechan isms may be emp loyed either to produce some specia eectsor n some speia situatons such as deectve speech Su ch cases wi be identi-ed and lustrated as we go aon g when each o the potentia sources o energy isdented as pa rt o the speech trac

We now turn to the descripton o what normal y hap pens in the cou rse ospeec producton o nce the stream o r has come out o the u ngs t has to undergo mportant modicatons n the upper parts o the speech tract in order to ac-qu re the qua ty o speech soun d In our descripton we sha be reerrng to theparts o the speech tract ind cated by numeraton n Fgure 2

1



SPEECH PRODUCTION

Figure The speech tract

The frst passage where the a r provded by the u ngs goes nd cated by thenum ber 1 s the wnd ppe or rachea The part of the an atomy nd cated by thenu mber 2 s the food passage aso known as the oesophagus. ormay the oe-sophag us dos not pa any roe n speech produ cto n owever t s possb e toearn t use t as a source of ar n stead of the un gs Such examp es of oesophagea a rstream mechnsm used n stead of the pu mon c one a re provded by ventr oqu sts These are peope wh speak from the be y usua y for enterta nmentpurposes The sk of oesophagea speakn g aso sometmes has to be acqu red

by peope who have unde rgone the surgca remova of the arynx

1 9



JOS POVIĆ PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY FOR STUDENTS OF E NGLISH

At the top of the trachea the airstream reaches the laryx n d cated by thenu mber 3 It is a ho ow organ formed of carti age and mu sce hig her verte-brates i nc udin g ma n t contain s the vocal folds They are two fods of iga mentand eastic tssue whch may be b rought together and parted by the rotaton of thearytenoid carti age through muscu ar acton Ther ength var es and genera yteds to be greater i m en than in women If oe recas oes knowedge of secondaryschoo physics i particuar the fact that the egth of a vibrator is in-versey reated to the hei ght of the ptch th s d ierence s ogica y reated to thefact that women genera y speak on a hgher pitch than men On average me nsvoca fods are some 23 m i i metres ong wh ie the average womes voca fodsare abou t 1 8 mi imetres O f course the ength of the fods is aso a matter of indi-vid ua variation and probaby everyone knows a woman who speaks wth a mas

cu ine voice and vice versa Due to the vb ratng function that they perform inspeech the voca fods are oe referred to as voca chords The l atter term n iceyrefects the fuctioa si mi larity between the vocal fods and the chords on a mu si-ca i nstrument owever physoogca y speak ng it s wrong to conceive of thisorgan n terms of chords because they do not rea y ook ke chords Thus theterm voca fods is preferred in modern articu atory phonetics Very oen the activity of the voca fods is referred to i terms of what happens in the gois Thegottis s the pat of the arynx encosng the voca fod s inc ud n g the space be-tween them So the entre section of the arynx conta n ng the voca fods is knownas the gottis and is in dicated in Fi gu re 2 by the nu mber 4 The primary bio ogica

fuction of the gottis is to act as a vave prevetig food or sa iva from entering thearynx Moreover t assists muscua r eort on the part of the arms or abdome The functon it performs n speech is extreme y mportant It is the production ofvoice or to use the techn ica term phoaio. As observed ear ier the voca fodsmay vibrate and this voca fod vibration is a norma feature of a vowes advoiced consona nts At this point t m ust be exp a ned how they are set nto motionby the ar from the ungs

Basica y there are two major factors contro n g t he vi bration of the vocafods One of thm is the dierence in air pressure beow ad above the gottisad t he other is th e cofigu ration of th e voca fods themseves which is deter-

m ned by the tens on shape an d reatve pos tion of the fods There are two typesof pressure payig crucia roes in phonation and we can identfy th frst one assubgloal pressure, which is the pressure ma ntained in the trachea by the respi ratory musces i the absece of a sig nificant costriction i the oral avity Theother is supragotta pressure If there are no s gn ficant constrctions su pragottapressure s about equa to atmospheric p ressu re wh ch is ower than su bgottapressure owever if there is a significant constriction in the supragotta part ofthe speech tract most otaby at some poi t in the mouth the pessure buil di gp b eh ind this costrictio reduces the derence between the two pressures Therate at which the air w fow from the un gs through the gotts thus dep ends on

the d ierence between the two types of pressure Sometimes this pressure dier

20



SPEEC PRODUCTION

ence can be the cause of an m portant physca phen omenon known in physcs as

theeroulli eec

t s named afte a Swss schoa of Fem sh orig n Dan eBernou who dscoveed t Ths physca phenomenon educes the sdewayspressure on a soi d body when the ai r is flowng past the body Athoug h for oupu rposes we ne ed n ot go into detais of the efect itsef it shou d be n oted that thepressu re deence needed for the eect to take pace epetitvey pu s the vocafolds together and thus i ntiates the r vbation Pho nation can be fet as a buzz inthe course of produc ing voiced sound s such as vowes o consonants ike b oz for examp e f on e puts ones ha nd over the front part of the neck du ring the rponuncaton

What rema ns to be exp a ned n th s context is how the confg uration of te

voca fods determi nes whether the Bernou efect wil take pace at al Cetain ythe voca folds n eed to be appropratey positoned in order for phonation to hap-pen f they are spread too far apart as n breathn g the pressue d rop insde theg otts w not be sucent So they need to be bought suicienty cose togethein oder for the sound to be voiced n that case they can v bate when su bjected toai r pressure from the lu ng s Whethe they actuay wi do so a so depends on thertenseness and shape which can sometmes be such as to prevent vibration

n shot it shoud be noted that the voca fods have an extreme y im portantfuncton n speech When they vib ate sounds which they pouce are voced and when they ae apart o when they ae kept togethe wthout vibrating the

sou nds are voceess In order for phonation to take pace two conditons mu st bemet Frst the dieence between subgotta and supragotta pressue must beght fo the Bern ou i eect to take pace Second the config uration of the vocaolds m ust be ight fo them to be ab e to be set in motion

The g otts has other i ngu istic functons apat from phonation At this pointt shoud be mentioned that two impotant ng i sh sounds are produced there nother wods the g ottis can be the p ace of aticuation fo some speech sou ndsOne of these sound s s the n t ia sound o f the words such as heavy In oder forthis sou nd to be poduced the voca fods have to be kept wide apa t as in breath-n g or n the producton of any voiceess soun d and the a stream passes be-

tween them wthout settng them n moton but ather causi ng some fr ction Th sficton s perceived as audible beath As ths n g s h sound is aticulated i n theg ottis t is cassfied as a g otta sou nd As such it diers fom the h of Croatan as i n hvaa which ha s a diferent pace of atcuaton as wil be expa ned atsome ate pont

Yet anothe mportant gotta sound occuring n ng ish s the so ca ed [ t s a sound whch s for the most pa associated wth certannonstandad accents of ngish pmariy Cocknel

but als with ess formal

7 Cockney is defned as the dialect associated with Londones fom owe socio-economccasses and is mentoned in this

context because t s famous fo its extensve goalisaton The

feqe ncy of use of the g otta I stop i s cean y one of the main factos whch make Cockn ey sound hash

2 1



JOSI POVIĆ PONTICS AND PONOLOGY FOR STUDE NTS OF EN GLI S

styes of pronu ncat on of standard accents such as Receved Pronun cation By

way of i u stration in the atter it can be heard as the rea isation of the in a conso-nant i n a word such as bet The gtta stop occu rs when the g ttis is constrictedby hod ng the voca fods tghty together for a oent Du ring that tie the ai rcoing out of the ungs s copressed behind th s cosure When the cosure ssuddeny reeased the resultin g soun d s perceived as a bu rst of energy or expo-son originating i n the gttis

Before we consder what ha ppens to the arstrea as t coes ou t of thearynx we shoud iden tfy the protrusion n the neck ind icated by the nu ber 5 I t iscaed the Adam's apple and s partcuary pro nent n en It s fored by thethyroid carti lage ts picturesque name has its origi n in the Bib lica story accordi ngto wh ch a piece o the a ppe that Adam took from ve stuck in his throat causingthis protrusion in mens necks The Adas app e by itsef has no ng uistc fun c-ton

Once the a irstream has come out of the g ttis t enters the cavity in di catedby the nu mber 6 Th is is the pharyx he phaynx is situated between the rooof he ogu e (7) and the back wa of the th rat For the production of ng sh aswe as Croatan speech sounds the pharynx ony serves as the air passage nsoe other an guages however such a s Arabc the arynx can b e the ocation omajor obstructions to the stream of air produci ng what are known as pharyngeasound s he n um ber 8 in ou r i l u stration ind icates the epiglois It is a carti agi-nous fap wh ch serves as a vave p reventng food or other soid obects we swa-ow fro enterng the anx The epig ottis thus d rects so d objects to the oe-sophagus and has no di rect ng ustc fun cton

At the top of the pharynx the airstream reaches a fork he air canpasseither through the nose or asal caviy (A) or through the outh or oralcaviy (B ) Which of the two di rectons it wi take depends on the actvty of a very portant speech organ nd icated by the n u ber 9 Th s s the so palae or velum It is a ap o usc e and tissu e situated at the back of the roof o the mouth Itis a movabe speech organ whch means that it can be manipuated by thespeaker f it s raised the way to the nose is b ocked nd the air escapes through

the outh When it s owered on e part of the a rstrea escapes through the na-sa cavity n the orer case we get ora sound s wh e n th e atter the sounds pro-du ced are nasa So for exampl e the dierence between the in itia soun d n thenglish word bet and the inita sound in met is one o nasality h former isora whie the atter s nasal f the back o the tong ue is broug ht nto contact withthe so paate the resutng speech snds are said to be vear The aorty ofthe words lang uages ncl udi ng ng ish and Croatian have vear sound s whichw l be dscussed i n detai ater At the ower end of the velum there is a smal mov-abe appendage ca ed the uvula ( 1 ) Its actvity is opposite to that of the veu When the uvu a s owered the veu s raised an d vce versa n soe accents ofng ish such as Scottish ng ish or some varetes French or Geran theuvula can be the active artcu ator for the production of some r ike sounds

22



CPTR

SGMS SPC

3. . The phoneme

One important aspect of l in gu istic knowledge of a lan guage is the knowl-edge of functona u nits whch occur in that ang uage t s i n ters of such un itsthat phonoogy analyses anguage So n order to earn how to anayse a lan-guage phono ogica y we first need to becoe fami ia r ised with some basic anaytica u nits f phonol ogy

To beg n this ntroductory course we sha ll start wth the basic anaytcal un itof trad itona phono logy Th is u nit was i nd irecty ntroduced n the first chapter ofths book with reference to Martinets second artcuation The units of soundwhich t that poin t were metaphorica y referred to as the bu ldi ng bocks of hu-man lang uage correspond to what in trdit ional phon ology are cal le d phonemes

n purey physica terms any utterance s a contnuo us wave of soun d andthe acoustic patterns correspond ing to what we call s peech sou nds are not in di-vidua y di stinct That s f we analysed acoustcal y the patterns of sound wavescorrespond in g to any utterance of any hu man la ngu age there would be no cearbound aries between sound segm ents Sti l phonoogica l y speakin g there is evi-dence that the hu man mind does ana lyse the amorphous continu um of sound interms of such discrete un its Most notaby th is s borne ou t by the existence ofphonemc aphabets in whch in principe one etter represents one such sounduni t ven the speakers of langu ages which d o n ot use this type of alph abet trnout to be abe to anayse a ngu age nto phon emes We a l do this un consciousywhen applying vaious phonologica rules Phonological rules which as exp a ned ear ier are the concern of phonology very often can be seen as opera-tions which do something to segments of sound they can delete add orearrange them Thus tradit ional phono ogists find it convenient to be able toana lyse phono ogica phenona with reference to the notion of the p hone me

There are several ways of defin in g the phone me When the notion was orig-n a ly introdu ced into lin gu stics attem pts were made to defin e it psychol ogical y

9 S nce t uses a bascay pho nemc type of aphabet Croatian happe ns to be a case in pointrrespectve of the fact that the prn cp le of oneto-one correspondence between ph onem es an d letters

s not always strctly appled.

2



JOSI POVIĆ: PHON ETICS AND PHONO LOGY FOR STUDENTS OF ENGLIS H

that is in terms of some k ind of a target sound which the speaker has in mind

when uttering the real concrete sound A Polish l iguist Jan Badoui deCourtenay w ho was among t he first to use th e word phoneme i n rough ly its modern sense is usual ly mentioned in l i gui stics textbooks as the most promi nentproponent of this view Although it is true to say that the phon eme has a psycho-logical real ity modern l in gui stics is opposed to an extral in gu istic defin ition of fun-damental l i ngu istic notions Consequently attempts to define the phonem e psy-chological ly have been dis missed as mentalistic ad a few alterative defi itioshave been oered

Aother way to defin e the phoneme is to say that it is a famy of sounds Byway of i l l ustration let us refer to some ng lish exampl esThe phonetic qua lity of

the i nitia l consonant ofcar

k is d iferent from that ofkey

ki in that the former is p rodu ced i n the region of the soft paate and is thus a true velar wh il e telatter is somewhat fronted towards the pa latal region u der the i nflue nce of the folowing front vowel Sti l everyone woul d i ntuitively agre that these two soun dsbelog to the same ng lish phoeme k! Li kewise the init ial [p of park is pro-du ced with aud ib le breath (e it is fuly aspi rated) w hil e with the p of spark this isot the case ad sti l we woul d a ll agree that they are both realizations of p innglish There are countless other examples to i l ustrate this l ike the diferentrealisations of in ip clear ad b and many others which wil l be di scussedin more detail i n a later chapter In an y case these exampl es i l lustrate the pointthat the phoeme can be conceived of as a set of phoetical ly s imi lar sounds

hese d ierent realisation s of a phonem e are referred to as its al lophoes

To make the deinit ion of the p honeme complete we must aso add that theal l ophones of a ph oneme ne ver contrast with each other in an y given langu ageOne member of the fam ily normally occurs where the others do not or to use theproper phonol ogical term the al lopho nes of any given pho eme ae in complemetary distribtio. n terms of the above examples this can be explai ned bysaying that the truly vela r variety of the p hon eme k! occu rs before the socall edback vowels such as / whereas the somewhat fronted variety occurs beforefront vowels suh as i / The phonetic q ua lity of the d ieret real izatios of pan d in the other two exampl es is also determin ed by the context in ways whi ch

perhaps need not concern us at this pointowever phon eticaly sim ia r sounds are not necessarily realizations of the

same phone me For it may be argued that p and b are phon etical ly simi lar because they are produced at the same point of the vocal tract moreover the type ofobstruction to the stream of ai r produ ced by the li ps is the same owever ratherthan b eing in compementary distribution they can occur in the same context asin pin an bin a d the phoetic diference between them thus tur ns out to befunctiona ly relevant

A l sounds used i n a ang uage belong to some phoneme Physical ly speakin g no two speech sound s are ever exactly the same y speech sound i a

lan guage belongs to some phoneme Thu s whi l e the nu mber of sounds in a lan

26



SEGMENTS OF SPEEC

gua ge s d e te the um ber o phoemes s m ted hat s every aguag e n

ts ow specc way gves orm to the a morphous substace o speech b y mou d-g t to dscrete uts such as phoemes Thu s phoemes are agu agespecfc What s a phoeme n oe a guage eed ot be a phoe me aother L ke-wse what we cosder as two a op hoes o the same pho eme oe lag uage some other ag uage may be two separate phoe mes By way o ustrato wemay reer back to our examp e o the fuy asp rated n ta cosoa t o pin [p versus the u asp rated [p o spark Un ke g sh Cassca Greek thesetwo ucto as separate phoemes

t s m portat to ote that thogh beg part o the det o o the pho -em e compemetary d str buto tsef s n o proof that two souds beog to

the same ph oeme A case po t s the reatosh p between the g s h seg-mets h and / hey do hap pe to appear m utua y exclu sve cotexts buthavg o phoetc smlarty whatsoever they are ot cosdered to be ao-phoes o the same phoeme ather ther compemetary dstr buto s ac-couted or as a matter o hstorca cocdence

Athough aophoes are deed as cotextuay determed varetes ofoe pho eme there are cases where the varats o oe ph oeme may appear the same cotext yet wthout causg a y d erece mea g o the gvewords So for stace whe due to a speech defect or as a resu t o some d o-sycrasy a perso reazes a certan phoeme by a a o phone other tha the oe

whch s normay used a gve cotext ths s free variaion For exampe some speakers o Croata ca ot proo uce the Croata r exacty the way tshoud be proouced but rather produce a g sh ke r nstead I suchcases ther rea sato of the phoeme s st detfed as a rea sato o r and sot determ ed by ay partcua r cotext We say that ths kn d o [r s free varato wth the orma oe

he oto of ree varato s cosey reated to the oto o the range ofperformance or area of oleran ce of a pho eme ach phoeme of a ag uages sad to have ts rage o performace It s the rage wth whch souds are re-cogsed as belogg to a gve phoeme We ca say that the gsh ke r

a s wth the rage o performace of the Croata p hoeme r J ust ke the o-to o pho em e that o rage of performace s o course ag uagespecfc Sothe Jap anese r has a der rage of perormace tha the Croatan or g sh rbecause t ca c ude a type souds Lkewse the roata ph oemes s adv have wder areas o toerace tha the correspodg g sh phoemessce the ormr ca c ude [ ad the atter [w as these do ot exst as sepa-rate phoemes Croata

Cases o ree varato actuay represet a weak po t o th e deto othe phoeme as a set o phoetcaly s m lr souds occurrg compemetaryd strbuto Oe way o gettg arou d th s dcu ty s to adopt a a teratve ap

proach whch the key oto s that o conras or disinciveness

27



JOSIPOVIĆ PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY FOR STUDENTS OF E NGLISH

Under ths approach, the phoneme s seen as a m n ma sond n t whch s

capabe of contrasting word mean n g The proponents of ths approach arge thatphonemes are dentifed on y by their contrast (or, to se the r org na term , oppositio to the other ee ments of the sond system The procedre to estabshthe p honemc dentty of a son d nvoves the proced re of substitutio, wherebyword pars dferng n one sond ony are compared to see f the dierencechanges the mean n g So, for examp e, f we want to estab s h whether the sond[ is a pho neme of ng ish, we need to fnd ot whether n the above sense it s ncontrast wth some other phonetica y sm ar sond I ndeed , n ng sh there areprs of words ike sing s - sin sn, where this derenc n ths s ing e seg-ment carries the diference n mean n g Ths is capabe of contrastng wordmean ng a nd s a phone me of ng s h I n Croatan , however, this s n ot the caseAthogh one can hear the same knd of nasa sond [ n words ike banka[baka or bitanga [btaga, t s n ot possbl e to find a s ng e p air of words wherethe derence between [ an d [n s contrastve If we s bsttted the two so ndsfor each other, however strange sch pron uncaton may sond , the mean ng ofthe words n q eston wod never be afected So, t turns out that the son d [ nCroat an s an a ophone ofthe phone me n, occrrng n a certa speca context,whch we sha d entify at some ater point Pa rs of words ike sing sin derng non e phon e me o ny are ca ed minimal pairs

t shoul d be noted that ths kn d of approach s rather statc in that the pho

nem ic system of a ang uage s conce ved of as a cosed system ach eement ofthe system is defned throug h the network of relatons that hod between itsef andthe other eements In other words, the identty of each phoneme of a pho nemcsystem is efned as what the other phonemes are n ot In terms of ogc, ths kindof defn it on can be sad to be ci rcar Of corse, ths need not necessar y beseen as a dsadvantage An approach based on d stnctveness hg h ghts the l in -g stic fncton of phonemes and provdes some m portant nsig hts into the natreof pho nemc systems

An i nterestng is se that arses wth the approach based on d stnctiveness,concerns cases where n some poston s the otherwise estab ls hed phon emes fa

to contrast phonetca ly A case n pont can be fon d i n American En g s h, wherepa rs of words ke writer- dermay be prononced homophon osy I n ths partc-l ar case, the oppostion between the two otherwse separate phonemes, t! andd s suspeded S ch contexts are referred to as contexts for eutralisatioLkewse, n m an y angages , the oppost in between voced and voceess con-sonants s sspended at the end of the word Cases n pont wod be Germanpa rs of words ke Rat Rad (both prono nced wth a fina [t or anaogos pars

0 This kind of aoach was most exicity advocated by Tub�tzkoy

in his Grundzge derPhon% gie (1 939) .

t is in distabe that mini ma ais ike ten - den o sat- sad ove the seaate honemicstats of each

2



JOSIPOVIĆ PHONICS AND PHONOLOGY FOR SUDNTS OF EN GLISH

pe there woud be itt e point i n ha ving the di stinction between voiced and voice

ess segments in phonoogy if it did not turn out hat each of the two categories ofsoun ds behave in the same way in an guages As Katam ba 199:33 observed what is "reay happening in phonology is happening in terms of separate phonetc ppeies not "unita sounds Thus it s of in terest to phono og ists to beabe to refer to some un iversa system of pho no ogi ca description based on prop-erties that coud be defined independent of particuar a nguages

Two inguists who were instrumenta in estabishing the idea of the pho-neme as a bunde of distinctive features were Jakobson and Trubetzkoy

Jakobson expicity insisted that it was distinctive features not phonemes thatsho ud be treated as the basic un its of hu man an gua ge In his view de Saussurewas fundamenta y m istaken in caimi ng that in guistic signs are essentia y se-quent a i n thei r nature e made a case fo a un iversa system of di stinctive features that coud be used in the phonoogica an aysis of any hum an angu age Thisis precisey what Trubetzkoy d id in his Grundzge which is referred to by Ander-son 19119 as the first attempt to pvide a universal framework of the features that are exploited for phonological purposes in the languages of the world

Another im portant notion associated with the schoars of the P rague Schooin conn ection with d istinctive features is that of binariy I t turns out that soundscan be cassified i n terms of two mutua y exclusive possi bi it ies Th is refers to thepresence or absence of a certain feature n distinctive featre theory contrastsbetween phonem es ae commo ny marked using + specification For examp et is specfied as voice whi e d is + voice Jakobson argued that the pincipeof binarity was absoutey fundamenta to human angu age an d that it refects thenature of ou r menta processes and the way or nerve ces function Withi n thisconceptua framework phonemes which are seen simp y as noationa abbrevia-tions for bund es of di stinctive features are represented by matrices of d istin ctivefeatures encosed withi n sq uare brackets

To reca pitu ate what was said abou t the ph oneme as the basic ana yticaun it of traditiona honoogy it may be said that there are various ways of definin gthe pho nem e If we abstract away fom the i nit ia attempts to defn e the phonemepsychoogica ly three kin ds of defin it ion have been discussed First the phonemecan be conceived of as a famy of phoneicay similar sounds which appear incomplementa distribution Secondly some ing uists have defined the phonemeas a minimal sound unit capable of contrasting word meaning Fina y the phoneme can be seen as a bunle of distinctive features f we adopt the atter ap-proach the ph oneme is no onger seen as the basic bui d ng bock of angu agebut rather as a conven ent n otationa device for ind cating segments of soun d

Both Roman Jakobson and Nkoai ubekoy wee m mtrs of the famous nguistcCirce of Pague which was foun ded i n 1 926. The views and methods of the Ling uistic Cice of Pagueae usuay efeed t as the Pague Schoo Lagey infuenced by Saussuean ideas the schoaswho adopted and advocated such vews nssted on analysng language as a system of functionallyreated units and disting uis hin g between the phonetic and phonoogi ca anaysis of soun ds

30



SEGMENTS OF SPEECH

ee

1 Make a case for and agai nst havin g the phonee as an an aytica un it of pho-noogy

2 What objection can be eveed a ga nst the psychoogica d efin ition of the pho-neme?

3 What are the other ways of defii ng the p honeme? Give an exap e of two sounds which are i n comp eentary distribution in g-

ish. Why is the cop eentay di stibu tion of two soun ds no gua rantee of those two

sounds being a ophones o the sae phoneme?

6 xpla n and i l ustrate the n oton o free variation Why do we say that th e Croatia v ha s a wider range of perfrmace tha the

corresponding ng ish phonee? Fin d at east fou exapes whee the Coatian phonee n is rea ised as [

and try to figu re out how the occurence of this a ophone is contextua y deter-m ied

9 Try to thin k of a t east two i im a pai rs in g ish where the dierece betweenthe two words is based on th e cotrast between s and / Why is it not possibe to fin d exap es i ke that in Croatian?

1 Do you know of any a nguages which ake d istinctive use of soe sound that

is ot a pho eme i either g i sh or Croatia?1 1 What is the d ierece between letters and phonemes a nd why is i t ot possi

be to rey on the spe i ng in pon eic a naysis u strate the oin t with reference to soe ng i sh exapes

1 2 What is the dierence between d istinctive ad rdu nda nt featues? Why s itwrong to say that redundant features are superuous?

1 3 What is mean t by the bi na ry nature of di stinctive features?

31



CPTR

PMC SYSMS

4. . Received Pronun ciation other types of En gl s h

pronunciation

As po inted out n the , the type of ng ish pronunc ation used as thereference accent in this book is Received Pronu nciation (RP ) t s a type of Britishn gis h pronu nciation which is not associated with any paticua r region withinngand and s thus sai d to be regona y neutra Soco nguistica y speaking, RP isassociated with educated, middecass and upperclass speakers istoricay, tderives from the po ished accent of the Cou rt and pub ic schoos Athough it is oenobserved that nowadays RP has no onger as much prestige as it used to have inthe times when i t imposed itsef as the standa rd of pronu ncation, it is sti common ytaken as the model of Brtshng sh pronu ciaton taught to foregners

Contrary to what this cursory d efn it on o f Receved Pron un ciation m ay sug-gest, R P exhibits a great dea of n herent variabi ity and it is common to distinguis hsevera varieties of it owever, for detais about the soc ia stratification of RP , theinterested reader is referred to Wes 9 and Maček 999 At this point wemay content ourseves with hav ng restrcted the notion of RP to the accent of edu-cated Brit ishng sh speakers who do not have any marked region a accent npartcu ar, we sha be looking at what Wes 99 defines as the centra ten dency in RP, wha t is known as mainsream RP

Athough throughout our descripton of the n g ish pho nem ic system wesha refer to RP, occasiona expicit references w be made to sounds found n

other varieties, notaby American Eng ish , or some substandard B rit ishng ishaccents, such as Cockney

inay, before we proceed to the actua description of the RP phonemicsystem , one fina point about RP must be noted Despite the prestige that it usedto enjoy and may sti enjoy withi n the B rit sh ing uistic comm un ity, it shoud by nomeans be thoght of as an accent which is i n any way inhe renty superor to oth-ers As P happ ens to be an accent with the status of a weestab ished standardn the ngl ish ing uistic commu nity, it is the variety of Eng sh pronuncation thatwe sha be focusng o n

The tem accent' n this context is sed in the sense of type o f ponnciation' As opposed to

dalect' t focuses on pron ncaton only , excludn g grammar or vocablary

33



JOSI POVIĆ: PON TICS AND PONOOGY FOR STUD NTS OF N GI S

4.2. Consonants

n ou r ntoductory couse we ae rst go ng to approach consonants romthe po nt o vew o trad tona artcuatoy phon etcs Artcu atory speak n g n theproducton o consonants as op posed to vowes there s aways a radca ob structon to the stream o ar at some pont n the speech tract Later on, when wega n some oe knowedge o phonoogy we sha see that the deg ree o obstruc-ton s not the ony reevant crteron or estab sh ng the major casses o soundsegments, such as consonats and vowes hes e ater nsg hts w aso cear upthe status o w and j w hch or the tme beng ae gong t o be nc uded nto ou rconsona nta cha rt, desp te the act that one ma y ntu tvey ee that they somehowstand apart rom the rest o the tems

n addt on to the consonants wch are dstnctve n RP a ewnondstnctve but commony occurng sound s w be nd cated n square brackets These repesent typca eazatons o some En g sh phonemes whch occurcommony enough to be ndspensabe n the phoetc descrpton o Eg shspeech Fn a y n s ome varetes o RP there s an addt ona member o the pho-nem c system whch s aso ncuded n the chart and dscussed conectonwth the category t beongs to As an nd caton o ts optona ty as a member othe system t s encosed n round brackets

!

C C E t

t

plosive

afrae

nasallaeal

frative

glde

bilabial labio·denal

f

W

tabe 1 RP Consonants

denal

alveola pos palao · palaal vela gottalalveolar alveolart

k ?]

m [

z h

[

here are three rtea nvoved n ths casscaton the place of ari culaion dcated aong the horzonta xs the manner of aicu laion , aongthe veca axs and na y 3 voc ng reected n the act that whenever there areboth possb t es wthn a g ven category o consona nts the voce ess soun d pre-cedes ts voced pa n the corespond ng ce o the tab e he ghthand sde ote ce s thus reserved or voced segments where approprate It s mp e d thata these souds are poduce u sg an outgong pu mon c stream o ar

34



JOSIPOIĆ: PHONETICS AD PHONOLOGY FOR STUDENTS OF NGLISH

tion, they are also sometimes referred to as appoximants. The latte is aLatinate

erm eflectng the fact that he artculatos ae bought into poxmity to each otherin the articulation of these sounds. Leavng aside the specific status of these segmens n phonological classifcaon, aculatorly, we may classfy the Englshphonemes Iw, Ir 15 and Ij as belonging to tis category As with the lateral /,wih he RP fricionless coninuant one should note ts commonly occurring partially devoiced realization, heard in analogous contexts, as in 'cy or 'pray' t isalso important to stress that the phoneme IrI exhibts a great deal f variatin inphonetic realsation acoss accents of Englsh. The sound symbolised by an upside-down lette 'r is the postalveolar frctionless continuant typical of RP Tis descripon, hwever, s no suicient o descrbe he ypcal realsation of ths phoneme n most varieties of American nglis The latter cannot be properlyariculaorily descrbe without reference to he notion of eroflexion, which wll bediscussed lae in connecton wt A sods and notation.

4.3 Vowels

t pmt th ft f

As cnsonans have been defined by saying that in heir production there issome adical obstucton o e sream of ai, te remaining caegoy of sound segments, vowels, can simply be defined in the opposite way. n tei aticulation

here s no such obstucon, hat is, the stream of air passes through he mouhelatively feely

Whn he ramework of ths radonal artculatry approach, soe crerianeed to be estblshed fo describng the quality of vowels as exactly as possble.The hree adional paramers used for his purpose are relaed o he actvity oftwo artculators: te tongue and he lips, wich can significantly determine the entireconfiguration of the oral tract in vowel production These three parameters are thepart of he tongue involved, te degee of tongue heght and he shape of the lps.

Phonetcians all over the world refe to a set of standad reference points indescrbing he qualy of vwels n partcula languages. This sysem of unversal

phonetc reference points is called the cardina v ca o Joness diagam,aer the Bris phoneican Danie Jones who devsed . is a rapezimsapeddiagram indicaing some positions seving as abstract refeence poin n e descriion of vowels found in any language. s thus mporant to note ha thesevowels do ot epesent the vowels of any particular language and sould be conceived o simply as abstract efeenc vowel types, to whch individual vowels ofreal languages may be comared in heir qualty As presented in he followng il-

15 ln broad transcripton, when we refer to the phoneme IrI the ordinay etter 'r' is used as thesymbol although the actual soud heard as the ealsato of ths phoneme the post-aveola

frctonless cotinuat should be ndcated by the upsidedown letter r'.

stctly folowng the PAnotationa conventions.

8



PHONE MIC SYSTEMS

Cardn al vowes are aval ab le on record bt t sho d be stressed once aga n that

they are dealsed reference onts for dentfyng vowe tyes and need not exacty corresond n ther qa lty to the vowels of real lang ages . So for exam ethe Engl is h vowel heard n the word cat s descrbed as a front vowel wh ch accord ng to the degree of oen ng col d be located ha f way between the oi nts 3and on the da gram Th s t does not exactly corresond to ether e or a and stherefore reresented n honetc notaton by yet another symbo x

Another ont to be noted n connecton wth the honetc symbos for vowes s that they shold not be confsed wth the letters sed to reresent thosevowes n the sel l ng of the resectve l ang ages. T hs for exam e the cardn avowel no 9 y a front cose ronded vowe wol d be the reference o nt for theGerman vowe ndicated by the letter n words such as M nchen

To ident the qual ity of a gven vowe as acc rately as oss bl e honetcans often se d acrtc marks n add ton to the basc symbo l So for examl e ahook ben eath the basc symbol means that the vowel s more oen than the corresondng cardna vowel By contrast a dot nderneath the symbol ndcates amore cose varety of the vowe For exam e the d erence between a more coseand a more oen varety of the sond [e wold be ndcated as � vs [

4 3 2 Eng ish pure vowes

t s oen observed that Eng l sh has a rather com lex voca c system com-ared to other lang ages One of the thng s that make t comlex s the exstenceof a rc system of d hthongs or gl d ng vowels' as dstnctve fnctona n ts. Aso osed to monohthongs or re vowels of the tye descrbed n connectonwith cardnal vowels dhthongs consst of two fnctonaly reated vocalc elements n our descrtion of the RP vowels we shal l natra ly start wth the smer of the two categores the re vowels or monohtho ngs

The E ng ls h system of re vowels s tself com lex There are 1 2 RP vowetyes whch ned to be descrbed honetcally wth n ths category The fact thatsome recent hoo log cal a roaches do not nterret some of them as real honemes of Eng s h bt rather exl an ther honol og ca stats derenty need not

concern us here becase what matters now s the descrton of ther honetcqua l ity. Bearing n mn d what has been exlaned n connecton wth the arameters nvolved n the d efnt ion of cardn a vowels the honetc qu al ity of each RPvowel can be read from the dagra that follows Before roceedng to the nte-retaton of the nformaton from the d ag ram two o nts mst be made The frst sthat the fg re reresents the honetc q al tes of the re vowels o f o r refer-ence accent RP So t cannot be a ed to any other varety of ngl sh ron nc

8 he phon ologcal eason fo tatng two voca c segments as sngle un tay enttes need tobe expaned wth efeence to the sylable whch w be dealt wth ate In any case the atcuatoydescpton of dph thong s has to be based on the descpton of the two consttuent pats whch makeup any dphthong : the startng po nt and the en dpont

41



JOSIPOVIĆ: PONETICS AND PONOOGY FOR SUDENS OF EN GISH

ation Second y the vowels represented here are idea sed much l ie the cardi na

vowes n that they represent sou nds pronounced i n solaton I n real contexts nwc vowels actal ly occur thei r phonetc qual ity is bound to vary accordi ng tohe s rround ing segments and t hus need not precisely correspond to the poi nsindi cated in te di ag ram . In order to nd erstand ti s one shold recall the notionof the range of performance and loo u pon the po ints from the dag ram as typica sounds representing the r respective anges of performance.

Figure 4: RP pure vowes

ach of the words given beow represents the exica set i n which one of the1 2 RP vowels nd icated n fig e occrs

beat b t! lot bit b thought bet b !bat b!

car love Iv/

again genbird d

put p !shoe

I nformation of two nds can be gatered fom the location of each vowel i nh e diag ram t e degree of openin g and th e degree of frontness or bacness, respectively Thus , t is clear for exampl e, tat lrl s a front vowel and with respectto the degree of ongue he ight and it is haf way between hlf open and open Asfor te third parameter involved in this system of description it is not obvouswhether a vowe is ron ded o not from ts ocation i n the dagram itself. Howeverbeing fam li a wit the system of cardina l vowes one can always use the visua limage of the phonetic symbo for a given vowel as a cue for find ing a comparabl ecardna vowe . Thus the symbol r by ts resemblance to a and e suggests42



PHONEMIC SYSTEMS

comparability with the vowels from the primary seies and hence unroundedshae of the lps. Likewise, the symbo 'A' suggests that the ost natual point ofrefeece fo the desciptio of tis haf open back vowe woud be the cadinavowe No 14, that is, a urounded oe Of couse, al tis iformatio about thequaity of any vowel coud smply be obtained from te ponetic symbol guide, butthe vowel diagram still remains useful as a self-expanatory system of descripionOe shoud ot forget, howeve, tat laguage is dyamic and at diferet pointsin tme various tendences can be observd in te partcuar poetc quality of individual sound types So, for exampe, Wels (1997) observes tha the RP hasbeen becoming more and mor open, approachng the Cardinal Vowel4 s a result, IAI, which a decade or two ago was getting fronted and was described asdawig close to the positio of the Caa Vowel4, is ow retactig back agaito the cetre to avoid merger wit /

othe impotat pont about the Englis vocalc system concers the distinction between two categories of vowels: hose represented with the use of thecolo (:) and tose wthot it ltoug he coo i the P oes deote engtad for al practical puposes te two categoes of vowels are commony referedto as 'log' as opposed to 'short', tigs ae ot eary as simpe as that Tis iswy the tems are written hee using defensive quotation marks t urs out thatthe actual phonetic length of English vowels depends primarily on he context inwic they ae proounced, ather tan beig a neret phoologca popetyof te vowes Tis may soud odd at first, snce tee s o eason why oneshoud dout tat the vowe i 'beat is onger ta that in 'bit' t indeed is, as the'long' vowels are realy longer than their 'short' counterparts provided they occur inte same cotext Howeve, if by some exact acustic machine oe measued teduratio of the vowe i beat ad compaed t to the duratio of s 'sort coutepart i 'bi' , t would tur ot tat te uaton of the forme s ot eally ay greaterthan that of te atter Moreover, in this kind of context, the [i:] can even be shortetan the [, due to a phonetic process which will be discussed later Thus, it turnsout tat we need some ote feature to accout fo te dfeece quaity betwee pais of Egis vowes II, u: , 0 IAI, and 3: Tis is, aeral, efected by the fact that in te ponetc otatio, te basic symbos for te

members of each pair are dferent letters Unfotunately, the thee parameters involved in the vowel diagram will not do for this purpose We need to involve another feature, whc is i most recet approaches refeed to as tenseness. Tats, ater tan sayg that :/, u:/, 0: ad 3: are 'log', oe should efer to themas tese vowes, as opposed to thei ax counterpats s the justifcation for theintrodution of this feature will be explaed in more detail in connection with phonoogical features, at ths poit it wil suice to say that it has to do wth te elativeovera tenseess of the speec ogas prouiaton particuar, te articuatio of tense segments s elated wt the advaceet of te tongue oot Tomake a point of not taking the terms 'tense and ong as being synonmous, we

may now briefly refer to a process commonly referred to as 'in al tensing' t afects

43



JOSIPOVIĆ P HONETICS AN PHONOLOGY FOR STUDENTS OF E NGLISH

the qu a ity of the fina vowe of words such as h appy Without need essy goin g

ino the deais of his process, it may be obseve ha he vowe heard i h is co-text is phonetica y transcribed as i , that is, usi ng the same etter empoyed as thesymbo for the vowe i bea , however, wihout he ength mak ( ) .

A few observations are in order concernin g the p ace of the Eng ish voca icsysem in e ypoogy of he words an guages Genea y, voca i c systems cabe of two types, dependi ng on whether they have an even or odd n um ber of pho-nemes As shown above, RP has 1 2 p ure vowes i the system , and such voca icsysems ae commony described as quadragular his term, as ca be seenfrom the diagram i n Fi gu re 4 refects the visua arrangemen t of the vowes . Manyoher ag uages, not ecessai y cognate o En g i sh, have this type of voca ic sys

tem. Cases in po int qu oted in iteature woud be anguages i ke Aerbaijan i , B ritish Coumbian Fench o Pesian. he oter type of vocaic systems, otabyfou d i n Coatia , has an odd u mber of mem bers and is referred to as riaguar In the case of Croatian , this nu mber is since Croatian phonoog ica y distingu ises hree degees of opei g

e o

a

u

5 he Coatian vocaic sysem (iangu a)

Othe aguages with such voca ic systems woud incud e Span ish , Cech,Bumese ad Swahi i Howeve, tee are aso ang uages wih triagu a voca icsystems wh ich have more or fewer degrees of open ing tha n Croatian us, byway of i ustaion , Aabic, w ich dising uises two degrees of openi g ony, hasthree vowes ( i , a, u) in th e system, whist Ita ia n or Sovene have four phonoogi-ca y d istinctive deg rees of openi g and hus their systems i cude 7 vowes. t

shou d be kep in mi d , however, tha the n umber of phonemes i n a voca i system is not determi ed ony by the nu mbe of degrees of ope ning that this anguagedistingu ises I t a so depends o he degree o which he aguage pooogica yexpoits the other parameters determining vocaic identity, such as backness,rou di g , asa ity, tensing a d vocaic ength I n any case, the genera poit onote here is the universa tend ency of vcai c systems, just i ke phon emi c systemsin genera , towards symmetry This as o do with the economy of anguage; oncea aguage uses a particu a popety, it is ig h y i key o expoit it fuy , rather thamake a oneof contrast Adm itted y, asymmetries i n phonemic systems , often re

9 hese lan guages make a dstn cton between close and moe open vaetes n the sees ofmd vowes (e vs ; o vs 44



PHONEMIC SYSTEMS

ferred to as 'holes in the pattern' do exst, but are less common and ae lkely tomake the syste stable ad poe to cage.

Fnally, it shod be ade cear that athogh the generalsaton about tequadrangular type of vocaic system holds true across the dierent pronouncingvarietes o the Eglish angage, the acal number o pure vowels n the system,ad the ponetc qualtes of idvdua vowels are largely subject to variato So, for example, hee ae some striking ponunciaton dieences between GeneralAmerca and RP concerng the phonetc reazato, as well as te inventory opre vowels. Suc diereces ca be otced i one compares the RP inveory ofpure vowels given above in figure 4 to the folowng system of GenAm pure vow-es, provded fgure

-

-\ .8 :

F 6 GenAm pre vowels

The olowng ls of words represets the lexcal sets lstratng te GenAmpure vowes from figure One should note the items open to variation Ponts ofderence with respec to RP are indcated by the shadng

beat Ib:t!bt Ibt!bet Ibt!bat Ibt!,car Ik,

aso grass Igrsaso ot 101 adpossbly law 101

20 ln the so-called rhotic vaieties of Engish, one of which is GenAm the quaity of any vowefoowed by r is aected by the r. hus the vowel of 'car in GenAm is r-cooured This aso appies tothe vowes in the lexica sets north ad bird'

5



JOSPOVĆ: PONCS AND PONOLOGY FOR SUDENS OF ENGLS

ove IlV

I

tougt 180t1 aso law 101nort In81nort In81 (a possble vaiant)

again genbrd Ib3rdput Iptshoe I:1

.33 English diphthongs

Artculatorly, Engls dpthongs can be descbed by dentyng te ponetc qualty of te two consttuent parts the statng pont and te end pont ereatonsp between tese two elements s reflected n an alternatve, commonyused term for dpthongs gldng vowels Wat actualy happens n ther pronuncaton s ate spe e organs of speec start o at soe startng pont andgde, tat s, move smooty to te poston fo te endpont

ln RP, two mportant categores of dptongs can be identfied, accodng tote quaty of te endpont e fst ncudes te c , wc ave acose vowel (I or u) as te end pont e oter categoy s tat of cer - whch are gded toward a central endpont, 9. t sould be noted that not al

varetes of Engls ave the category of centng dptongs So, fo example, Genera Amecan has closng dptongs only us, wat folows n fgures and 7 san illustraton of te formaton of te two categores of RP dpthongs

F 7 RP closng dpthongs

aI au

OI



PHON EMIC SYSTEMS

Figure RP centr ing d iphthongs

At this point however it shoud be made cear that athough GeneraAmerican d oes not have centr ing di phthongs as a category of phoneme s phonetica y [ , ] are found as a ophones of . Another d iference betweenRP and Genera American with respect to diph thongs concerns the qu ai ty of thedi phthong i n words ike home . Here, American ng i sh woud typca y have a no-taby d ierent qua ity of the starting point: / / or a more detai ed treatment ofthe d ierences between RP and Genera American as we as a the other majorpronuncaton varieties of Engsh the reader is referred to Maček (1999) How-ever, the principes invoved in the description of diphthongs i ustrated in thischapter shoud be earned as pa of gener phonetic knowedge necessary indeang wth the description of vocaic systems .

ng ish di phthongs are genera y described as fal l ig diphhogs some-times aso referred to as di mi nuendo d iphthongs which means that the first ement is more stressed than the secon d The opposite of fa n g d iph thongs is thecategory of r ising di phthongs ( crescendo di phthongs) typica y foun d, for exam-pe, in ta ian (as in miee or pi). he phonoogica approaches which anayseseqences in ng ish words ke cu e and few as inc udi ng a d phthong u/ woudrecogn ise the existence of r is ing di phthongs i n ng ish as we . However beforewe get to issues reated to the syabe, this can be ignored and we can generayassme that ng is h d phthongs can be adequatey descrbed as fa ng

ina y, it shoud be noted that cosing diphthongs can combine with / /within th e same sy ab e th us producing riphhogs as in coward and fire. Inspeech however these tend to e smoothed out nto dphthongs or evenmonophthongs particuary in ess forma registers This process of smoothingwhich wi be di scussed separatey in th chapter on connected speech wou d resut in pronu ncatons such as [k:d f: f] I n vew of ths it may be sad thattriphthongs have a somewhat margi na roe in the Eng is h voca ic system

47



HON C SYSTS

9 Take one cardn al vowel of your own choice provde the correct phonetic sym-

bol for t and descrbe the q lty of ths vowel by referring to the three tradit onalparaeters. Do Eng ih or roata ma ke disti ctive se of a vowel com parabe o tha cari al vowe? f so identify any sch vowels

1 0 T he diagram gven beow indicates RP pure vowels Identify eac of them bymatchng the nu mber from the dagram with the correspond ing PA symbol :

e u 3 i : e e

1 1 Name some diferences between RP and GenAm concerni ng the system ofp re vowes

1 I t he seris of words given beow id icate the caegories of RP vowels i d-caed for eac series Read the ge era i tructios given i q estion

1 1 FRONTbury aunt ant shoe sh ampoo bi rd champagne d ip l omat Berkshre

1 RONDED :

food occur yacht blood car monkey donkey cartoon bury1 3 TENSE

bi g shoe beaty put beat tob serene sereity thess

1 3 How are dph thongs described articulatoriy? What re the two constituentparts of di phthogs?

1 What is the d ierece between cosig ad ceri g d iph thongs? Do yo kowof ay varieies of Eglsh whch do not have the category of centrg diphthongs?

1 5 I dentfy a triphthong i n an Engl ish word.49



CPTR

PA SUDS AD A

5 . Specia categories of soun d

Te symbols se so far i rascriio are al l symbols of e eratioalPo etic Al abet ( I PA) Wit e exceio o f e symbols for car al vowelsa a few ohers, hey were al l se with referece o so s fo i Eg l i sh.The fami l iar ngl s sous a hei r corresoig symbols w l l ow be laceio a wier framework For ha rose, a bref srvey of some souns othertha hose alreay escribe wil l be oere i he tex ha fol lows This wi l l hrowsome l ig o e ge era r ici les of oeic otaio Eve more oably,some iea wi l l be give of ow wie he rage of sos se by e wor s a-gages is

Oe caegory of sos wich may be cosiere as secia i tis coexis the caegory of opulmoic so s I ic l es so s for the roctio ofwich the sream of ai r is rove by some orga other tha e l u gs . If he ro-ucer of te arsream mechaism is the gotis, t s sai tha he sou isgloalic Sou s roce i his way shol by o meas be confse with gl otal so s , sc as e goal fricative [ I roc ig e latter, he gois is o lyhe ace of aricatio, a te arsream mechaism is lmoic. Two caego-ries of so s roce s ig the g otal airstream mecha ism are isti g ise imposives a ejecives

Im losives are i gressive losives , as e erm iself sggests As wih aylosves , their articu latio i volves a coml ete closure at some oi t te moh However, as o ose o he al reay fam l iar eg ressve losives, for i m losves,raher ha beig comresse behin he closre, e air s rarefie This isacieve by owerig he aryx We e oral closre is release, the atmoseric air is scke by he glois i o e mo Coseqe ly , he lg air sese vocal fols ito motio, casi oaio. Ts, imlo

sives are ormaly

voice. Tei r articlatory s imi lar ity wit eir omorgaic egressive losves isreflecte by te s im il arty of the symbo ls use to rereset hese wo categories ofso s Im losives are icate by the symbols đ a i whch a rightfac nghook i s atache o he l eters b , a g I is ofen observe hat mpl osves havea o low a iory eec, which ses ofe ca o hel comari g wih he y

The tem 'homoganc efes to sounds poduced at the same pace of atcuaton

1



IPA SOUND S AND NOTAION

Now we turn to ctegory of sounds whch re not sec l in the sense ofequi r ng some secil irstrem mechnis m or beng roduced t wht we tendto see s n un usul lce but re st l l i mortnt enoug h to be mentoned n theresent context. These inc lude sounds used distinctively i n Crotin or someother lnguges which Crotn sekers re l ikely to know or sounds ch rcteristic of some veties of Eng l sh tht re not delt with exli ctly i n ths book

We shll look t some Cotn consonnts whch re often the source ofinterference from Cotin in the E ng ls h soken by Crotin sekers Bs icl lythese e nonEng l ish sounds whi ch tend to nterfere in the ronunction of theirsimlr correltes found n Englsh. The frst two Crotn consonnts from thisctegory re the ltls nd The former s the lterl nd icted in the sel l ingby the d g rh nd the ltter is the nsl ltl se lt s nj. It should be notedtht these do not exist n Engish nd should not be confused wth the simillysounding combintions of sounds [lj] nd [nj] found in English n words sch s'ebel l on' o 'news' To emhsise once gn the m isledin g nture of the sel l-ing conventions n honetc nlysis it my be observed tht ltl soun ds i ndicted i n the I PA conventons by the bove symbols turned y nd n wth ewrdhook t e' in tin e witten s g/ nd gn resectivey

Two other Crotn consonnts tht deserve to be mentioned t ths oint rethe voiceess vel frictive [x] nd the lbodent roxmnt [ The fomer is n -teresting becuse it is oen ronounced n lce of the Engl sh [h] whch n RP sglottl The ltte is commonly onounced by Crotn sekers n ce of theEng lish frctive [v] . t shou ld be noted tht the rcu lton of the Crotn [] s con-siderbly looser thn tht of the m isledi ng ly sm l r Eng lsh frctve nd rther thnbeing the voced r of the frictive f it is n roximn n Crotin. Ths so hsmortnt honologcl mlctions whch however cnnot be discussed here.

A few words e so in oder bout the sound whch ws mentoned n o uRP consonntl ch rt but its descrton ws lef for l ter oin t h s s the soundind icted i n trnscition by the symbol N ( i nverted w') . It stnds for the voicel essrounded lb ovelr roxmnt or frctive. The sound i s herd n those vrietesof Eng l ish whch distinguis h which from witch The l bovelr sound then functonss n dd it ionl member of the honemi c system in those Engl ish ccents. Thesound tself is honeticl y nteresting in tht we refer to two onts of rtcu ltion inits ticu ltory descrton . Tht s to ronounce it one sim ulteously rounds thel s nd rses the bck of the tong ue.

Th e next ctegory of sounds teted here s seci l is tht of rhois t includes vrou knd s of r l ike sounds. I n lnguges usng t he Romn l hbetsuch sounds e commonly selt by the lette r ' . I n the Greek lh bet the corresondng lette is rho hence the term rhotc nd the relted termnologc dis

The vea x ke the Catan one s head n Scottsh nglsh h e labovela occus n Genea Amecan, n Scottsh ng lsh an d n Ish nglsh moe

oten than n othe vaetes. Howeve ts occuence aso de pend s on socal an d stystc factos

3



OSOVĆ HONCS ND HONOLOY O SUDNS O NL SH

t ncton between the rhotc an nonrhotc accents of Eng sh . At ths ont t s n-

terestng to note that among the nonrhotc varetes of Engsh are n the frstlace most of the accents soken n Engan Recently t has been wey ob-serve that even n those Eng l sh accents cons ere to be rhotc rhotcty sshary recessve eseca l y n urban areas. Other varetes of Eng s h ronu nca-ton commony escrbe as nonrhotc nclue those soken n Waes Austral a New Zeaan South Afrca an Trna On th e other ha n most of th e varetesof Engl sh soken n the US. Scotlan Irelan Canaa Barbaos an certaarts of West Eng an count as rhotc (cf Wels 1 982)

he reason why these rsous are seca is that in Eg sh ust as many other languages the rhotc honeme has a rather we range of stncthonetc reasatons whch oen ee on geograhc soca or osyncratcfactors Thus the ostaveoa r frctoness contnuant [] whch was nc lue n ourRP consonanta chart s ust one of them Phonoog ca y seakng ths meansthat the range of erformance of th s honeme s rather we.

We are now gong to look at some rhotcs other than [ As exa ne earerthe reason why for ractcal uroses any of them may be transcrbe wth the o r-nay letter r ' s urey one of notatonal convenence. I n the I PA conventons how-ever each tye of the etter 'r ncates a erent soun tye Thus seakingstrctly in PA terms the or na ry letter 'r' shoul be reserve for the rhotc which srouce as an alveolar r i l l Tri ls are souns for whch the actve aculator (ir thscase the aex of the tongue) s futterg n a turbuent stream of ar thus strkng the

assve acuator (here the aveoar rge) ray an reeately The soun cabe hear Croatan artcuary in the case of the syab c r , n wors such as 'trg .I n Croatan t i s then escrbe as treeravi r' If the contact between the aex of thetongue an the assive artcu ator s ot erforme reeatey n the honetc rea -aton of te rhotc but rather s a oneo gesture we ge t a erent tye of rhotc.One such rhotc tycay hear n Croatan (as i n 'ruka' or more) s the flap forwhch the IPA conventons reserve the symbo fsh hook r'. For ths soun theaex of the tongue s retracte an whe returnng to ts rest oston t strkes theassve artcuator ust once. Most Croatan seakers are not aware of ths subtehonetc stnon between the tr an the fa but n Sansh ths reresents a

cear honoogca ooston commony lustrate by the mnma ar erro( og ') vs ' ero ( ' but) Fas are very sm lar to aps, reresente by the same fshhook' symbol but wth tas the l kewse ra an oneo contact betwen the twoatcuators s erforme wthout the receng retracton of the tongue Thus theaex s only rase to ta some ont at the roof of the mouth (tyca ly the alveoarrge ) . Both flas an tas are hear n varous Eng sh accents but not necessarlyas the real aton of the honeme So for exame n most varetes of AmercanEng s h as well as n U lster Engl sh an Geoe (the accent of Tynese ) the ave-oar ta occurs as an al lohone of n contexts such as 'wrtng or atom . 24 n Scot

The phonological context or the applicaton o ths rle will be discsed separately at alaer poin

4



SUNDS ND NOTTON

t sh ngl sh however the alveolar tap s the most usua real saton o r . It s also

wdespread n some accents o nothern ng an d as a va to [lt s also mpo rtant to menton he re the reroflex rhotc symbolsed by theturned r wth ght tal whch s charactestc of General Amercan but s asoheard other varetes o Eng l sh such as he West Cou ntry accent The retroflexs p roduced by etactng the a pex of the tongue and brn g ng ts lower surface ntoproxmty wth the roo of te mouth

Another rhotc commonly needed n phonetc descrptons s the uvular,varyng n ts ma nner of aculaton fom the approxmant to the frcatve and ndcated by the nverted small captal letter Generally the uvular realzaton orhotcs s assocated wth Fench and th s sound type s popu laly eerred to as the

F rench R However t should be noted that the noton of F rench R al so covers theuvua t l symbolsed by the sma captal ette whch s charactestc of somevaretes o French s well as uropean Portuguese To produce ths sound theuvula v b ates aganst the bac of the tongue The uvua rhotc s nterestng to astudent o Engl sh because as Wells (1 98:41 1 ) observes t s surpsingly common as a personal idiosyncrasy in some pas of cotlan Perhaps the bestnowncase o the uvu lar real saton o r n ngl sh s that o the soca led N ohum branburr heard n N orthu mbeland the northernmost county of ng and .

By way o l ustratng the wde range o phonetc qual tes of rhotcs n theworlds la nguages t may be nterestng to menton yet another one alt hough t srreevant to the descrpton of n gl s h It s the aveolar frcatve tr l symbo lsed nthe PA conventons by the letter r wth the ras ng d acrtc he soun d occurs nCzech whee t s symbol sed by the letter Othewse t s often obseved that ts an extremey rare sound .

From what has been sad about rhotcs t shoud be obv ous that ths categoryreally occupes a speca pace n te escrpton of Englsh Ths s not so ony be-cause o the nterestng phonologca dstbuton of the sound on he bass of whchthe varetes of Englsh are dvded nto two major categores: rhotc and nonrhotc.Phonetcally speang he phoneme /r s also nterestng n nglsh n that t has awde range o reazatons So or example n Wesh Englsh these realzatons varyfrom [ through [ to [] and n Scottsh nglsh the gamut covers ] [ [ and [. Ashas been obseed earler the occurrence of the last one s subject to dosyncratcvaraton . However t shoud be noted that the phonetc real saton of the rhotc myalso be a mater o al lophonc vaaton Thus n I sh ngl sh the dstrbuton of [ and[ s contextualy determn ed n was whch need not concern us at ths pont

The las category of sounds that we shal be loong at n ths context nclu des a few sound types ha t have not bee n dscussed unt now and a student ong sh s ey to come across them n l teature Some consonants that deserveto be me ntoned here along wth ther corespond ng I PA smbols nc lude c J < � and so we sall dentfy each of them n tun

The letter c s the phonetc symbo for the voceless palaal sop, typcallyfoun d n Hungaran where t s representd n orthography by ty. However t s also



JOIOVIĆ HONTIC AND HONOLOGY FOR TDENT OF NGLIH

osiony se o reresen e rie fon in roin inie by e

sme eer in se in g u s whenever is honei symbo ors in ierureone sho ke ino on e ngge referre o o know weer one is eing wh so or n rie e voie ounerr of he so is J wiis so fon in H ngr in in wors ike Mayar o i imressionisiy i isoen observe h o roin er i sounds ike 'very so '

e 'Hooko ' is e PA symbo for e voie gloa l fricaive n ernive symbo for he eer '' wh ws se for e orresoni ng Eng is go son in our be in hper 4 e reson wy e er ws se ws noony yogr i onveni ene b so e f e go '' overs bo e roxim n s we s e friive Si ne boh soun yes re ommony e r

in En g is ron niion ' ' rove o be more eqe s i overs bo n re bila bial fricaives wi our in he wor's ngges ommony enog o be wor menionin g in h is onex is bi bi voied fr iiveexem fe in e Snish wor ' i b' ( 'ws') sns for e voieess bibi friive er in Jnese n use i sinivey in ng ge i ke Ewe nsfor he voiced velar fricaive wih gin ours in Sns were i n beer inervo i y s in 'go' ( ' mke')

' ei ' is e PA symbo for e voieess palaal fricaive s oinof rtiu ion is beween n [x In some vrns of Eng ish ronniion i iser ini i y in wors su s 'e ' e son is ommony er i n Germn s

n he fin posiion of ' i ' A simi r friive bu si gy iferen wih rese oe e of riion is e re � symboise by e 'ry i ' Is e of rt ion s furher forwr n for (rue ) b no s fr forwr s for i s son is i neresing in i n be ienified s e seon eemen of he ron rie known s he 'sof ć' I i s by hi s friive omonen of e frie is roin son is isingise from is 'r'ounerrt i n ied n e se in g s č e re voieess friive �so o rs in Po is whee i is se s e voi e o nerr of � i s wh i by n ogy n be er s e seon e emen of he roin 'sof' voie rie se s ''

ese few sei s ons i n e in e s egory re in ene js oi usre he wide rnge of ossibi iies use by he wor's nguges Suensre enorge o ef rog e Ponei Symbo Guie by P m nusw referre o in e s of suggese rei ngs i n his book In is wy heyn beome qine wi mny more ossibi iies n mke bi of singhi s ype of i erure

5.2. Some al ophones of Englsh phonemes

A few ohones of Eng ish honemes hve redy been menone o i sre e noion of oony or in onneion wi e rinies of eiuory desripon n ssfion of Eng is h onsonns n is er6



IA OND AND NOTATION

we s oo t some moe sng te oson to en some moe in es of

IPA nottion notby te se of diti signs. Befoe we strt deing withtem t sho be stesse tt stity ysy sei ng te n mbe of ossi-be etons oneme n hve s ndefin ite bese no two sond s tht wette e eve ys y te sme even tog the d ieene between tem mybe beow te tesod of mn eetion t wo d ths be mossbe to given ex stve i st of the oh ones of ny honeme in ti s sense. Wt we ede n g wt wen esibing s sonds neessi y invoves some egee ofbsttion nd even thoug h the notion of oone does efe to the hys e- ition of honeme wt we e oeti ng wit in t s ontext is sond tyes.

One of te fist ses of ohoni viton ws i stted by i ntoding

te noton of sition et s e I now tt n Eng i s so me onsonnts n beononed wt be bet n eti n ontexts. om te ysioogi ointof view ston tes e wen in te ose of te rtiton o f voeessosi ve ( t ) te vo fods emi n oen fo e befoe tey begi n to vibtefo te foowing voed segment The ssge of istem tog the gottsd ing t t time s e s ston e onge te eiod befoe te onset ofvoie fo the fo owing vowe te gete te deg ee of s tion . I n d ifeent on-texts te Eng s voeess osves t nd ve eent degees of si-ton . Ponetiin s mes e te degee of s ton by mesng te voe onset time (VOT) efeed to ee Howeve fo o oses t s sient toentfy two exteme ses f s tion n tot nston e fome fe-te n be observed when one of the onsonnts n de onsi detion s fo owedby vowe in stessed sy b e. So fo exme f s tion nd ite by tesue sit ette " " n be ed n te fo owng ontexts

pit [pIt ]

tip [t Ip]

cat [kt]

appear [e pIe ]

attend e t]

account [e kut]

appendix [e p Iks]

seventeen sve t : ]

tycoon [tI k : n]

The othe exteme tht i s tot ns ition is fon d when one of tese on-sonnts s eede by ] n s tion ten tes e even if te osive s fo-owed by stessed vowe nd ths is indited by te sesit "eqs" sgn

spin [=In] whisper [ wIspe] skin [I] fast [ : sC]

Anoth fet e tht n vry in sto onson nts n gene is the tye of e-ese of te ose When t e mnne of rtition ws desibed n te 4 ,i t ws observed that te thi d stge of the rtt ion of osive so nd onsstsof n b t eease of te ose wh es ts n sdden b st of metoiy omed to n exosion Tis oweve ods te ony of ideised

57



JOI OVIĆ: HONTIC AND HONOLOGY FOR TD NT OF N GLIH

typical representatves o n ivi a son types prononce n soaton . n real

contexts o speec the type o release vares conseraby epen ng on t e ollowng seg ment To l ustrate the prnc ples o ths varaton as well as the corre-spon ng acrtcs we wl l start wt the examp le o te Eng s p oneme p wthsome o ts allophones.

lt s assme tat the most ypica l representatves o pos ive sons avean ora release . However wen ol lowe by a nasa l posves can ave a nasal re-lease n na rrow transcripton th is s in cate by a ng to te bas c symbol a s-perscrpt leter or te nasa wc can be n m or ' epen ng on the place oartcaton o the segment n qeson T s to n cate te nasa release o the p]n topmost we se the symbol To save p on artcatory gestres tespeaker natraly uses the same poton of arstream for both consoants anthus kl s two b rs wth one stone Ths kn of economy o speech s ater al theut mate motvaton be n al a l ophonc varaton n ana logos contexts al thother plosves ca have a nasal reease Here are some more exampes of contexts or te occrrence o sc nasaly release posves

in winess[k] n acknowegeb] n s bmarne[ n Roney

[g n gnore

Te release of a plosve can also be nona b e w c typcal y appenswen te plosve is olowe by anoter oral stop articate at some ierentpo nt. Te nona i b e reease is n cae by a sperscrip corner as in te olowing cases

[p ] n apt

[t n outgw

[k nact

b n subg/otta/

g ] n sagged

a plosve is ol owe by anoter omorgan ic pos ve it typ cal y has no re-lease o ts own at al l . T is staion o no reease s in cae by a acritc cal learch wc is again se as a sperscr ip

[p n c/pboard

[ n hot dog

[] n bedtime



IA OND AND NOATION

Dcrc sgs re wys sperscrbe he bsc symb hecse f ne f he phes f he Eng sh phe me

l whch ws detfed

cect wth secry rtcl n he escrpt f he RP csntsysem we efe ' ' s e symb fr he velre er hs cse he cr c sg ( e) ws wrtten crss he symb cte vernWren bve he bsc symbl he sme cr c mens nsl t Th s f nrw rscr p we we ce h h e vwe f m s smewh s e w be rscrbe by e symb

l the csnl chr fr RP w dcrtcs were empye nernethe bsc symbs Oe f hem ce el rel f herwse vercss ( he f eighth f width� e her ws se fr prtevcng ( n the f lay n f cry� The frmer s c le br ge n the l

er s kw s errg Tere re w mre p rs f crcs h eserve be me e hs

cntext the pls m s sgn he rs ng vs lwer ng s g The pus s g + ces vce vrety f segme eer vwe r cstTs [ c be se fr he l lp e f e Eg s pheme wch ccrsbefre frnt vwel s key n ths cse he csn s re e smewhtfrher fr cl ser te p re e re velr wr ke car kewse he p s sg s se PA t ce smewh vce vrety f vwe l Ths he vwel fe her n wrds ke car he Eg sh spokenby Cr spekers s smewh fre vrety f he ee E gl sh vwel

T s vwe c b e phecl y rscrbe s [ ry Cr spekerse pr nce ne r he fece f he rn rther frt n hskn f vr s n cexl ly eerme cse f l phny Eng sh By gy w + he m s sg s se p ec ce csl r vclc rercn hs represen ptver rther hlvelr vrees f n l drink n trunk respecvely By nlgy hesme crc c be se t ce smewh erce vrey f y vwe

The rsg sg nereth he bsc symb fr vwe nces clser ( e hg her) vrey f ht vwel Th s he E ngl sh phn eme ll s releby fcse vrey befe k g /, s recgnize where c be rrwly

rscrbe s [ O he her hn wrfl pst hs Eng sh vwe srel e by s hfpen vrety fr whch we se the lwerng sg n s nd cte he symb fr he f vwe f sofa [ u Aervey sme g sts seher pr f symbls ce rs g vs lwerg e he er respectvey h lfrng s sudens re ls l kely cme crss these espec l yf ey re syg l kw f exmpes sc s vEnt vs [v nt Hwever s e P ec Symb G e wrs hese ve m y verse sesnd fr hs res should be avoided where possible

Alhg ms f he me petc y eresng l pnes f Egl shphemes re ce by mes f cr c sg ce he bsc symbl th s s nt ecessrly lwys he cse A sun ht ccrs s cntextl yeerm e vrey f sme pheme y gve g ge my be represee

9



JOIOVĆ HONIC ND HONO LOGY FOR TDNT OF NGL H

by serte bsc symbol h s s ome ost os wth he syl b e re

rel ze by the gott sto [ ] .he cotext for the occ rrece of the gott sto i RP s the sme whch s rel ze by its r velrise vrety wl l b e fr-ther exl e t some lter ot in conecton wth the syll bl e If gve segmet s ot fll y relce by the gottl sto bt s rther rooce wth some ibl e gottl izto the sme symbol c be se s serscrt icrt chs wo be the symbol for reglottlze [] t sho be ote thtg ottlizto s ot rtc lry extesve RP As observe erl er the vrety ofEgsh rocto where t s very commoly her s ocey

1 Nme lg ge whch mes stictve se of mlosves2 Wht is the bsc erece betwee imlosves ejectves?3 How re ejectves reresente the ottiol covetos of the IPA?4 Wht re cl cs? Wh s me by the r g stc se of ci cs gl s ? Descrbe te rtcto of yor fvort cl c so ts corrso g

symbo6 me some gttr so lg ge tht mes stctve se of t 7 Wht s otet itfl the rocto of Eglsh wors e ews

vlue for tve seers of rot?

8 How is the rot t il cosot of Hrvtsk eret from the E gl ish o e hevy?9 Wht is the hoec erece betwee te rot ti segmet of vz

the g l s t coso of very? 0 How o yo ccot for the fc tt some E g l sh seers hve oe more

cosot te r o em c system th te oters?1 Wht s the ferece betwee the rhotc o rhotc ccets of Eg sh?

Nme few vretes from ech of the ctegores1 2 Wht s the honetic erence betwe the RP r ts Ge erl Amerc

coterrt?1 3 Defe n exeml fy tr l ls fs ts14 Wht s the ort mbr brr ?1 5 ow wol yo escrbe te rtc lto of the rot [r o foreger?16 Do yo ow foreg gge other th Eglsh tt ses terestg

rhotc so? 7 yo me l gge wch yo ssocte wth rtclr ly terestg

so not fo i y of the lngges yo spe?1 8 Nme some l ohones of the Eng l is h honemes g 1 9 Wht tyes of relese cn plosve hve? Gve some exmes from Eng li sh

20 Wh t s yor fvorite icrit cl sg n I l l strte ts se hoetic otto 60



CPTR 6

CCD SPC

e onei esiion n ssiiion o e e eee o ssee sons so s i nole e e o ie ision in o eses

Fi s s obsee eli e e se o e l o o e no n son in is on-tex is os i te see is onin o so n i is ony oin nyses is onin ino isee nis oee e oneni enen neessiy o eein o e ysil eiy o iniil onooil se-ens seely s i ee ee soe e bon ies beeen s se-ens o son s exi ne eli e in onneion i e noion o ob le i ion W nees o be exi ne i s oin is e ote sense in i ino esiion o in ii l see so ns e neessi y oee i i e-ise son s is in os o is esition i s sse ese sonsee ee in isoion o bes en e ee e i n i l lo oni i

ion ey ee oone in os e ee in isoion n eiyoee os o e enes e onone o in sees o see onsis o oe n one o S ee onsisi n o s tenes is en e-ee o in oneis s onn ee see n is e e e oin o oson soe ineesin onneesee enoen o En is onniioni si ni inly e e onei ql iy o inii son seens kin e ieen o ey o be i ke in iso ion is i on o noet in is on neion e s l ony be lookin e se en ees l eyino e in e esiion o e E n is one i syse Fees in oo it enoen s s inontion n yt i lso eesen ex-

eey ion ois onenin onneesee onniion i l bee i seely in hp on osoyBeoe e oee i e ieniiion o e os ion on

neesee eno en o Enl is i so l be noe e tio ose ens o e oe is n ies o n n e Sekes o l n-es ny en o ee ny ioy ese i is no bsoleyneessy o e oeension o see is e li e oiion be-i n l s e noen i n n es is eonoy o see Desie e ni e

Apat om those phenomena which a deied with eeence to hoticity all the otheconnected-speech phenomena dealt with in this chapte ealy apply to all standad vaieties onglish ponnciation

61



JOIOVIĆ HONETIC AND HONOLOGY FOR TDE NT OF E NGLIH

sa natue of such phenomen a t he stateges hat ndv dual ang uages emp loy to

reduce atcu atoy gestues n con nected speech ae athe anuagespecifc Acase n pont s the phenomenon weaeig the most chaactestc feature ofEngsh ponuncaton he faure to appy t probaby represents the geatestgveaway of nonnatve pronu ncaton hus n ths context weaken ng deservesto be deat wth frst

n oder to exp a in weaken ng t s necessay to efer to a mao cass fcaton of wods nto two categores accodng to the functon n anguage and thetype of meanng they convey he fst categoy s that of exical words alsocal ed content wods They compse the maoty of the wods n the d ctonay oexcon of a given anguag e he r fun cton i s to cay lexca mea n ng e to refe

to somethng fom etranguistc reaity hus words kebook

ordog

wou d belong to this categoy By contrast socaed grammaical wods or func-ton wods perform some grammatcal functon wth n the sentence so the mean-ng the y convey s gammatca Ths categoy n cludes aux l ar es prepostonsconun ctons atces ponouns as wel as the qua ntfe some and th e wodsaint and ir used a ppostvey n conne cted speech these wods occu n whatae ther weak foms f they occur n an unstessed poston (which they do most ofthe tme) hus the moda aux a y can in an unstressed poston s typica y ponounced as kn as opposed to ts stong fom Irl occurng n so aton or ina context where t s stessed as n es / can One a nd th e same word ca n havemore than one weak form deng among themse ves n the degee of weaken

ng What weakenng actualy conssts of s pmaly the qualtatve educton ofthe vowe n weak foms the vowes of gamm atca words are typcal ly obscuedby beng reduced to o possib y in the case of i and u/ to the ax counterpats and as n and / I n cases of more radical weakenin g the vowecan be comp etey lost as n for can or fo sha . n the atte two cases the syl ab c functon of the vowel s taken ove by the folowng sonorant wh ch sndcated by the sylabcty ma ( ) undeneath the consonants concened Theedu cton of the voca c qua lty of functon wods n the weak foms s often accompan ed by the loss of the n ita h whee app cable as n d fo had o llfor her A the acceptabl e weak forms of Eng l sh g rammatica words a re ident

fed n a speca sed pronounc ng d ctonary whch students ae strong y advsedto make a habt of consultng when faced wth any ponuncaton demma Phonetcal ly speakn g the process of weakenng sgn fcantly obscues e makesess nte l g bl e the wods aected Thus t s no suprse that Eng l sh cann ot af-ford to do ths to exca words whose dentty cannot be so eas y retreved fomther positon and fun cton with n the sentence

To make thngs even moe diicult to nonnatve speakers of Engsh theoccurence of weak foms in connected speech s associated wth yet another

udens ae oen head o say hat gammacal wods cay no meanng whch s ocouse a wong way of puing it because all wods convey some mea ni ng If hey dd no hey wouldno be hee! l is o nly a mae o he p o meaning they have

62



JOOVĆ: HONETC AD HONOLOGY FOR UDENT OF ENGLH

phenomenon, the neutralization of weak forms. As observed above, individua

Englsh words can ave moe than one weak form, and the weak forms of dierentwords can be homophonous. So, fo example, Is or Iz can be the weak forms ofboth 's and 'has'; n can stand for both an and 'and and so on. This situation inEngish pronuciation is certainly one of the man reasons why it takes a foreignera much longer perod of learning Engish to reach the level where he or she canunderstand fluent natve speech than t does for languages like talian or Spanis,where there is no comparable pocess of reduction. Likewise, speakers of the majorty of other anguages, incuding Croatian, are ighy ikey to fai to apply tisprocess fuy and propery when speaking English Thus the quality of the unstressed vowels of Engis in their speech, wch is oen nfluenced by te spelng, usualy gives them away as foeignes As a esut of weakening, as well aste fact tat fuly artcuated vowels are generaly avoided unstressed positionsin English, the most typical vowel of English connected speech s , which is,phonetcaly, the most neutral speech sound. n te present explanation, we have focused only on the phonetic aspect of weakenng, but this pocess also has an interesting phonological backgound This, however, will be le fo a ater chapteron non-linear phonology

Next we turn to anothe specficaly English connected-speech phenomenon Wat is meat by specificaly Englsh ere is not that it occurs in no oteranguage in the word, but simply that t is not universa, but, rather, has to do with

te rythica nature of the language concerned n any case, tis penoenon snot characterstic of Croatian and, as such, deseves some attention English hassome characric cc-ch accua ar that is, accentualpatterns of words which dier from those which the same words have if pronounced in isoation That is, the distribution of primary and secondary stress of agiven word in connected speech is not necessarily aways the one oered by adictionary. Thus, the accentual pattern of thirteen' in the ideaized, dictionay formof the word is 183::n/, wt the primary stress on the second syllabe and secondary stess on the fist one. However, f the word occus n a context ike thirteen men, te prmary and secondary accent are ikely to switch paces, iving83::n men. Likewise, to refer to the most commonly cited examples from liteature, te sae can happen in the pronuncaton of capagne n campagnecocktail / m , pIn 'koktI or in the connectedspeech version of Mississipp n 'Mississipp legisature I mISI, SIPI dI, sIt el. t sould benoted that these characteristc connectedspeech accentua patterns are optional,and the ue for ths stressswitching appeas to be applied correctly only when tcomes naturaly, without any conscious eort f it does not, a tudent of Englishshould stay content with being aware of it and knowing its expanation. The reasonwhy it happens is again on whi concerns te rhytmica nature of Engish. Toput it simply, English is said to be a highly uhyhicagg This meansthat it tends to regularise its rhythc patterns as uc as possibe, making thehythm sound peasant. n order to aheve this, it tends to avoid successive

63



JOIOVIĆ ONIC AND ONOLOGY FOR DN OF NGLI

stong beats, w c wold occ n foms l ke 8 3 : : o , <

' kk , n addto n , t tends to egu lae the mete, by copyng lefwad teaccenta l patten of te second wod onto the fst wod of te p ase , tus a v-ng at , , ate tan , o, to efe back to te evosexampe, < , , ate tan , < / , wc sond moe e y-tmc n combnat on wt ,s le and, espect vey, k,te /

The next connectedspeec phenomenon we sha l be look ng at s assimilaio. Ts s te most natal and nvesal ocess, occg n all langages As-s m laton as aleady been nd ectly deat wt n connecton wt al opon c vaa-ton, wen t was obseved, fo examle, tat te oneme d s ealed by tsdental a opone n a wod l ke wdth. Phonetcaly speakng , ts s a s mpe case of

assm l aton , tat s , adaptaton of a segment to the adjacent one, motvated by teeconomy of seec At t s o nt, oweve, we sal l be ookng at te same tye ofocess n conn ected speec, tat s , at wod bondaes. I n ts k nd of context anyfeate can be assm l ated , o to pt t n contemoay ponolog ca tems, spead,fom one segment to the othe Accodng to te d ecton of ts speadn g, assm -laton can genealy be ethe egessve o pogessve. So, n at last pononcedas ] , te feate voce] s sead fom te of at to te / of te fol -lowng wod, so ts s an example of ogessve vocng assm laton onvesey,with thanks ponounced as <] , povdes an llstaton of egessvevocng assmlaton , as the feate voce] speads n te opposte d ecton, e ,fom te second wod lewad T s can be epesented as fol lows

at la st

: s t ]prgressive

wt tanks

<]regressive

Tese two cases of connectedspeec ass m laton de n yet anote e-spect I n at last ass mlaton s al l ophon c, e , te dentty of te ogna l ponemeas bee eseved, weeas n wt tan ks, te eslt of assm aton sonds asa netal ed ealaton of a pone me dfeent fom te og n al , ndely ng /Genealy , t may be obseved that ang uages de n te type of ass l aton pe-feed . Eng l s s known to favou egessve assm laton. Hee ae some moecases of egessve assml aton , n w c va os feates ae nvolved

64

Place assm laton :not tat < ]ts oom [

� U ]Mexcan g l g3 : ]

ten boys te ]



Ronding ssimi t ion

thick on I An]tis on cs An]

s ssim i lt ioncom in kA n]

bring mp rI m<]

IA OND AND NOTATION

xt w trn o coalescence which tks plc wn two dirnt sgmnts mrg into yt nothr on word bondry t tks pc in contxts forssimition, whr th rdction of rtictory gsrs gos on stp frthrthn it dos in ssimiltion, rst ing in sing sgmnt hs would you could you what you has your nd in case you , which r most oftnsbjc to rgrssiv pt ssimi ltion , r so poni cndi dts for coscnc i n rp id spch Whr thy r ctd by th ttr procss, t two sgmnts word bo nd ry mrg i to on, ] J [] or S ] h xprssions thnd wod hn so nd l ik [ ' wu e ] ' ku e ] ' wt S e] [ ' h< e] nd Ik I S e] rspctivly

h nxt conncdspch phnomnon w r going to ook t is vrycommon in th words ng gs I is cl d elision h trm rfrs o h d ltion of sgmnts word bo ndry Elisio n cn fct bot consonnts nd vowl s h consonns mos oftn idd r t nd d, occrri ng t h nd of consonnt cstr, for rsons which wi b xpli nd tr in connction with sylb srctr Css in point wold b xprssions ik 'nx dy, ' st chnc' ndold mn', typicy prononcd in r conxts withot h fin t or d, nksI] l : s t S : ns] nd l <] n css whr vow is l idd t wordbondry, s in 'gt ong', gt nothr' or 'fthr nd son, prononcd s gq l] [ ' gt nAe ] ' f : ren , sAn] w gt sylbic consonntAs ths xm ps show, th contxts for th oprtion o f this procss rgl ryinc ld sonornt consonnt, which hn typic y tks ovr h sy bi c fnction

of th i dd vow Voclic isi on ths oftn rslts i n th formion of sy bi cconsonnt sch s th [ ] nd ] in th firs two of ths xprssions

h nx two conn ctdspch p hnomn of Eng i sh r s l y rfrrdto by rnch trm which covrs both, l ia ison th mning ofwhich is ' ink hypply to t nonrhotic vritis of Engish, s th sgmnt insrtd t wordbondry to ink two words is r, which in th rhotic vritis is lrdy prononcd wordfinly h l inin g r is th r insrtd in contxts ik btherand sister far away nd your car is there n isotion , no fin l r wol d b prono ncd in nonrhotic vritis of Eng i sh in bther far and car n hs contxs, howvr, th r which ws thr istoric l y fct which i s stil rfctd inth sp l ing , wod not b pronon cd, nd th words ndr considrtion wol d

6



JOI OVIĆ: HONETIC AD HONOLOGY FOR TDENT OF EN GLIH

be pronounce s [ ] [ f : ] n [ ] s oppose to their connecte

speech vers ions n an ' s Is ta] ' f : r a ' w I] n ' k : r IZ ] It shou be note tht this historic r surfces here to brige the gp be-tween two vowes t wor bou nry so t occurs ony if te fo owig wor beg insi vowe By contrst with the ink ing r! th e other i ison phenomeno n th e irus ive r though occurrg n n ogous phonetc context is not etymoogi-c y justife n hece oes ot exist i the spe ing It is i nserte by ogywith the in in g r! to perform the sme gpb rig ing function s in the fo owngexmpes Crot S oveni rm music w n orer mgno i ithe prk contexts in which one cn he r ntive spekers sy [ I [ ] [ ] [ n r] As cn be seen from o phonetcs text-

books some time go such pronuncition ws stgmtise but nowys is nooge ooke upo s substnr pronnctoNext we turn to whoe rnge of phenomen usuy referre to s u

ure pheo mea Tese nc ue ny fetures whc prove phonetic cu es mrking wor bou ries he ir function wi be i u strte with reference to the fo ow-ing exmpes of mbi guou s phoeme sequences

t issue vs t issuep : s ks/ pe stks vs pece tks

Iskr : screm vs cecrem

t s suc phonetic ets s the eg ree of sp irtio of the [t] n t he frst twoexmpes the ength of the phthong [ s we s the egree of friction of[s n the thir exmpe tht resove the mbiguties t hn Amittey in respeec the eti re i nguistic context wou probby be suicient for the istener toknow whch of the two possi bi it ies is ment However s observe erier n conection wit ophonc vritio nguge s system of comm un iction neessome egree of reun n cy n it is precsey fetures of this kn tht serve sreun t bou ry m rkers Ju nctur cu es so ic e the type of reese of

posive i cusse i n chpter 5 in connection with op honc vrition s we sy other moifctions to he beg n gs n en ngs of wors or rger prosoicuits

The st two pheomen which w be et with here re chrcteristc ofwhat is know s the egro stye e fst csu speec The process whicWes ( 1 982) refers to s smoohig s n it s eect to certn extent compr-be to wekening but it ects exc ther thn grmmtic wors To useWess own exmpes smoothin g cn occur in contexts such s two ocock [ t ] or fi re power [ ] The process ects tense vowes inc u ngphthongs n consists in smoothng out i e esng up trnsit ions betweenvowes t wor boun res or wthi tr ipthogs T s is typic y chieve by ei66



IA ON D AND NOTATION

ter xng vowe s n te cse of two i the bove exp e or by reuci ng

trptong nto iphtong s ustrte in te tter cse

e st connectespeec penoenon we s be ooking t s coony referre to s compressio I t cou be ooke upon s extensive e is io nbut s t is restricte to te eg ro ste ere t wi be e t wt seprtey It consists of the eeton of entre sybes of exic wors n connecte speech Acse i p ont is te co on y quote expe of terry co presse in te pronu ncition of soe spekers into ] It shou be note however tt sucrtic reuction of wors n pronunction is ofen crit icse n t reins is-putbe weter t cn be regre s chrctersng ny stn r vriety of Eng- sh pronunction h us to be on te sfe sie we sh not ook into ny ore ex

pes stying content wit snge i ustrton of the process which perhpssou ot be encourge but neverteess cnnot be ignore i the escri ptinof conteporry Eng s connectespeec peno en

Exercises

1 e te connectespeec phen oen of Eng s et wth in this chpter

Wic ctegor of wors oes weken ing ect n ow?3 ow oes wekening ke Engis connecte speec iicut to unerstn

for forei gners?4 G ve n exp e of te neutr tion of wek fors i n connecte speec 5 Wy re te ccentu ptterns of Eng i s wors in con necte speec not nec

essr y the se s in iso tion?6 G ive your own exp e of context for connectespeec ss i i tion fer

ent fro those oere in th s cpter7 Exp n the erence between reressive n p rogressive ssi i tion 8 Expin n ustrte te penoenon of coescence9 Give soe exp es of consonnt n voc c e s o n

1 0 Wt s te iference between the in kin g r n ntrusve r!? Why re tepeno en restricte to te nonrotc vretes of Eng s ?

1 1 Exp in te ingu ist c ro e of juncture phenoen1 Give n expe of sooting 1 3 Rewrte te fo owing two texts usn g te ori nry p bet Ientfy the

connectespeec phenoen n i cte in te trnscripton ( B the oub ess is use to in cte bou nres between ntontion p hrses)

7 Wells ( ib. ) een al lows or the monophthongsaton o the triphthong n ths context whichwold give : : representing an extreme case o smoothin g.

28 Th e texts or transcription have be en taken rom Cosmopoltan magaine.

67



JOIOVIĆ HONTIC AN HONOLOGY FOR TDNT OF N GLIH

t : r e s

r u ' ut I u l b I eb ' 3 : v I n e v e ' r Ie tI e f seu S el It S u I S en pre ktI beu vAlnere bIlet en 'pu er en r I ' U : I ' 0 : pe ' t n S e l ' s k S u e l ' p : t ne wI ' In p 3 : f : I st ens t u r : l I r eube t s bet S o r I el' pue wel bI et heu en ' hIe ' we u l bI ' fun ' sII' w I l ' kuk I kl : I e n ' ke r I t I ' Ik : s e v e' p ue t e g t wo t S e wont eu nt r I e h eu ' I ' An w el ' : wot ' v e u ' b I ' w e r I t ' h lpI w I p I ntI e b r u e e t e u n I l

' e r : e ' An s ' f 3 : s t ' n In ' I e r ks el ent f er ' 0 : ' f :

e f f I Ike l ek t I v It I e r : l seu w n u e e ust' l Ikl te I ' pr s : ' ore t ' f Ige ' : t S I sken en' 3 : ' w : ks er I I e l fe k : PI e I e r I l I S en S I p In' gu ' rAn I r I ' p e ' : ft e e ' 3 : ' w : k ' knse n , t r It en Ik I e p : t ne ' s eu kA ft ebe l I : I ' l : 0 : InhI ' bI S e n ' w I e I t l I u ' 0 : ' I I s ns e' r Ie l ' : l I ' : ' nu I Z e ' but ' w3 : k I ' h : If u e

U : I I t r I t I h : w3 : k S e pre : s seInte ' lkt Suel kuerI ' OsIt e e ' bI , proAkt

1 ranscribe the fol owng two texts u sin g the same transcription princ ples asabove I ndi cate as many connectedspeech phenomena as apl i cable Con-sult the pronouncing dictionary

Gemini

Good news comes fm abad on the th and the best thing is you have

the backup both personal and financial - to car out your plans Ptecting theinterests of a ceain company gives you a good reputation - and lands you a plumjob tress at work spis into your love lfe an your preoccupation w get on yourpaner's nerves aund the 24th Go and see a m together and t to switch oews fm abad or a sudden trip is exharating

eo

he ful moon on the th gives you the le of leader but if you pu rankyou' get ze response for logic and quiet persuasion instead A big loan isnow feasible but be wa of advice fm people who don 't undersand your needs

and wishes he solr ecipse of the 26th is a real low point for your relationship

6



IA ON D AND NOAION

but be loyal to your paner and he ' be true in retu omeone 's anger is justified

if you forget to do something - and then deny you were asked

15 Transcribe the text of the stdents phonetic anthem A Dreadf angagegiven i n the Appendix.

69



CPTR

ACUSC PECS

So far our phonetc descrpton of speech sounds has been atcuatory.That s we have been ookng at the functon of nd vdua speech organs a nd the

acu latory gestures they perform n p roducn g functon al sounds In ths chapterwe are go ng to have a bref look at the acoustc background of speech. I n pa rtcular t wl l be sown ow te way n wc we ear a sound depends upon tsacoustc stucture. As always bere proceedng wt o op c t soul d be explaned why a student of Englsh woud need ts knd o nowedge. Tere arevarous reasons wy some acoustc backg rond s a necessary part of he knowledge of any l n gu st Two of tese reasons appear to be rater pragmatc. F rst weneed t to understand wy certan sounds are conused wth one anoter Second y ths k nd of knowledge can enab e us to capture the nature of soun ds thatae dcut to descrbe n terms of atcuatoy movements.

To begn wth one can pronounce twce any one of the Eng sh soundswc were descr bed earl er or te purpose of ths ustraton t s preerable tocoose a vowe say [] Wat we sould do next s try to make tose two nstances o te real zaton o the vowel derent n as man y ways as possb e always keepng t he qua ty o the sound constant nsofar as ts s pysca ly possbl e I we abstract away rom te nevtable qu al tatve derences between anytwo separately ttered sou nds wc are or our present pu rose ttery neg l g b e there are two other l ngustcal y mportant respects n wh ch we can make twonstances of [ derent One of them s ptch or perceved tone. That s one ofthese two sou nds can be uttered (or even better sung) on a h g her or owe ptch

than the oter and t us wl be perceved by te l stener as avng a ger or owertone. Anoter parameter systematcaly vared n ang uages s loudness One cankeep both te qu al ty and ptc of our two l l ustratve sounds constant but varyte r relatve loudness mak ng one o them o uder or less loud t ha te other.Fna l ly te du raton or lengt o segments s aso systematcal ly ared n langu ages. I n sort we sa l be ookng at the acoustc correates of fou r knds of ln gustc pa rameters

ptch by vue of whch a [ uttered on a h gher tone d ers from a ow [ loudn ess wc makes the loude r nstance of [] sound more prom nent

than te less loud [] pronounced on te same tone level71



JOIOVIĆ HONETIC AND HONOLOGY FOR TDE NT OF E NGI H

qa ty w c akes [ d eent any te d stncty deent sn d

l ke [] [ f examp le d atn by te wc ne nstance [ ay be peceed as netan ante

We ae nw n t dscss eac te abe aspects n t n Bee westat wt ptc t s d be ade clea that nt al l se ents speech ae a defn te ptch That s ny ced seents ae tnes by te nate and ts l ke sca tnes can be asscated wt as ees f eate tna e t T ss eated t te act tat a rtc at y t s te ate b atn the ca ds ced seents tat detenes the ptc f any ced sement Acstcally

speakn the ceate ptc s then te eqency cpnent te sndwae w c eects te b atn f the ca ds te ate at wc t ey cpp te stea f a nt pses eatey pesse atenatn wt ents f lw pessu e Th s patcl a eqency cmpnent s caed fundamenal freque cy (F) F ndae ntal feqency s ths n d n ly n ced seentsand s partcay dstnct n wels It s n spse ten tat ndda wescan easy be sn By cntast te acstc pnt ew ceess sements are nse e reula (apedc) batn

Vaatns n a r pesse dn speec cc n te f snd waesAcstcay by nate snd waes ae sa aatns n a pesse ccn

ey apd y ne ate ante Tey ae casd by te eent te speec ans n led n artclatn and s pe psed n te w a rstea sed f tepdctn f speech Snd waes ae nt decty sb e s acstc ans ae tey n speca deces t bsee and analyse te wadays pnetcans sesp stcated cpte swae t pe al s f acstc anayss s ach nes l ke sc scpes sc laps and the l ke te p pse f te pesentcse can be eaded as benn t hsty Fe 9 epesents te sndwae cespnd n t te tteance his is a wave orm ' as pnnced by teat te pesent bk bta ned by te swae packae peechtation2

Figure wae

The eent snd waes t te a s en cpaed t teeent f pp es n a pn d Te sn d wae cespnd n t any utteancecnssts f as s m tanesly pesent cpnent eqences electn theas pattens cane n a pesse tese n te tn esltn tea s atc aty est es tat e den tty t any en tteance a tesecpnent eqenc es f a sn d wae t s st ne cpnen t the lwest ne

72



ACOTIC HONTIC

reresens e nen reqeny By rng e , onetins ob-

in osi or e l in gu isi sty o i Beore i is exl ine wy now i erns re ingisily relevn, ew wors re rorie erebo e eni l se o e rng roere J s l e e woe oe son wve, its lowest requeny oonen , , is not i retly essib le ns o be exe by soste eves One gin, we n se eroere n by resening e orresoning nlysis obine by enso e peechtation2 s ie e erne s 'his is a pitch track'

500

400

300

200

00

00 200

g

O

300 400 500 00 00 800 900 000 00 200 300 400 500Figure s is r

e oron xis reresens e n l l iseons , weres e vertixis reresents requeny in H As n be seen ro e tr, e ter-ne ere oes no onss o oes only, b lso inles voeless segens e , no se H ene e broen ine

W nees to be exl ine next is t e l in gis i use of ti s i n o f ost inysis As wi be sown in ore et in er er, ring is in is-

ensble in te study of ntonton , or t trns out tt e movemen t o fun en -l reqeny slys resonby ose orresonene wit te ovements involve For e urose o l n guisti nlysis t is ssume tt e itr o given erne reresens is orreson ng eoi ontor Wi ogeing i nto i nonion eory i s oin , we n il l srte e in g ist relevneo nonion by i ng it tr of te se sentene s in ig ure 1 0 but tisie tere i n ieren ontex e s g ne sen o i ngss sb ts n ssigne nt for oneis lss , but i nste o te exete i t rk,e ro es soeng else, n e roesso sys in i sbel ie 'his is a pitchtrack?!' e orresond ng ithrk woul now look ierent tn in e re-

os ex e, reeng e reris risi ng ern73



ACOTIC H ONTlC

syl lable Ptch s use fo the same u ose n tone lan guages as well . Howeve,

hese ife fom itcaccent languages that hey associate stnctive tonaattes ot oly w one sylable e wo, bu wth evey tonebearng unt,whch s most often the syllab e

Wateve he in gu stc fu ctos fo whc tc s em loye a gven lan-ua ge, ichtrackng s a vey m otant outne ob erforme by any onetcanor honol ogst, by whch a g reat eal of relevant l ng ustc nformaton can be obtaie In t s connecton some basic acoustc infomaton s a rorate here

As s sown n fgures 1 0 an 1 1 the basc un t fo measuing frequen cy sthe He tz (Hz) One H ertz coresons to a com ete oenng an closn g move-ment e secon , hence he altenatve erm cyces e secon '. Tus, f te vocal

fos comete, say, 200 such oen ng a n cosng movements, te w be 200Hz. Accor ng to most sources, the aveage F value n seech s 1 1 Hz for amae voce an 2 1 0 o a female voce. Li gu stcal ly, wat mattes about tc ss elative vaue, as te absolute values ae a matter of n v u al varatio . Thas, some eole have a eee o hghe voce than others, an the average Fvaue is genera ly lowe in men tha i n wome , whch obvi ousy as to o with theegt of the voca fol s Thus evey eson as ther in vi ua l n tonatio thres-ol , n eaton to whch they utter tones of varous relatve egrees of he ght Fvalues tat a honetican o honoogst eas with wen stuying intoatonaey go beyon he ange betwee 70 an 500 z. Wha s motant to ote

ths context s that equal stes of ncreasng fequency o not ouce the eect ofequa stes of i creasn g itch Thi s wil obably be ceae f we refe to musi can the ienatonal stumenbu ing stanas. The A above m e is ternatonall y efne as hav ng the frequency of 435 Hz for al cou ntres excet forGeat Btain a n the S . wee the stana fo e same tone is 440 Hz . Thi sffeence of 5H is ecetual y is ignficat at s equency ang e. Physca ly ,muscal ntevals a re efne n tems of arthmetcal ratos Th us an nterval of afi cons ists of two notes, te fequencies of whic bea he atmetica ato 3: 2;a m ao t, the atio 5 4. Nowaays usts o l onge efer to m uscal ntervasto exess relatve tch val ues, as they a century ago. In stea , they use spe

cal ooogical uts, wc, oweve, nee not cocern us at ts ont. Whatees to be stesse n h s context is tat not al te h onetic oeties a etai leacoustc analyss can reveal, are necessa ly ngustcal y relevant.

Next we tur to ouess As exaine above, ust l ike itch, lounessays an m otat ole i mak g iv ua l ats o a utteance moe romnent

3 Ths prosodic classication is totally independent o genealogical relations amonglan gages . Th s the category o ptchacent langages a part rom Croatan also ncl des la ngagesl ke wedsh and Japan ese bt nt the majorty o cog nate lavonc lang ages

3 lt shold be noted that the wod emains nchanged in the plal so we say or examplethat heaing takes place between 15 a nd 2 He.

7



JOSIPOVIĆ PHONETICS ND PHONOLOGY OR STUDENTS O ENGISH

than others. Loudness of speech can also convey various kinds o attitudina or

cotextual meaig. The acoustc correate of oudess is ntnsty. It dependsupon the size of the variations n air pressure and s measured trough the amptude of the average sze, which is directy reated to the perceived oudness. Theintensty of a sound is expressed in decibels (dB) relative to the ampltude of someother soud It s mporta to stress ths relatve naure o oudess It would makeno sense to say, for exampe that a sound is 5 dB oud ts intensity (peceived asloudness) can only be 5 dB greater than some other sound which woud meanthat t is abou twce as oud as that soud A change of tensity of dB is a ttlemore than the smalest change in loudness. It is interestng to note that individualcategories of speech sound have their nherent relative ntensities So voicedsounds are nherenty ouder than voceless ones Withi each of these two categores there is a further hierarchy, having to do with the phonological featue of sonorty This means that this inherent intensity significanty determines the phonologcal behavour of segments Ths however goes beyod the scope of achapter on acoustic phonetics So our account of the acoustic ackground of variatons in oudness can now be rounded o by an ustration of two instances of ourlustratve vowel [] uttered wth dierent degrees o reatve loudness Thesound in figure is uttered consideraby moe oudly than that in fgure

1

6

1007 /07,9 db 77 / 80,7 db10

O

01 '

0 {tr .- lr\JA6

2 4 kHz ° 2099 sec 0,533 sec

4 kH

M I: ,·� l

0, 0, 0, 0, 0,5 s 0,55 0,5 057 0,58 sFigure 12: [ - spectrum (ouder) Figure 13 [ spectrum (ess oud)

The above two igures represent te correspodng acoustic spctagraphica representations of the sounds at hand in which apitude is ottedagainst frequecy. The particular points indicated on the spectra represent the

peaks o intesty The followng ilustrato given in figure 4, represents the dif-

76



ACOTIC HONTIC

erence in i ntens ity between the ent ire waveorms It is absol utely clea r that the in -tensty o te irst sg nal s consderably greater tan that o te second one

Figure 4 dierence i n intens ity

ow that it as been sown how di erences n pi tc and oud ness are acous-tical ly explai ned , we can turn to the most complex aspect o acoustics o speech , e the one dea ng wt qual tatve dierences I n an earle r capter we learnedwich articulatory gestures are responsble or dierences among ndvidua categores o speec sounds and i nd vdua sound types withn tese categores At tispoint some acoustic background is needed to account or such qual itative d ier-ences We sha ll start with vowels, as their acoustic structure is ess complex thantat o consonants h s is aer al , no su rprse i we recal l the act tat tey areproduced wth no rad ca obstructon to te outgo ing stream o ai r Qua l tatve di er-

ences among vowels articulatory determined by te conguraton o the supragottal cavity, are acousticaly reected by the harmoi structure hat is, in addi-tion to the p tch at which a vowel is uttered the sound wave o any vowe contans anumber o dierent pitches whch are ntegral mutples o te undamental re-quency us or example te vocal olds are vbratng at 200 , ths owestcomponent requ ency o 200 s sad to be te rst harmonic and the next areound at requency vaues representing intgral multipl es o 200 he second har-mon ic s at 400 , the t ird s at 200 tmes 3, e 600 , and so on All the aronics above te Fo are also reerred to as oveoes Tus the second armonic is therst overtone te third armonic s te second ovetone and so on While te Fogives a vowel its ptch te overones, which a re in act resonant requncies , g ive itits di stinct qual ity n oter words , we distingu ish one vowel rom another by the di-erences i n te ovetones, wch relect ter most domnant requencies e rea-son why n one vowe type a particular combnaton o requencies is domnant sthat ts overtone conguration reects the specic variations n air pressure due tothe characteristics o the voca tract conigu ration o that vowel he overtones aresuperim posed o te o produced by the vocal olds

n acoustc an ayss te qua l ity o speech sounds is represented by meanso sperograms. A spectrgra s a graph w ich sows ceary te requ enc esand i ntensities o the components as a unction o time S pectrograms were origi

nally obtained by means o a special device, caled a sperograph but n owa

77



JOI OVIĆ HONTIC AND HONOLOGY FOR TDNT OF N GLIH

days spectrograph ic an alysis is common y carried ou t by means o computer sot

ware or acoustic analysis ere is an example o a spectrogram obtained in thisway:

1 4 6 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 4

Figure 5: spectrogram

The spectrogram in igu re 1 5 represents the utterance spectrogram , as ut-tered by the author o this book As i nd icated by the correspondi ng phon etic sym-bos , the most ceary visib e sections of the graph correspond to vowels As opposed to consona nts, vowels have a cear forman structure Formants are thehorizonta back bands which on the s pectrogram represent rein orced overtonesTey refect the concentration o acoustic energy in certain frequ ency regions Asthe most dominant overtones combine to produce the distinct vowel quaities,each vowel type wil have its cha racteristic ormant structure recogn isable on thespectrogram Generall y tere are two types of spectrogram wideband spectro-grams, which are more precise in the time dim ension , l i ke the one in igu re 1 5 and

narrowband spectrograms particuarly accurate in the requency dimension atthe expese o accu racy in the time d imen sion The atter type o spectrogram is i -ustrated in the ol lowing igu res, 1 6 to 19 . Whi ch o the two types a phonetic ianwil use depend s on the particula r purpose o speech ana ysis Thu s, r examp le,someone interested in eas uring th e voice onset time for plosive consonants wil look at the wideband spectrogram, w hi e a phonetician studying intontion wi lmake use o the n arrowband spectrogram to read out requen cy val ues at partic-uar poi nts within an utterance

ow the ormant structure reveals the qua ity o a vowel w i l irst be i l us-trated on the spectrograms o 4 vowes, [i , [a, [ and u hese have been cho-sen or initia l i l u stration , because tey represent vowel types whic are extremes

7



ACOC ONIC

in either di rection with respect to the degree o open in g and the ront vs back di-

mensio n The location o the irst ormant is inversely related to vowel height Theirst ormants o [ i ] and [u] i n igures 6 and 7 are obviousy lower than those othe open vowels [a] and [] in igures 8 and 9

5

00 200 300 00 500 600 00 800 900 000

Figure 6 [i] Figure [u]

5

00 200 300 00 500 600 00 800 900 000 00 200 300 00 500 600 00 800 900 000

Figure [a] Figure []

The he ight o the irst ormant is thus a possi bl e diagnostic or vowel open-

ness As or the ront vs back p arameter, there is a correl ation between the degree o backness an d the distance between the irst two ormants In ront vowelsthe are rather ar apart, whi ch is bes t i l ustrated by the ormant conigu ration othe [i] i n igu re 6 In b ack vowes, by contrast, they are clos e together, as can beseen in the above case o [], or on the spectrogram they can even appear tomerge , as in he [u] in igu re 7 The degree o roun di ng o a vowel is relected onte spctrogram by the requencies o the hi gher ormants, wh ich tend to decrease with the increase o roundi ng , though there are no abso utely gen eral dein itions o this correation I n any case, it is ins ightu l to compare the sectrogramso he cardina vowel and is round ed counterpa, nu mber 9, as pronounced by

the renowned phonetician Peter adeoged in ackson et a ( 997)

79



OS OVĆ ONTS ND ONOOY O STDNTS O N S

2: Cardn a vowe

2 : Cadin a vowe 9 : [y

A ueston that is natura y i ey to arise in ths conn ecton is why ths s m -portant at a ha t is wrong wi th those articuatory descripti ons whic h wee pre-sented n an ea i er chapte whch a re much more down to eah and reu e nosuch soph sticated methods of ana ysis The eason why phon etcans sti do re-

sort to ths ind of anays s s that the traditio na a ticu atory descrptons are ofennot entey satsfactoy in that they may not be n accod with the actuaartcu atoy facts. It tu ns out that terms i e h g h ow font or bac rathe thandescrb ng the actua tongu e positon or confguraton in fact specfy acoustic di-mens ons n thi s sense acoustic ana ysis is more accurate. Adm ittedy spectro-gra readi ng in rea ty is not aways such an easy ob as the above i u stative ex-ampes woud suggest. ificuties often aise due to the socaedpseudoformants i . e . formant e bands refectng a s ig ht degree of nasa sationo vaous inds of in dv idua pecu a ites of the speaer esides n rea speech segments do n ot normay occur n soaton but interact wth one an other It woudthus be u sory to expect an ntroductory couse of phonetcs to ua fy students to



ACOUSTIC PHONECS

read spectrograms. Rather, the intention of the present chapter s to oer somebasic knowledge of the subject-matter of acoustic phonetics and methods ofspeech analysis employed by acoustic phoneticians. In tables 2 and 3 the mean frequences of the first three formants for English pure vowels as spokn by adultmale speakers are compared to those of the vowels of Standard Croatan:

F1 F2 F3

i 280 2620 3380

/I 360 2.220 2.960

e 600 2.060 2.840

lrl 800 1.760 2.500

/AI 760 1.320 2.500 740 1.180 2.640

IDI 560 920 2.560

480 760 2620

lul 380 940 2.300

320 920 2.200

/ 560 1.480 2.520

Tab 2: The mean frequencies of the first three formants for RP pure vowels(Gmson 1980)

F1 F2 F3

282 292 2713

e 471 1848 2456

a 664 183 2433

0 482 850 2472

u 324 717 2544

Tab 3 The mean frequences for Standard Coatian vowels (Bakran 1996)

Takng to consideraton te above dagnostcs for the tree parameters nthe idetifcaton of vocac quaty t shoud not be too dicut to deti dphthongs n fact their identification should proceed more easly as we know thatdiphthongs are vowels whose quality changes from the starting point t the endpoint. Tus the spectrogram of an English cosing diphthong like [aI] must consistof the spectrum of an alike vowel transforming into the spectrum of an likevowel. Likewise a centring diphtong such as [e] must look lke an [] in the firsthalf of the spectrum and lik an [e] in the second part. Here are two illustrative ex

ampes:

81



S IĆ CS A L SS S

6 7iue 22

6 7iue 23 [

eadng he speca of consonans is even moe compcaed han s fovowes Ths s so ecause he acousc sucue o consonans s geneay moecompcaed han ha of vowes In many cases consonans can e ecognsedony as a pacu a way of eg nn n g o end ng a vowe . ehaps he eases caegoy of consonans o ecogn ze is ha of ps ives han s o he gap n he paenefecn g he sop sage n hei acu aon To i usae ha we can efe ac ohe ueance sp eg whee fou such gaps whie spaces occu a hesecons coespond n g o he speca o p and g . I shoud e noed ha2



ACSTC PTCS

or the voicee top, the gap i o wed by a bu rt o noie, recog izabe byqu ite ditinct vertica triation, ocated at about 350360 mec or the [p] , 530 550mec or the [k] and 630650 mec or the [t] a aong the pectra Thee triationare conideraby ainter i voiced ound , incudi ng the [g] i the examp e at hand owever, vo iced cononan t genera ly have an other kind o triation that reectthe rapid oci ation in intenity produced by the openin g an d coing o the gottit i ca ed the voicing rippe an d can be een i n the i l utration here at about930960 mec

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4

igure 24: [ serr]

A or ricative, the eai et one to recognie i [], a ou nd type which byvirtue o the hi ghet requencie it a among peech ou nd, occupie a omewhat pecia p ace in both phoetic and phono ogy I our above i utration in ig-u re 24, it ha the characteritic random noie pattern in the hi ghet requ ency re-gion , extend ing wel beyond the top o the pectrogram So, even i one d id notknow it i the ii tia egment o the utterance at han d , it woud probaby be the ea-

iet one to recogn ieWithi n the context o an utterance, it hou d ao be ai ry eay to recogn ie

a naal aa, a wel a atera, have a ormant tructure which i imilar tothat o vowe, but i aiter A cae in point i the utteranceia naa m] in ourexamp e, wh ich tart at abo ut 200 mec

The a egment we need to identiy in t hi pectrogram i the app roximan t[] Gen era y, app roximant hve ormant tructure im ia r to that o vowe Be-ing a potaveoar, thi oun houd have the econd ormant ocated omewhere in the region around 70 o 800 z he egment between 970 and 000mec o our pectrogram then peecty matche thi d ecription and t hi i obvi-

ouy the econd [r in the utterance, the one between the [g] and the [] What

3



S Ć CS A SS S

abou he s one he ny pace e o by he pocess o e naon s ha a

660 20 sec h e does have soe unsabe oan sucue aso hasue a age aoun o nose n he hgh uency egons chaacesc ocaves ow does one accou n o ha hs pon we u s eca he ac han h s pacua conex n a consonan cuse ae a / o d he ng sh phonee s ea zed by s cave a ophone whch s n cey eeced by he daahee shou d be no sece ha nowadays han s o oden sowae o acous-c anayss any unceanes concenng he deny o ndvdua segens onhe specoga can be easy esoved by eans o he seec an d pay baccoands hus specogaeadng s no onger such an a as used o bebeoe he adven o acousc sowae oeover any peope h n can be un T o gve sudens soe dea o wha such sowae can do here s an exape o

he socaed we specogaphc epesenaon o he d phhong [ e aheedensona specogra o whch one o he auhos o heSpeechSaon2 soae . ce has gven he eegan desgnaonprpcrm:

r 25: waea specoga4



ACSC CS

e above brie i l lu strative survey o te mai n principl es i n spectrograpi c

segment etection sou not misea oe into tikig tat tis meto o acous-tic analysis is o mn ipotent Spectrograms are u matce as a source o ata ortasks suc as precise measuremet o te uration o segments an establ is ingierences among vowels n asal s an laterals ey are also useul i n provii nginormation a bout etai ls concernin g te mann er o aticulation owever teyare ot re iabe i meas urig te egree o asaisatio even ess i estabisi ngte precise p lace o articul ation so or tese tasks ponetician s ave to resort tooter metos suc as xrays or exampl e Spectrograpi c analysis al so as itsuses an l im itations in ienti in g te i iosyncratic pronu nciati on eatures o in i-viua speakers ey are use or tat purpose i oresi c ponetics were aysuc vis ua isp ay o te acoustic eatures o a i iviua s voice is cae avoiceprint Altoug te term as been coine by analogy wit ingerprint itsou l be note tat voicep rin ts are not nearly s rei ab le as a meto o ientii-ction as inge rprints By stuyi ng te position o te ourt an ig er ormantswic reect te speakers voice qua ity tey are qu ite rei ab e i negative ientii-catio i e excu ig a person rom a group o suspects or positive ietiicatiotey are not reliab le en oug to be taken by cous o law as te grouns or ind ict-ment I n te present context it soul be recalle tat ierentsape a n ierentsize vocal tracts ave ieret resoan t requen cies Accori ngy ierentspeakers wi ave ieret ormat requ ecies or te same vowes ot to me-tion te general ierence between m en a n women in tat men normally ave

arger voca tracts wic is relecte in ower ormant requenc ies Stuents wo ave access to comp uter aci it ies al owing or te use o suit-

ab e acoustic soware re strogy ecourage to pay wit spectrograp ic aa y-sis a compare te iiviua eatures o teir ow speec wit tose o teirrie s Apart rom lea rni g some acoustics in t is way tey ma y real ie tat o-ing po netics can in ee be u

Exrc

Wat are te acoustic correates o pitc lou ness an lengt?2 Wat are p itc tracks a wat are tey use or in l i ng ui stics?3 ow ca pitc variatios be use i aguages? ow are g is a roatia

ieret i n ti s respect?4 Wat are te basic u its or measuri ng requen cy timi ng an ou ness o soun d

segments in acoustic ponetics?5 Wat is a spectrum ?6 Wat are armo ics?7 Wat is te ierence between armon ics an overtones?

8 Wat i normatio abou t a segment o speec can be obtaine rom a spectro-gram?



S Ć ICS A SS IS

9 Wht two k in o ectogm e there n wh t i the ieence between

them? 0 Wht ol ow i t he ectogm o the vow i] I enti the loction o the irtthee omnt t icu l equen cy nge

5 kz

•MW . �

I

00 200 300 00 500 00 00 00 00 000 00

r 6 i]

ecibe the omt tuctue o the oowing ectogm othe ihthog ]

5 kz

00 200 300 00 500 00 00 00 00 000 00

r : ]

2 ee i the ectogm o the uttence ' n 't thi un ' tb ih the timi ng o

ech o the egmet in mec

6



ACOTIC HONETIC

00 00 300 400 00 600 700 800 900 000 Figure 2 snt this un

3 ry to igu re out the ol lowing spectrogram ere are some clu es: i t consists othree words and is a very ni ce thin g to say to someon e It would ma ke an origi-nal Valentin e card

00 00 300 400 00 600 700 80

Figure 2 puzzle spectrogram

4 Which segments are you most comortable with in spectrographi c iden tiica-tion and why?

5 What are voiceprints?

7



CPR S

GENETIVE PHONOLOGY

8. 1 troutio

h e tem gee tive ee to ppoch i l i gu itic which it begi ytx, i the lte 950, d w lte dopted i pho ology well It i uully obeved tht it epeeted evolutio i the ppoch to lguge dowdy my o te wold ledi g phoolog it ti l l coide themelve geetivit i wide ee o the tem he beg i i g o ew wy o cietiicthi ki g i eve evet tht tke plce o picul dte, but te, developmet tht gow out o give tditio , wi ch it dw upo d t te etime ect git oweve, it i cutomy to ee to ome l dmk tudy the begi i g o uch evol utio hu i h itoicl uvey o the developmeto l ig uitic, the emegece o geetive gmm i d ted bck to the p ubl ictio o the goud bekig book by Nom homky, ytctic tuctue ( 957 )

lt i i thi book th t the tem geetive gmm w it itodu ced t ee tothe cpc ity o g to poduce, o geete et o poib le etece i lg uge ht i, g eetive gmm i model (e , metpoicl deciptioo lgu ge) which ccout o the cetive cpcity o hum lgu ge hemode l oe et o oml ule to deive u l im ited u mbe o poib le etece om ome bic del yig ytctic tuctue

At thi plce it i im poible to go ito moe deti l d povide eve thebieet ccout o y o the evel model o geetive g mm which hvedeveloped oowig homky i itil id e oweve, by wy o itoduc ig thetopic o geetive phool ogy it i i mpot to obeve tht the mi coce o

geetive li g uitic i geel i to ccout o the cetivity o hu m l gu ge Geetive l i gu itic thu ocue wy om the decipt io o the ivetoy o give l gu ge, wh ich hd bee the mi coce o the pecedig tuctul ittditio the, it im t ccouti g o the i te cpcity o hum beig toue lguge cetively

l phoology, the tudy tht mked the begiig o the geetive ppoch cme out i 968 t w he oud Ptte o gl ih (u lly bbevited P), witte by No homky d Moi lle t w pimily theoy od itictive etue, ti te e i wic the tditio l, tuctuli t teoyw the mot vuleble he P model ttempt to povide igle uivel

cliictio o eech oud, ppl icble to l l lguge U ltimtely, uch ui



JOIOVIĆ ONTIC AND ONOLOGY FOR TDNT OF NGLI

versal set o eatures was meant to he lp li nguists capture i mportant generalisations

about pronunciation phenomena and express them as elegantly as possible Whatwere earli er identied as phonemes are no longer seen as relevant analytcal enti-ties, but rather, as conven ient abbrevatons or sets o binary eature specications lt is argued that in th s way im portant generalisations can be made, wh ich otherwsewoud be mi ssed, or it turns out that what realy determin es the behavou r o seg-ments n phonologcal rules is their in gredent eatures

Just l ke generative syntax, generatve phonoogy oers a set o ormalrules, by mea ns o wh ch s urace pronu ncaton phenom ena are generated romthe un derly ng inventory o phonologcal eatures I n this context it is useul to in -troduce the generative dstincton between competence, the speakers implcit

knowledge o the rul es o his lan gu age and the capacity to apply them creatvely,and perormance, te materiali sation o competence in speech Gen erative phonology thus ocuses on competence and ams at provding rules to link suracephenome na o perormance an d the u nderlying k nowedge that makes up compe-tence he d istncton remin ds one o de Sau ssures dchotomy between lang uageand speech owever, it should be noted that competence is seen as somethngdynam c and creatve, as o posed to te e mn ently statc structure o langue , assee n b y the earl ier structural ist approach

Beore we turn to gene ratve d stnctve eature theory and gen erative rules,along with their correspondng notational conventions, it must be observed that

nowadays the orginal SPE moe o generative phonoogy as such has beenabandoned , but many pho nologsts in the world st l l consder themselves to be-long to the gen eratve tradition by virtue o the r bel ie that the m a n task o the phonolog st is to account or the un derly ng creatve prnci ples behind su race pronun-ciation phenomena and express them as insightul ly as possible in terms oun iversal analytcal u nits whch are no long er phonemes ontemporary phonol-ogy i n he generatve stra n s th us reerred to as postS P E phonology owever,suc modes wi be discussed at a ater pont, ater we have outned generatvedstnctveeature theory and generatve rule ormalism

8.2 . Disti ntive · Featu re Theo ryhe SP E dst nctveeature theory represented a major revis on o an ear

ler, acouticbased theory presented n Jakobson and alles Fundamentals oanguag e ( 956) e S PE theory denes eatures primari y i n articutory termshe eatures ca n be seen as neu ral commands to actvate ceai n artculators Be-sides, the cl aim is made that these eatures shoud be capable o cractersn gnatural segment classes, relectng th e behaviour o segments n phonologi calprocesses hus, or examp le, it turns out that no sin gle phonol ogical rule in anylangu age o te world aects dentals as a separate category, but rather, entalspattern together in phonological processes wth the traditional categores oaveoars and paatoalveolars , t hen t s justies the introduction o a eature that

90



EERATE PL

would cove al l these thee categoes It s al so agued that such featues ae un

vesal e tat tey ae caable of descbng al l segenal contasts in tewolds la nguages If a cetan featue s not elevant fo a gven segment then t ssad that hs segent s uspecifiable fo at ac la featue h s s ot to beconfused wth the noton of uderspecificaio whch efes to cases whee thesegment eceves a give feate i te suface eesetato Suc cases wl lbe l ustated at soe l ate ont n connecton wt the teatent of th e n gl svowel edcton ule ultteed honology

Fn al ly t sol d be noted tat ths k nd of classfication of di stnctve featues s theoetcally sueo to the tadt onal a oach whch was ntodu ced ncate 4 of the esent book n that t uses o ne a nd the sa e set of featues to descbe both vowls a nd consonants

Hee we s al l esent a soewhat od fed veson of the set ntoduced bySP, because some of the ognal featues have been odfed It should benoted that thee ae alost as many d eent vesons of the classfcaton as theeae dstn ctvefeatue theoetcans Howeve the SP classfcaton as alwaysseved as an un ocia l stand ad and statng o nt So thee s no Godgven setand the stdent s not exected to be able to lst all the featues by heat alongwth the defn tons Rathe the dea of ths chate s to show how the systemwoks he veson esented hee lagely follows Kenstowcz ( 994) , wt soemodfcatons taken ove fom G ussenhoven and Jacobs (998) The featues a eclassfed nto the fol lowng fve categoes, whch wl l be dealt wth i n tun

MAJO R CASS featues2 ARIC U ATOR featues3 ONGUEODY featues4 MANN R feaues5 ARYNGAL featues

The AJOR CLASS featues defne the majo categoes of sounds thatae elevant n the honologcal a nalyss of the wolds lang uages They clu de[±consoana]

and±soorat]

Sounds oduced wth a constcton geatethan that fo ae consonantal wheeas tose made without such a constctonae nonconsonantal Sonoants ae oduced wh a vocal cavty dspostonwhch ma kes sontaneous vocng ossbl e Nonsonoants (also cal led obsrues have a vocal cavty ds oston whch nh b ts spontaneous vocn g Vowels nasal s and l qu d s ae sonoant stos fcatves and acates ae obstuents

2 ARCAOR featues efe to the ave atc lato tat foms the constcton n the oducton of a consonant It shoul d be noted tat ths categoy of

I we recall the mech ani sm o phonation this wil l mea n that the constriction in the vocal tractor sonorants wil l allow the air pressure behi nd it and in ront o it to be relatively e ual .

91



SPĆ PECS A PL SES ELS

eature ha been introduced in recent model and cover ome o the earlier

paceoaicuation eature hu i recet phonlogy the emphai ha beeon the dynamic apect o articu lation , i e , the aricul atory geture, rather than thepoit where it take pace Articulator eature inc lude the ol owig ive eature

±coroa

n the productio o coroal oud the crow o the tongu e ( i e , the tipand/or blade) i raied oronal include the tradit ional categorie o dental , alve-oar, alveopaata, retroex ad paatal ound Noncorona are biabia,labiovelar, velar, uv ular and pharyngeal

±aa

hi eature i deined in term o the movemen t o the l ower li p rom it retpoitio ooat i ke p b m], a we a rouded vowe are Iab ial]

±dorsa

h i eature reer to thoe cononant or which the cononantal contric-tion i ormed by the tongu e body (dorum) Vel ar and uvula r are peciied a[dora]

he category o articu lator eature alo inclu de the eature ±pha ryngea ,which i ot neceary or the peciicatio o ay o Eg ih eg et

3 TONGUE-BODY eature icu de the o owig our eature

±high

igh ound are made with the tongue raied rom neutral poit ion;nonhigh o und are ma de without uch rai ing o the bdy o the togue ighound incude Engl ih vowel i ke [ i ] , g ide w, j] , palatal , paata ied,alveopalatal and velar cononant Al other ound are non hig h

±ow

ow oud are produced with the tog ue body dep reed be low the ne u-

tral poit ion Open vowel, l ike the En glih [ A ] are ow and o are pharyngealcononant It hou ld be noted at thi point that the traditional mid vowel are bothohigh and noow No vowe ca be peciied a hig] ad Iow] at theame tim e, a it i i mpoibe or the tongu e body to be i mu ltaneouly raied anddepreed rom it eutra poition

±ack

Back ou nd are produced with the tongu e body retracted rom it neutrapoit ion Al other ound are nonback It hould be noted that the tradit ional cen-tral vowe, i ke the E g ih ] i phoog ica rue paer together with backvowel, o they count a [back Velar, uvular and pharyngeal cononant areao back, whi e abial , detal, palata ad gotta are oback

92



AT L

±velar sucio

Th s featu re s used to characterse c l cks as t refers to the retracton of thetongue body necessary for the gesture of velar sucton . As noted earer ng shuses a cl ck sound n paral ngu istical ly but soe lang uages ake distnc-tive use of cl icks

4 AER features refer to the way n wh ch the a rstrea s obsructed nth e artculation o f a consonant.

rud

Ths feature consideraby overaps wth the feature Iaba It s defned n

ters of a protruson o fth e ps Th us rounded sounds ke o u and w are a subset of labia sounds i e they are specifed as [+] for both Iabia and round.

±ese

Th s has been one of the ost controversa S P features Most of the te its defned wth reference to the reative degree of the deforaton of the speechtract and overall uscula r tension Soe phonolog sts also defne t wth referenceto the advanced tongu e root n any case th s feature is paicul arly iportant for hespecfcaton of vowels of ngl ish The socalled long vowels i e those whch aretranscrbed wth the use of the l ength ark as we as d phthongs are ense wh ethe sho vowels are ten se or lax It i s extreely i portant to note at ths po nt

that in ng lish vocal c length depends priarly upon the vocng of the followingconsonant. Vowels are cli pped before voiceless segents and thus the true n her-ent dference between the vowe of b id and that of beat s a qua tatve raher thana quanatve one: the vowe of bd s ax whereas that of beat s tense

±coi ua

Conti nu ant segents are produced wth a constriction in the oral cavity notnarrow enough to bock the ar fow Vowels gdes quds and frcatves arecontnu ant the status of ateras n thi s respect s h gh y controversa l and the reai nin g segent types are noncontinuant.

±asal

The defn ton of ths feature has been he sae n al app roaches Nasal tys always defned wth reference to the owerng of the veu As observed ear erng ls h akes distnctve use of three [nasa segents: n and .

±sride

rdent segents are defned articula

ily as those produced by a rea-tive y copex strcture Despte the fact that ths approach s based on a rtcu latorydefn itons it turns out that it is ore adequately defined acoustical y and it is thusofen observed that as a rsu lt f a ore cop lex stricture stridents a re aco usti-cay reatvely no ser han nonsridents Specfcaton for this feature s poant

93



OSIPOĆ PONETCS AN PONOLOG OR SENS O ENGL S

or rcatives and aricates At a ater pont t wl l be shown in connecton with the

ngl ish regu lar pu ral ru le how the speciication o the wordinal segment or thiseature determines the pronu ncation o the regl ar pl ura end ing Strident Engli shconsona nts are , v, s , Z , , t and d ·

±anerior

Anterior consonants are produced with a strcture in ront o thepalatoaveolar regon In S PE t was one o cavty eatures, handl ing varations i npace o articu lation Anterior segments are p rodu ced with a stricture in ront o thepalatoalveoar region Anterior segments nclu de Ia ba and d ental consonants

±ateral

n the production o these segments the mi d section o the tongue is low-ered on one or both sides I n Engl s h /l s the on ly segment speciied as [+Iateral

±deayed release

This eature reers to a grad ua l release o the strcture and [+de re seg-ments i ncl ude the traditio nal category o aricates

±disribued

Origina l y, in the SP E verson o the theory, ths eature bel onged to theplace eatures It is deined artculatorily wth reerence to the extent o stricture

along the di rection o the ai row It hand les variation in place o aicu lation in rica-tive sounds The distrbuted segments, i e, those with a relativey long strctureare bila bia l and palatoalveolar ones , as op posed to the non distributed denta andretrolex rcatives As Eng li sh do es not exploit such d istinctions a mong ricatives,this eature is d spensable n the description o the E ng ish consonants

Laryngeal eatures speci the various states o the g ottis n the productiono segments Th ree such eatures wi l be dentiied

±voiced s the most im portant laryngea eature or our purpose I n a ll ap -proaches voicng is deined n terms o the vibraton o the voca olds It appearsthat al l the known natural lan guages exploit the dierence between voiced an d

voceless segments or contrastive purposes±consriced gois dein es gottalisation I in the production o a given

segment the vocal ods severey obstruct the g ottis, which then prevents their vi-bration, the segment concerned is speciied as [+cg mplosives, ejectives,gotta ised and laryngealised consonants, as wel as segments produced with acreaky voice are [+cg I n ng ish such sounds do not normal ly occur, a part romthe gottal stop [, which is used alophonically

±spread gois reers to the articulatory gesture o p ush ing the vocaolds wide apart to inh ibit voicin g This is associated with voicelessness and asp

As wll be shown laer, he nam es of feaures are commonly abbrevaed n h s way

94



GENEATIE PNLGY

ration [+sg] segments include asprated stops, murmur and breathy voicesou nds , voice less vowes and voiceess g ides Al other segments are [sg]

To il u strate how this system works, we sha l now speci the RP pu re vowesystem n terms of these features We sha l emp loy five of the above featues theetongue body eatures, to hande the degrees of opening and the tadtionalfrontback d mension , as wel as two manner features, round and tense , to dea withthe round ing and enseness of te vowels , respectivey All tose feature specifca-tions which are undestood for vowes as a categoy wi l be om itted hee, as we arenterested in d istingu sh ing each vowe from any other vowel in the system Thus its imp ied that al l of tem are [consonantal] , [nasal , + contn uant] , or that they areunspeciabe o featues like [de re] and so on Now we shal proceed with thefeature specifcation , trying to 'translate the parameters of traditiona phonetics in togenerative phonolog ical terms Let us first di stinguish the subcategory of what weeal ie reered to as cose vowels om the res o the system

l n thi s series tere are fou vowes i / , / , u and / Wha they al l have incommo n is that they are [+hi g and [ow, a s the tongue i s raised from its naturaposition in their aticuation Natural y, once it is raised, it cann ot be loweed at thesame tim e, so the combin aton of feature specifications [+h ] and [+ Iow] is impos-sib le anyway So, what di stingu ishes eac of them from the others? ln traditi onaphonetic classiication , i and / ae classified as front In SPE terms, th is meansthey are [bck, as opposed to u and , whch are +bck] i is distn gu ishedfrom / by beng tense Lkewse, u/, as opposed to is tense The latter two

vowels are rou nded , wh ie the fomer two are not, though in terms of establ is hi ngthe identity o each of the m withi n the system th is is a redu ndant piece of informaton Even witout that, each of the four vowels s d ierent from the other threeThe close series then looks ike this

I Ihi

+

ow lowbk bk+tense tenseoun ound

u:

hi

ow+bck+tense+ound

Ihi

1

ow+bcktense+ound

lt is th us these comb inatons of feature specfcatons that give d entty to in divdua vowes ow we may proceed wth the mid series, wh ich i ncl udes e, ,/ , and What they have in commo n , as o pposed to the rest o the voca icsystem , is that for thei articul ation the tongu e s n either rased nor l owered , butstays i n the n eutral position Thus they are a l goi ng to be specifed as hi] an d[ow] A s obseved ea rier, cental vowes pattn together with ba ck vowes, sothe only [bck] vowel in this series is e, which i s then , by virtue o thi s, a eady distn gu ished from the rest of the mid vowels So far, , / /, and have ident-cal eature specfications The are a hi] , [ow ] and [+bck] and are

'i ' is e us ua abbeviaion fo ig weeas 'bck' sands fo 'back'.

9



SPĆ: PECS A PL SES ELS

tense, whereas and are lax : and are rounded w hi le the rest of the

vowels from the series are not The en tire series now looks l ike this :e a 3: D-hi -hi -hi -hi -h ; low low low ow low

k +bk +bk +bk +bktense tense +tense +tense tenseround ound ound +round +ound

Let us n ow turn to the open series, which comprises / and :/ Whatthese have in comm on is that they are [hi] and [+Iow] is di sting uished from theother two by being the ony [bck vowel in the series In cidentaly, we may then,

redun dantly, s peciy that it is [ tense] a nd [ round ] What now remain s to be spec-ified is the dierence between / and : / As they are both un rounded this d ier-ence consists in : bei ng tense, as opposed to /, whch is lax The open seriesis then specified as fol lows:

Ir I 1 A I l1-hi -hi-h ;

+ow +ow +owbk +bk +bktense tense +tenseound ound ound

Let us n ow merge all the above information into a compl ete p cture of theRP system of pu re vowe s:

l :1 I 1 l:1 l 1

[+h ;

+h ;+h i

+h ;l

ow low low owk bk +bk +bk+tense tense +tense tenseound ound +round +ound

1 e 1 1 a l 1 :1 1 : 1 ID 1

-h ; -hi -h ; 1 _h ; _h ;low low low ow owbk +bk +bk +bk +bktense tense +tense +tense tenseound ound ound +round +round

Ir I A I l:1

-hi -h ; -h ; +ow +ow owbk +bk +bktense tense +tense

ound ound ound



ENERATIE PNL

Let it be stressed once ag ain that tis was meant only as a n i l l ustraton of

how the system works and how segments are conceived of as bu nd les of di stinc-tive features which g ive them their phonoogical identity The same th ing may bedone for the consona ntal system The most important princ ipl e to keep in m ind isthat no two members of the system can have dentcal feature specfication It isprecise ly by virtue of how it difers from the others that a m emb er of the system re-ceives its identity As will be shown shorly the features it conssts of determinehow a given segment is going to 'behave' phonological ly i e which phonologicalrules t s going to be afected by

8.3. SPE Rules and Notational Conventions

We shal l now introduce th e formal S P notation for writing phonologicalrules whch represented the standard format n phonological work unti l late1970s ven though this format is no longer used it can provide useful insightsinto some n glish phonological phenom ena and at the same time into the natureof the generative approach Gen erative phono logy ofers sets of rules wh ich gen -erate all a nd o nl y correct possi bi l it es To keep thing s s mple we shal l start of withthe less formal variety of generative notation te one in whch segments are represented by ther correspond ing symbol s rather than the feature matrices. Let usstate in ths way one of the simp lest ngl ish phonolog ical ru les the one account-ng for the alternation between the clear an d 'd ark l

Th e formula reads a s fol l ows l becomes ' ' in front of either a consonantor a word boun dary It consists of to basic parts div ded by the slash On theleftand sid e is the srucural change on the r ght is the srucural descripion .The structural change tel ls us what actual ly happens ere (l turns into whereas the structural descrpton specifies the context where this happens

is the environm ental bar whch represents the location of the segmentaected in th s case l The cu rly brackets indi cate alternat ive contexts The formul a thus reads l becomes dark before either a consonant () or a word bound-ary # Altho ugh such alternative contexts rep resent an awkward way of makingphonological generalisations and in more recent approaches the structural descriptio here woul d be specified with reference to one of the syll able constituentsn this case is used for the pu rpose of the i n tial i ustration of the notational princi ples

ln ths way phonologcal rul es can also add an d delete segments Thus theistorical ru le accounti ng for the e letion of r in the nonrhotic vareties of ngl sh

appl ies n the same contex i e has the same structural description

97



JOSIPOĆ: P ONETICS AN PONOLO R STENTS OF NLIS

' r ' s a rul e of del eton because somethn g (he re 'r ') becomes zero. Ifwe n sert a segmen then the structural descrption says x' where 'x' canbe any segmen t In the cases at hand the structural d escripton specifes the con-text that foll ows the segment afected by the rul e but for some other rules it can bethe precedin g context o r both the precedin g and following context So for exam-ple for a rule applying between vowels the structural description would beVV Now that we have identified he basic parts of an SP ru le we can replace symbols with feature matrices The ru le shoul d not in cl ude any feature spec-ifications that are n ot necessary for its formu laton Thus if / is the only lateral in

the n gl ish p honemic system then the specificaton [+Iat] is enough to refer to itand it would be superfluou s to say that it is [+consonantal] [+voice] [ nasal] andso on Likewse aer the arrow we mention only the feature that is changed bythe ru le Thus with the structural description of the velarsation rule reformul atedusi ng feature matrces the velarsaton rul e looks li ke this

[ + lat ] � + bek / {�} Now that we have mastered the basic notational conventions let us try to

express the ng lish Regu lar Pl ural R ule which accounts for the three possible

pronun ciat ions of the plural endin g

cats books maps lfs sbeds bags keys plan s b el ls z

churches judges bushes bu ses !

Obviously the pronunciation of the end ing depends somehow upon the qual -ity of the final segment of the noun Of course one can a lways list al l the segmentsin each of the three categories triggering each of the three endings but then the ru lewould lack explanatory elegance and we would mss some important generalsa-tions The usual procedu re in expressing a ru le within th is framework stas with de-cidi ng on the u nderlying form from which the other forms will be derived So thequestion that arises now is whch of these three forms shou ld be taken as basic Theimp ulsive reacton of most people would be to say s because it is in the spell ing owever z occurs n the majority of cases so it makes more sense to take it as ba-sic and derive the s in the first group of cases from it ere there are obv ious ly tworules at play one that devoices z resulting n s and the epenthesis rule which in-ses ! between the stem of the nou n and t he z endi ng

33 Rues of inseion are aso referred to as epentesis.

9



EN RATI PN L

For some reason that wil be expla ned shortly, it is necessary to start fromthe more specific rule , in th is case epenthesis , an d then proceed with the moregen era rul e, i e devoicin g So, we first need to specify in which cases the [ is n-serted between the n oun and th e plu ral endi ng , which , as we have decided is z/

We now need to figure out what makes , , , , s and i to which theepenthesis rue appl ies , a natural category and make some gen eraisation about itn terms of features they share If we l ook back at the consona nta features dis-cussed earler, it turns out that they are al corona and strident Thus theepen thesis rue can be formul ated as ol ows:

lt shoud be noted that ' stands for the ocation of the epenthesised, between the stemfina coona striden t and the p ura en di ng

We proceed with the more genera rule, the one which accounts for thedevoicing of the p ura endi ng in words ike cats' It is a fair ly simpe rul e:

[ p [ ie

ie#

_

ow we h ave accoun ted for al l three groups of nou ns For those which takethe z end ing t here is no special ru e, as the z is already the basic form, which wesimpy attach to the stem Those nou ns end ing in a coronal stident tigger teepen thesis of / before the end in g z Those whch end in a voice less consonan ttrigger the rule of devoicing , whch turns the unde rlyng ending z into s/

ow a ew words are in order about r ue orderin g What oul d happ en i weordered the devoci ng rue before the epenthesis rue? t oud look as foll ows:

[z]p [voice

[voice# (result ing in foms such as: bu S t S 3 : t S )

+cor. ] (We have assumed that z, not s is2 � + # Z the ending )

Ru e woud give us outputs like /kt s Ipsi uks bu t also */ and */t S 3 : t S s if we allowed it to appy first Thus for the plurals bushes' and'chu rches' we woul d again need a rule to voce back the s resulting from the application of Rue Th is would be extremely awkward and not very pausib e Thetechn ical term used n phonology to describe this kind of situation is bleeding The

he way o n dcae a morphologcal endng s o employ square brackes and nd cae asfollows As noed earler ind icaes he word bou nday



JSI PIĆ PNETICS AN PNL R STUENTS ENLI S

devoicng rul e would bl eed te epentesis rule , . e , t would deprive it of part of ts

structural description , tat s, tose nouns end ing n voiceess coronal stridents, s, t Te opposte of bleeding is feeding Wen te output of one rule provideste in put of anoter, we say tat it feeds it. In t case of our Regul ar Pl ura Rule, weneed to prevent te devoicing rule from bleed ng te epentess rule

� I : ·l # z]

2 ] � ie]ie]#

To sum u p, we can formuate te Regul ar Pl ural R ue of ngl is as fol lowsA question naturally arses as to wat we get by tis kind of formulaton of

te rul e Te most pla usi ble answer seems to be tat it trows lg t upon te rea-sons wy eac of te regu la r plu ral forms in n gl is i s te way t is and u pon teunde rlying pattern bei nd te suace varety of pl ural pronu nciation s

8.4. Non-l inear Phonology

Many of te original SP notons, premises and terms ave been abandoned over the last few decades owever, paradoxicaly, te majority of te

worlds most influ ential scolars n ts fiel d st l l conside r temselves as generativsts in a rater broad sense of te term Wat bein g generativist nowadays actu-all y impl ies can be summed up as searci ng for a g ly formal ised mode l (a met-aporical representaton) of te mental processes tat account for te surfacepronu nciaton penom ena Wthi n te framework of suc model s, eac teory uti-mately provides a set of rules tat derive n divid ua patterns of pron un caton fromteir correspondin g deep , und erlying structures n erent in our in guistic competence Te em phasis s sti l l on te dynam ic, creative and un versal aspects of lan-gu age. Contemorary gen erative phonologists st l adere to te basc SP prem-se tat segments, o r what used to be call ed ponemes, do not deserve te status

o relevant analytical units They are treated as convenient notational cnven-tions, rather tan nd ivisibl e, atomic u nits of in gu istic analysis I nstead of po-nemes, a l gen eratve approaces are based on un its wch a re eter sma ll er orlarger tan segments

Wat distngu iss te postS P ap proaces from te orgi na l, 'casscal version of generative ponol ogy is tei r nonl inear or muliiered approacWereas SP pon oogy analysed the ponologica structure of lan guage into in ear sequences of feature matrices (ab breviated as segments) , postSP p onol -ogy represents ponological competence in terms of more compex, nonlinearstructures. Tese consist of severa autonomous levels of analyss, metapor-caly rep resented as separate tiers n space Tese leve ls of ana lysis are ofen

100



GENERATVE PHONOLOGY

compared to the pats of a musical score. Each o these ties has its own higlycopex iearchca oganisaon. As a est, sch epesentatons ed o be vsualy extremely complex and are oten felt by uninitiated students to be somewhat esoteric and o-putting Howeve, this is only a supercial eect In fact, theumae goa s qte e opposite: te copexy o epresenaion s eant o'buy the expanatory eegance of rules The dea s that i the representation o thestructure of anguage is adequate, then the ues wil naturaly oow fom it andisgfy eect naua ponoogca pocesses

For te purpose of the present survey o non-inear phonoogy, tee basicters o phonoogica analyss wil be singed out and discussed in tun te syl-labic tier te melodc tie ad e skeetal tier. We sa st biey det eacof these and ten for each o tem show using concrete Engish examples the insights they can oe about impotant ponunciation penomena

s geeay ageed i contempoay ponoogy at te syabe epesents one o the basic phonoogca units As opposed to SPE ponoogy, currentesearch no longe teats sylabicity as an ineent eatue of a segment in binayers, e, [+/ syabc] Raer, he syabe s singed ot o a sepaae and atonomous eve of anaysis At this point we may abstact away from the vaiouspossibilities o deinng the syable and focus on the act that i each anguagesounds combie o podce some typica seqences Ahoug tey do at n anguagespeciic ways, ere are some universal paerns whic are olowed inthese combinatons and some univesal constituents o the syable are recog

nsed cosslngsticay. Evey syabe st ave a nucleus (N), wc is tepeak of sonority Te nuces is the centra segment o te syable Te syabecan also have the opening segmen, caed the onset O and the cosing segmet, te coda (C) he nucleus and te coda (i tere is one) om te rhyme (R)o e syabe The stctue o te syabe is repesened in phonoogy by meansof a tree representation as shown n te folowing exampe

s p r I I

ln this partcular Engish sylabe, apart from te obigaory nuceus n thehyme, thee s aso an oset, wich branches nto three consonanta paces, aswe as a coda t sod be oed tat te oganisng picipe bend te syabe

s the degree of sonorty Segments ae grouped around the peak o sonoity, or

101



JOSIPOĆ POECS AD POOLOGY OR STDES O EGLIS

n cles, fol lowing a certain pattern. The sonority, or timatey, the in herent lod-

ness of in divid al segments within the syl lable increases from the onset nt thenuc es, where it cl min ates and than decrass again nti l the en d of the sy la-bl e The strcture o the sylab e wil be discussed in more detai l in a later chapteron prosodic domains What matters i the preset context is that individa lan-gages ha ve their own res a nd preferences concerning sy labe strctre and its precisely the satsfaction of these r les and preferences that acconts for manyim portant pron nciation patterns in l angage s To i l l strate the point, we can nowrefer back to the Eng lis h r e of vela risation , whi ch accon ts for the di stribt ionof the 'cear an d 'd ark et us now recal that SPE phonoogy defined the strc-tral descriptio of this rue with reference to a context expressed i aterative,'eitheror' terms, { } From the theoretical poin t of view, it mst be observed that

this is not a very elegant or insig htfl accou nt of the context. The problem is thatthe two entities referred to, the consonant and the word bondary, do not haveanything in common and do not form a natral category in any sense. The qestion that arises is why these pa rticl ar two are sed The rle does not natralyfoll ow from an ythi ng To ma ke things more awkward, it tr ns ot that the samestructura description keeps comig up over and over again in phoology It is pre-cisely the same context to which one has to refer to accont for the d ierence be-ween the rhotic and nonrhotic varieties of ngli sh or the di stribtion of the velarnasal // I nterestingly enog h , the need for the same aternatve context arisesfor the form lation of varios phonol ogica rles n other lang ages , sch as Por-

tuguese and French . So , it trns ot that this gen eralisation can be captred by re-erring to the syla ble rhyme as a relevant un it of phonoogica an alysis. Ths o rvelarisatio r e can be reform lated as fol ows

h

By analogy, the histor ical ru e of rdelet ion in nonrhotic Eng l ish , app l ied inthe same context is

h

Al l phonotactic rles, e rles stating possible and i mpossible combinationsof segments in angages, boil down to bringin g the combinations of segments intoaccordace with langagespecific res governing sylable strctre in terms ofthese constitents Ths every langage has its own res abot the permissiblestructure of ind ivida l syllab e constitents In Eng ish, for examp le, j st as in Croatian, al sylabe constituents can branch , whi e in Arabic there are no branching

onsets ad i Desano (spoken in Coombia ) one of the constitents are alowed to

102



NAI NL

branch Lkewse, regu lartes concern ng syllable structure can account for the fact

that n En gl sh [un s a possble word, but *[u] or *[uk] are not, or that nCroatan ml! s a possble onset, bu t m s not, a lthough t conssts of the same twoconsonants The rule s that n cases where two sonorants cooccur n the onset,and one of them s corona l , the coronal has to be closer to the nucleus

Eng l sh syl lable structure and phonologcal rules govern ng ths structurewl l be dscussed n more deta l n con necton wth prosodc doman s The pu rposeof th s bref accoun t s just to show how the organ saton of the syll abl e n terms ofts consttuents and the h erarchcal relaton s among them represents a major feldof nterest n postSP E phonology Many of the world's prom nent phonolog stshave devoted the r careers to the study of regu la rtes n syll abl e structure, bothun versal and la nguagespecfc

Next we turn to the melod c level of phonologcal analyss The term me-lodc s somewhat mslead ng It was orgn al ly ntroduced nto phonology n the970s, in the study of tone languages Tones were then solated on a separatelevel of ana lyss and man pu lated nd epend ently of the segments wth wh ch theywere assocated The theoretcal framework wth n whch ths approach emergeds known as utosegment phonol ogy owever, what matters n the presentcontext s the app roach to segmental d stnctve features that developed n ate980s from ths orgnal dea Ths approach s known as feture geometry I tdeal s wth dstn ctve features on a separate level , wh ch represents the he rarch -cal organ saton o distnctve features i n p honol ogy As l lu strated on the fol lowngpage, the nternal structure of any gven segment s represented by means o f atree dag ram As op posed to the earl er SP E ap proach, segments are now con-ceved of as mu ch more than b un dles of feature specfcatons What gves themther p honolog cal dentity s the nternal structure of these n gredent featuresTh e dea w l l sound less remote ifwe compare phonol ogcal an alyss wth the bak-n g of cakes av ng the l st of n gred ents that go n to a cake s not sucent forbak ng t So, for exampl e, f you know that a certan cake s made of flour, m lk ,sugar, eggs, chocolate and n uts, yo u st l l do n ot know th e recpe and cann ot makethe cake What gves d entty to the cake s more than the l st of ng redents Youalso need to know the proportons of the ngredents and the order and m ann er n

whch you fold n each of them Lkewse, what determnes the behavour ofsounds n phonologc al processes and thus g ves them ther phon ologcal denttyare the h erarchcal relatons that hold amon g the r ng redent features The task ofpho nol ogy s seen as the search for a model of feature organ saton from wh chphonologcal rules w l l fol low natural ly as smple operatons of spreadng orde l inkng nd v dual nodes n the tree dagram

F u re 30 represents onl y on e possble mod el of feature geometry It s asomewhat s mp lfed verson of the mode l oered by Kenstowcz ( 994) , who hm-self largely d raws on al le ( 992 At the top of the he rarchy there a re two ma-jorclass features, consonantal and sonorant They specy the type of obstructon

n the most gen eral sense , an d u nl ke other features, they are not assocated wth

103



S PĆ P TCS A P R ST ETS LS

any particula r articulator Al l lan guages have them; they play a major role i n d eter-

mi ni ng syl al e structure If they spread from ne segment o another, his n orma lly i mp ies total ass im i ation The two majorcass features thus represent theroot node of the tree which dom inates al the other nodes At the ottom of thetree there are termi na l di stinctive features, which for the most part correspond tothose features identified i n the previous chapter The ony i nn ovation is the feature'ATR' , which stands for 'advanced tongue root'. It rough y corresponds to the fea-ture 'tense of the earli er models and for our pu rpose it can e identified with itKenstowicz's model also in clu des the feature RTR (retracted tongu e root) whichhas een let out here, bei ng irrelevant for the ana ysis of Eng li sh Th ree of thesefeatures 'coni nu ant' , ' strident' and ' lateral ' are directly dependen t upon the rootnode, whereas the others are subordinated to nodes such as "GIotta' , 'TongueRoot' ' Soft Palate' Lai a' , 'Co rona' an d Dorsal These nodes refer to paticu ararticulators Th ese nodes i n their turn are suordinated to highe rranked nodes,'Pharyngeal ' , 'Laryngeal ' , 'Oral and Supraaryngeal , which represenmeafeares, groups of features that actual ly form natural categories in phonoogical processes The tree diagram in figure 30 represents a mode representingthe hierarchy hol din g between distinctive features and i ncl udes all possi bl e fea-tures of a segment It is i mportant to note that in feature geometry thi s hierarchy isconceived of as a threedimensi ona l structure For the representation of the i nter-nal structure of any g iven segment, we in dicate on ly those parts of the structurethat are relevant for its identiication Thus figu re 3 presents the structure of the

En gl ish segment , which is contrasted with the earlier SPEstyle identification ofthe segment as a un dl e of feature specifications sim ply piled up without ex-pressing the nature of the relation sh ips hold ing etween them

Within this theoretica framework all phonologica processes are seen assimpl e operations that spread some feature or g roup of features at any of the levels of the hi erarchy from one segment to another, or del in k one of the nodes

owever remote or frighteni ng the model might ook at first sight , it has theadvantage of oering a most eegant and insightful account of many p honologicalrules. A case in p oint is the phenomenon of assimi lation , which is the most com-mon phonol ogical process in the worlds ang uages In terms of this approach , assimi lation consists in spreading the node or nodes concerned from one segmen tto another The extent of assimi l ation wil l depend upon the hi erarchical status ofthe node which is spread Thus, or exampe, the spreading of the Soft Palatenode wil l resut in nasal assim i lation, whi le the spreading of the root node wil l i mplytotal assimi l ation because y spread ing th e root node al l the nod es suordin atedto it spread along with it Spreadin g is isually represented y drawing an associa-tion li ne etween relevant places in the h ierarchy to lin k to adjacent segments Byana logy, as shown in figu re 32, de in king is ind icated by crossin g the association ine concerned y the '= s ign

Let us now explai n how this k ind of approach can th row ligh t on the processof gottalisation in English In RP p, t, can e reaised y the gottal stop in the

104



E ERATE POOLO

sy abe rhyme, as in 'fortnight [ f : What the p revious approaches fai l ed

to accou nt for was the l in k between p, t, and the g ottal stop A student who ap-proaces te subject matter seriousl y may wonde r why tese consonants a re pro-nou nced as [ , and not as , or [ for examp e Figu re 32 gives an eegantaccount of the p rocess i n terms of feature geometry It should be n oted that on lythose n odes an d features that are relevant for the process are in di cated in te treerepresentation What the p rocess consists of is a sim pl e dei nki ng of the ora nodewth te place nod e and correspondi ng place features tat depend upon it The resu lt of the process is a feature configuration correspondi ng to that characteristic of[

Of course, for practical pu rposes, suc a s lang uage earnin g an d teacin g,it makes m uch more sense to account for gotta isaton n t he od , tradit ional way,by saying that p , t an d k may turn i nto before a consonan t or at the end o a wordn a stressed syl labl e, but a special ist n the En glish angu age shoul d not remai ncontent with th is k ind o f statement, without insig ht into the nature of the phenomenon The i nsi ght that foll ows from this mode is that by its nature gottalisation canbe seen as a command to a g roup of articu lators (those in te oral cavity) to suspend t heir activity at a paicu lar momen t, in paticuar circumstances Metaphorically paraphrased, this is l ike saying to your speech organs situated in themouth 'tand sti for a moment because at this point your activity would bewasteful of aiculato energy' What remai ns aer the carying out o the com-mand is te realization of the articu atory gesture un der te Pharyngea node, te

constriction of the g ottis Represented in tis way, with the pace features unde rthe O ral node uns pecified, t he ru le may appy to any of the three stops aected byte process

n short, the ntroduction of hierarchical relationshps among 'ngredientfeatures of segments within the ramework o feature geomety makes phon oog i-cal representaton more compex and thus understandable ony to special istsowever, what is gai ned by it is the extreme si mp ification of pon oog ical ru lesthat operate on these hie rarchies, wh ich provides valuab e insig hts i nto the n atureof phon olog ical processes and makes tis app roach theoretical y superior to ear ier ap proaches

To sum up, current phonol ogica l mode ls operate with a mu ltitude of levelsof analysis , of whch we ave ide ntified only the three most important These areconnected by a framework of association li nes , and at the centre of this metaphor-ica conception of how phon ology works, there is a skeleton , representing a seriesof t mn un its .

3 5 t so uld not be fogotte tat eac segment epesented as suc a compex stuctue o nanoe level makes part o fsome sylla ble, whch n ts urn g roups ogether wh adjacen syllables n to

un its on a yet iger evel an d all t s soul d be conceived of tee-dimens ona ly

1 0



�

č w ! ca - . c co : c- -

± c o n t

J

± s o n . �

L a r .

G I o t a l

R

/

S u p r a l a r .

\

O r a l

\

S

o f

P

a b .

C o r .

D o r s a

l .

\ �

[ ± c o n t ] [ ± s t r i d ] [ I a t ] ± v o i c e ] [ ± s g [ c g ] [ ±

A T ]

n a s ] ± r n d ] [ a n t ] ±

d i s t r . ± h i ]

± I o w ] [

b c k ]

o �"o< 0 - " Iozm- O u » z " I OZO r OG " O ; u e z u O " m zG r e I



t

+ con so cont+ ant.+ cor vo ce

cot . ]

RA P

t

[

;sJ Phar. O ra l .

ottal Coonal

[ vo ice ] [ + ant ]

Figure 3 I SP E epesentation vs featue geomety

cot . ]Figure 32 RP gottasation

[

s

ar. o ra l . / I � ottal aa Coronal Doral

+ c Afe the suvey of he syla bic and meo dic ties, we need o idenify yet an-

othe level of anaysis n nonl inea phonology, viz e skeetal t e I s also e-feed to as the timi ng tie, Xtie o CV ie J us l ike te me od ic tie, i was ino-duced nto phonoogcal anayss wthn the famewok of autosegmentalphonology Its intoduction esuled fom the need to sepaae segments fom

hei places in the linea sequence and o manipuate tese places on an inde-pendent leve l Such entities ae metaphoical ly conceived of as sots ha functonas ancho poin ts fo segments These sots ae id cated by the l ettes X' Theskeleta te then consss of a l nea sequence o X slots whch may cay nfomaton about whethe the segmen associated wih it is a vowe (V) o a consonan(C)Tis seq uen ce of places eflects te fact that speec is eal ized i n tm e, andte ode of he X slos i n he sequ ence eflects te sequ ence of the tim ig of seg-ments The need fo the skeetal t e emeged i the a nalysis o Semitic a guagessuch as Aabi c, which have what is known as the ootandpattn mophoogy

36 n ese anguages dieren grammac caegores of words are formed by mappingconsonana roos ono skeea emp aes wc defne e basc s apes for in dividua l g rammaica

107



JOSPOĆ POTCS AD POOLO O STDTS O LS

owever, we sh al l now focus on the use of ths t er n the ana lyss of Engl sh pronu nciation phenome na We shall i l ustrate it wth the exampl e of the analyss ofwhat s probably the most characterstc feature of Englsh pronuncaton, the redu cton of vowels i n u nstressed syllables By way of l u straton, et us representthe word elepha nt' by assocating each of the segments with ts correspondin g Xslot on the ske leton There are two acceptab le versons of prono unc ng th s word,the stronger, lIfant and the weaker, more reduced , I la fant

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

v v v v v v v v I f a n t l a f a n t

Figure 33 The skeletal ter

For reasons of notational conven en ce, the phonemes are represented byther phonetc symbols, but t should be magned that nstead of each symbothere s the correspond ng threedime nsiona l featuregeometry structure, l ke theone n F gu re 30 At this pont we need answers to the fol owing q uestons

What s th e nature of the process of weakening ?2 Why are there two possib l it es ofweaken ng , the one with and the one

with / in the postaccentual sy lable?

3 Why s / the onl y vowel wh ch can functon as the alternatve to nweak sylables?

Under this app roach , weakeni ng is accoun ted for as a mismatch betweenthe me lodic t er and the skeletal t er It takes place when, w th the ult mate motvaton of saving a rtcu latory energy, the segmenta materal on the me lod c ter s deleted There s n d sputab e historica evidence , also reflected n the spel l i ng , thatthe underlying vowel of the second syla ble s n fact e, whch s del eted What rema ns as a result of ths deleton s ts anchor point, the correspond ng Xsot onthe skeleton I n the less radcal verson of weaken ng , this slot remain s led nwth the nformatn that the place s reserved for a vowel

X

As observed by Szpyra ( 995) , what an guage does in this kn d of stuations to fl l ths empty vocalc place on the skeleton by the most unmarked vowel,

caegores. T hus he oo of he veb wre' s ' kb an d on e ype o f he passve s fomed by ma ppn gs oot on the tempate C CC. Tis gves te passive fom kutb'

V 1

u i



ENERATIE PHNL

wic in ngli s s //Te esu lt ng fom s ten lIfanti If te p ocess goes

one step fute, n add t ion to te segmental mateial on te melodi c level, te infomation a bout te vocali c natue of the segmen t is del eted as wel , and t he onl ytace of te u ndeying segment is its X slot on the timi ng tie n othe wods, theony i nfomation that we ave abou t what folows i n the sequ ence is tat it is somesegment Wat lan guages natual y do in tis situation is to f l l the pace wit themost un maked segment in te wolds lan guages, wc is te sound [a] isgives te moe educed vesion , elfn/ U nde ts appoac te sound [a] snot seen as a ponem e of En glis , but ate as te most un maked sound , function in g as a knd of gapf l l e wc , be ng p ue ponation witout any aticul atoygestues in te oa cavity, equ ies te least amo unt of aticu latoy enegy I ndependent evide nce i n favou of this i ntepetation is oun d i n the fact tat in a lan

guages this sound type functions as a gapfi le i n the situation of hesitation l n t e igt o t is account we can now answe te in it ia l tee questions:

1 By natue weakening s te loss of nfomation on some tie(s) of ponological ogansation

. Te two extents of weaken in g esu lt fom te two possib le extents of deleton : te less ad ca one afectng te melodi c level ony, and te moe adi calone afecting te infomation abou t te vocalic n atue of te segment on te skel-eton

3 / as a specia status in th e ng is vocalic system in th e sense that it isth e most un maked vocai c poneme an d i s thus the most suited to fi l te V gapon th e skeleta t ie esult ing fom te d eletion of th e un delying vowel

A m ismatc between te melodic and X tie can al so account fo vaiouspocesses of nsetion, o epentess By way of i ustaton, efeence can bemade to te case wen some speakes of ng is ponoun ce te wod ' lovely as[ val An exta X slot on te skeleton esuting fom ytm ca pocesseswhic need not concen us at this point , tends to be fi led up As expla ined above,the most natua cand idate o tat place is the most unmaked segment [a

85. Lexical Pho nology

To ound o tis capte on gen eative ponology, mention must be madeof yet anote majo postSP teoy of ponoogy wi c was deveoped in teealy 1 980s It s efeed to as Iexical ponology an d associated pimaily witte name of Pau Kipasky Lexical ponology deals wit te inteface betweenponology and mophology in a way wich is close to classical geneative po-noogy than the non inea mode s t assumes that ponoogy exists in two sepaate components in te g amma Te fist one is the lexicon wic in copoateste semantic, phon ologica and mopological i nfomation on te angu ages ba-

sc meaningful units (mopemes) Te ote one is te poslexical component,

1



JOSIPOIĆ PONTICS AN PONOLOGY O SNS O NG LIS

inclu ding the phonol ogical rules that apply aer the words have been inserted i ntoa sentence Accordingly, two types of phonological rules are distinguished lexical rules and poslexical rules

Two English phonologica rules wi l be discussed from each cateory:Trisyl labic Laxing (TSL) and Postnasal Deetion as examp les of lexical rules andAspiation a nd Flap ping as exampes of postexica rules

The na me of Trisyl abic Laxing is somewhat misleading in that it might sug-gest that the rul e a ppl ies to tr isyl lab ic words, which in fact, it does not necessari lydo What it does is to lax, i e , make [tense] the vowel of the socal led antepen ulti-mate sylabl e of words derived with suixes li ke ' ity' Let us recal that the Latinateterm antepen u ltimate refers to the thi d sylla ble from the end of the word, where

the ax vowel resulting from TSL occurs The opeation of the rule can be i l lus-trated with the fol lowing examples:

div ine I vIn - divinity I VInIt Ibenign bI ' nIn benignity bI ' nIgnItIvain vIni - vanity ' v<nItI seene I r : n - seenity I rnItI

Typical y of exical ules, TSL refers to morphological label s In particuar, it

app lies to the categoy of adjectives which come fom Latin It has exceptions , l i keni ceni cety obeseobesity, as op posed to postexica ru les, wh ich are always with-out exception

As opposed to TSL the other lexical u e discussed in th is context Post-Nasa De letion , is exception less. t deetes the consonant aer wodfinaly,referring to the status of the word before the end ings are added Thus it appl ies i nth e stem a nd th e i nflected form, bu t not in t he derived form

damn, damned, damning v

bomb, bombed, bombing v

damnation < ' n I S enibombard bo b :

To il lu strate the natu re of postlexical ru les , we shall refer to Aspiration andFlap ping , rules which have aleady been efeed to and which we s hal l eturn toagain in the next chapter: Let us ju st recall that the former rul e aspi rates voicelessplosives in words li ke pea , tea or key, whi le the atter u e, esticted to some vari-eties of Eng lis h, results in ponu nciations ike atom [ <e] and at issue[e ' I S ] ypical ly of postlexical rue s, they can not refe to mophoogical a-bels and cann ot have exceptions They may appy across word bo und aries Thesegments that esu t fom the opeation of these u es do not exist in un derlyin grepresentations, or to put it in tradit ional tems, they are n ot phonemes , but a lo

phones In exical phonoogy this featue is efeed to in con nection with the no

1 1 0



EERATIE PL

tion of structure preservation It is sad that postlexica rules are not srucurepreseing

as opposed to lexica rues which are In the lexicalphonologymodel , postlexical rules fol low al exical rul es

Exrc

1 Expla in the notion s of competence and performance

In what terms does the SPE theory define d istinctive features?. What is the mai n theoretical advantage of the SPE feature system over the ear

l ier ones?4 What are the M ajor C lass features?

. Take one articuator feature o your own choice and comment upon its relevance to Engli s

Why is the comb nation of features [+hi] and [+I ow] mpossib le?7 . What is the true phonologica dierence between i and /?8. f an d v are the on ly stridents whi ch do not trigger the /z pl ura e nd ing Why is

that?9 Can you recognise the following connectedspeech rule? Express it n plain

Eng l ish

r V# #V

10 Express the following rule using a generative formua 'Obstruents (=nonsonorants) are devoiced wordfina ly

1 1 . On what grounds can we cla im that s a more su itable u nderyin g form forthe regul ar pu ra endi ng than s is?

1 Why does the devoicing rule of the Regular Plural have to precede theepenthesis rule?

1 . What is meant by 'models' n phonol ogy? 4 What is the mai n d ierence between S PE and postSPE p honol ogy?1 Name a phono ogical rul e of Engl ish which refers to the sylab e rhyme i n ts

structural descrption 1 What is feature geometry?17 ow woul d a process such as nasa l assim ilat ion be represented in eature ge

ometry?18 . What is the nature of gottalisation19 . ow is weaken n g accou nted for wit h reference to the skeletal tier?0 . ow do you account for the a ternative occurren ce of ! and i n weak syla-

bes? 1 Expla in and i l lu strate the dierence between lexical and postIexical ru les

1 1 1



CPTR 9

PROSODC PONOLOGY

9 Prosodi Features and Domains

The phonologica features we have efeed to so fa, such a s 'consonantal or

voced', pean to nd ividual segments So, for example , in tis sense we specified asegment such as as [+consonantal] and [voice] and te l ike I n add ition to sucfeatures, tere is an impoant category of features peaining to stretches of language or speec larger tan what our mind analyses as i ndividual segments Suchphonetic or ponoloical variables whc can be described on ly wth refeence to adomain larger tan a single segment are known as suprasegmental or prosodifeatues These incl ude a l those features which at an earie point were mentioned , inconnection wit connected speec, as contributing to prominence Tey cover anyphenomena to do wit accent, stress, hythm and i ntonation The reevant domainsfor te realizaton of such features to be d iscussed ere i nclude te syllable , the

foot () the phonoogica wod (w) the phonological prase the intonationalprase ( and the utterance ( We sa ll now look briefy at each of them in turn ,paying specia attention to the sylab le , which fo ou pupose pays the most important role i n te explanaton of te most basic ngl ish pronunciaton phenomena

92 The yl lable

Th e syl lable is an abstract l i gu istc category, one o f tose that are knownas pimitives' of univesal grammar, whic cannot be easiy or uncontovesialydefned in pysical terms evertel ess, ts psycholog cal real ty is und isputed inview of t e existence of sy labic ap habets, th e abi ity of speakers of al l lang uages

to syll abify words , te exstence of syll able based l ang uage games played all overthe world It is a universa inguistic fact that segments in al anguages grouparound a sin gle p eak of sonority , thus forming what we cal l a syl lable in phonology The funda menta oe of the sylabe as an analytica un it of phonoogy wasstressed al ready in te previous cha pter to expla n the necessty of its separationon an in dependen t level of analysis witin the framework of mu t it ieed phono-ogy owever, sn ce t is so im portant, the syllable now deserves some more at-tention as a separate topic It s argued tat a seg mental rule s of pho nology are

7 Tee ave been vaios attempts to define te sy ab e pon etical y: in tems of espiatymovement, opening and closing of te oca tac a peak of intinsic pominence and te keoweve, n on e of these ave povd adequate.

1 1



JSIPIĆ: PETCS A PL R STETS EL IS

ult mately motvated by cons deratons of syla be structure. Thu s apart from the

rules already dscussed accountng for the derence between the rhotc andnonrhotc varetes of Engl sh an d the dstrbuton between the clea r and d ark l nu merous other phono log cal rules are motvated by meetng the requ rements ofdes rab le sylab e structure. It s a un versal fact that l qu d s and i occur n theworlds lang uages tme and tme aga n n syla bl esenstve processes. Even a rulesuch as Regular P ural evocng s nterpreted as meetng a u nversalgrammarphonotactc constrant on syllabfcaton whch requres tautosyllabc obstruentclusters to agree n vocn g Besdes be ng cruca for the explanaton of the natureof segmental ru es the sylable turns out to be an un avodab e entty n phono log ca a nalyss aso because the rest of the prosodc structure of any g ven language(.e the structure of unts larger than the sylabe) also takes sylabestructure

nto account as wl l be clearer n connecton wth l arger prosodc domansNow an account of some unversa an d lang uagespecfc facts about syl a

ble structure wl l be oered wh ch wl be somewhat more detaled than the cursory one oered n the prevous chapter As already observed every syll abl e nevery anguage mu st have a nuc eus whch s the peak of sonorty, around whchall the other syll ab leconsttuents are centred . In ng s h there are two m portanregulartes about the structure of the nucleus rst the nucleus may branchmeanng t can be assocated wth two X postons What counts as a branchngnuceus s ether a tense vowel (whch s metrcal y lon g) or a d phthong Th us thenuceus of w branches nto two vocalc p laces un l ke that of n whch does not

O R

N

"V V V

" r 34: two

cR

N

V

r 35: n

n Eng l sh th e pace of the n ucleus may e occuped by sonorant consonants m i and l/ as n words bottom button' and l ttle respectvely wherethe syl ab cty of the consonant s commonly n d cated n transcrpton by the correspon dn g syllab cty mark wrtten under the basc symbo bot/ bAtni 1 It l .Croatan speakers are fam ar wth the noton of syll ab c consoants n onnectnwth the sy lab c i of words l ke r. Th s s what the tree dagram for the E ng l shdsyl a bc word would o ok ke1 1 4



w

c

C

R

vI

Figure 36 the syabic structure of 'ltte '

c

Ct

R

C

PRSI C PNG

Apart from the obligatory nucleus, the English rhyme may have a codaconsisting of one or more consonants A s for any other syl abl e constituent, anguages have thei r own specific rue s about permissble cod a structure So, wh l ein awaiian no syl able can have a coda, En glish is very l i bera n this respect andthe sylabe can end in up to five consonants, as in sixths sIkstsj owever,Engish aso has ts restrctions about the structure of the rhyme, including thestructure of its constituen t coda Thus the Engi sh core sylabe conssts of three X post ons in the rhyme, as i n the fol owing cases, 'list', 'keep' , 'mouth'

/

O R

e

e

e e

/

O R

e

/\ Ie

"

e

/

O R

e

/ \ I e

"

e

Figure 3 The 'core' syl labl e of En gish 3 -positions in the rhyme

Any consonants with n the syl labl e exceedn g this X limit are referred toas appendix whch some phonologists treat as a sort of 'attachment to therhyme, while some others see it as part of the coda In any case, the appendixmust consist of corona consona nts Thus 'keeps s a perfectl possib le ord of

38 o llusrae he varably among languages n hs respec, is neresng o refer o hedaa provided by Gussenhoven an Ja kos (1 998) ccording o which a angu age such as Tha as

1 4 mes as many possible syl labes as awai ian.

1 1



JOSIPOVIĆ: PONTICS AN PONOLOG OR ST NTS O N GLIS

ngs, wle a word ike *[k : pk] would never be fet as suc At tis pont we

ay express te previously dscussed dstributon of te ngis ponees and is ters of sylla ble structure Fro ts pont of view tings are qute si-ple never occurs in t e syl labe rye, w i le occurs i n te rye onl y Morespecifical ly, it occurs not in any k nd of rye, but aer lax (i e , sin gleX) vowels,as n 'sing , w ic explan s wy a word l ike *[k : ] would not be felt as ngli sTe fol owing tree dagras represent ti s pon otactic restriction

O O

N

s I

Figure 3 ngis ponotactc restricton concerning

t is now probably sefevident that te ru e account ng for te d stribu tion ofr n te non rotic varetes of ngl ish actualy excludes te occurrence of r inte sylab le rye of tose varetes Li kewse, the rule accounting for te distribu-tion of te clear' an 'dark I is also sensit ive to syl abl e structure owever, in ti sconn ection it ust be ent oned tat soe argu e tat t is preferabe to start frote assu ption tat te clear variety occurs n te onset and te da rk one else-were, n vew of cases lke 'yelow, were the / s nterpreted as abisylabc(belong ng to bot syl lab les) an d te op posite forul ation of te ru e woud faselypredict in suc cases:

/W� c c/ /

O R N C

C v C C j e

Figure 3 Te abisyl abic cear I' of yel ow'

1 1 6

RN V V

U



PROSODIC PONOO

As for the syll abl e onset, it is highly disputable whether there are rules of

segmenta ph ono logy sensitive to its structure in the way in which this has beenshown for the rhyme, so this remai ns on e of the hottest issues a mong contemporary phono logists specia is ing in syllable structure In any case, ju st l i ke the otherconstituents, the onset is subject to phonotactic restrictions, both universal andangu agespecific As is obvious from a l the a bove cases, t he E ng i sh syl la ble canhave an onset owever, it aso tolerates onsetless syllabes, as in aunt', whichsome other lan guages do not

N e

v e

r 4: onsetess Engish syl abe

Un ike in some other languages, such as Arabic, Engl ish onsets maybranc, that is , i ncude more than one consonant, as in 'spring '

1 tC\

e e e v e

r 4 : sylabe with a branchin g onset

39 Cases n pon are Arabc and erman , whch provde he onse for onseless syllables bynserng he glal sop or some a lma an d alec of Croaan whc h for he same pu rpose nse r hesocalled pothec j n wods ke oko o usa, ponouncng hem as joko and jusa

1 1 7



JOSIPOIĆ: PONETICS AND PONOLO OR STUDENTS O ENLI S

The seg mental structure of both the onset and the rhyme apart from folow

ng the languagespecfc restrictons also has to meet an mportant universalprinciple governing sy labestructure n languages This is the Sonority Sequecig Geea izatio (SSG) According to this principle the onset and thenu cleus constitute an upward slope in sonority that is n b ranch ng onsets as nthe above case of sprin g the d egree of in herent sonority of the onset consonantsrises then sono rty cu lm nates in the nu ceus wh ch s by defint on the peak of sonorty and then it decreases towards the end of the syla ble

Another impoant unversa principle in connection wth sylable structure isthe Maximal Oset Pricipe (MOP) . It states that n the syllab ifcation of words thecrteron for assgn ng a consonant at a syllable boundary to the sylabe it beongs tois whether it can form a possibe onset in that anguage When it can t is assgned tothe onset of the foll owing syll ab le rather than the coda of the preced ng syllable Sofor example the s of 'insp re' must belong to the onset of the second syllable as sps a possibe onset in Engl sh which is obvious from words li ke 'spin The word woudthus be syllabfied as !n ' spIi rather than * !Ins ' pIi. In th s context t is in structve to quote Wel s s famous examp le of n terference of the sylab le structure ofthe natve language of some speakers of English n South Afrca These speakerswould syll abi 'Zimbabwe as 'Zmbabwe rather than 'Zmbabwe whch othespeakers of ngl ish would normaly do folowing the MOP Ths is so because nngish mb and bw are not possb e onsets wh le i n the native lang uage of thosespeakers they are so following the MOP they maxmise it

Apart from being sensitve to syllable structure n terms of the segmentalcompost ion of n divd ua consttuents of the slabl e phonol ogica rules can besens tive to syll abl e structure n two other senses In th is connection we are go ngto i ntroduce two mportant crtera for the class fcation of sylab les i n phon oogyThe first is the di vsion of sylables into ope and cosed Open sylables end i n avowe so they are codaless whi le cosed syllables have a coda. To l lu strate thed stncton let us refer to the pair of ngi sh words 'sea and 'dog where the former consists of an open sylabe wh ie the latter represents a cosed sylab le :

O R

e

s i

re 42: open v closed syl lable

1 1

O R e

e e



SC L

Accordin g to the other criterion , syl labl es are classified as either heavy orl ight

eavy syllables ae those which have some branching at whatever pointwithin the rhyme Thus closed syl l ables ae automatical l y heavy, because the ex-istence of the coda mp li es that the rhyme branches i nto the nucleus and the codaowever, not al l eavy syl l ables need to ave a coda as th e branch ing with n thenucleus also counts as branching within the rhyme Thus syl lables l ike bit ' and'bee' are both heavy, because in both of them thee is some braching i therhyme:

O

e

e

b

Fre 43: heavy syl labl es branching in the hyme

Un l ike heavy syla bles, a l ight syllab le does not occur as a sepaate word inEngl ish, because the m ini mal ponologica word i n E ng i sh has two X- posit ions inthe rhyme L ight syl labl es thus occur in Eng l is h oly within polysyl labic words, asi the in it ia l syl lable of the wod ben

Fre 44: the l ight syl lab le of bI

w

/ c

O R

N

C v C I

Te distinctions between open an d closed syl lables on the one hand and

heavy and l igh t syll abl es o the other ar partcul arly im portant fo stress rule s,

1 1 9



JOSIPOIĆ PHONTIC AN PHONOLO O STNTS O NLSH

wc w l be deat wit sorty. At tis point it s sucent to note tat stress is gen -

eraly attracted to heavy syllab les , as i n te above examp le of 'be in , were it isthe heavy, rater tan the l ig ht sya ble that is stressed n t s context it sou d also be n oted tat te weak forms of gramm atica

words do not cou nt as independent phonolog ical words , whic wi l be furter ex-plain ed und er the fo owing topic of prosodic domains larger than te sy lab e

Withn some heavy sylables, we can dentify yet anoter ana ytical entity,wich is n ot ind ispensable for the phonolog ical ana ysis of ng ish , but turns out tobe so for languages like Croatian or Japanese. The constituent under consideration is the mora

The mora is a mi ni ma l un it of metrical time , and i n contemporary models of

nonlnear phonoogy it is singed out on a separate level of phonoogical representation A defnit ion woud be tat, metrca y ( i e , p onoogical ly) a long syl ab ehas two moras. Tis means tha t bimoraic syllab les are automatically heavy Asexpla ined several times earier , in Eng li sh , vocalic lengt is not an inherent phono -og cal property of vowes , thou g tense vowels are ana ysed as branc n g n uceiand count as metrica ly ong owever, n contem porary ana yses of the Croatanprosodic system, particularly in accounting for the four traditional 'accents' ofStandard Croatan , the mora turns out to be crucia as a syab e constituent. Tuste syl ab es with te socaled ' on g' accents, ong r isin g' and ong fa l n g , as theinit ia l syl labes in rka and mre, respectively, are analysed as associated withb moraic sylabes Te morac structure of these words is analysed as follows:

k

Fiure 45 The moraic structure of the Croatian ' l ong ' accents

4 Alhough s dspuable wheher he analyss of segmens no moras should be appled oe sy ab e onse o, ahe , o he hyme on y , fo e presen purpose , we can absrac away fom hisheorecal isse an d assme , i n a somewha simplfed fashon , a he enire syable, inc din g heonse, may be anaysed whou res no moras. Long Croaan vowels hen occupy wo places on

he C er.

120



PSC P

Accordn gly te 'sort' accents, te sort rsi ng and te sort fal l i ng ' as in

and are associated with monomoraic syl bes

gr 46: The morac structure of the C roatian 'sho ' accents

The m ai n reason why the introduction of te morac level of ana lysis provesinsg tful n accou nting for te natu re of the Croatian p rosodc system is tat ncombin ation wt te autosegmental ap proach, whch deals wit tones on a separate level of analys s te fou r tradtio nal 'accents of Standard roatan a re ana-ysed smp ly by means of an H tone assocated with one of te moras Ts approach to Croatian prosody was first introduced in the groundbreaking work byI n kelas and Zec ( 1988) and seems to have remai ned u nca lenged to the presentday Accordi ng to this approach the fou r tradito nal 'accents' of Stand ard Croatanare no longer seen as i nherent properties of the vowels tey are associated wit,but, rather, configu rations expressed by unversa prosodic parameters, a pp lica-

ble to other ptchaccent lang uages as well Under tis approach, te g ist of te Stand ard Croatian fouraccent system

s the folowing Te long accents are bmorac, as opposed to the short oneswic are monom orac Te rsi ng accents are in terpreted as leftward spreadn gof the tone to the preceding syabe , whereas fal l ing accents are nonspreadThe n aure of ris ng accents as sprad tones accounts for te fact tat ris ng accents cann ot occur on m onosylabic words here is also ind ependen t historcaevdence tat words l ke 'ruka' used to be stressed on the ast syllab le (rk) butas a resut of the h stora p rocess of NeoŠtokavan Accent Sh i, which presum ably started in the fifteen century, today te accent s on t he frst syl ab le Te four

confgu rations ca n be represented as fol lows:

1 2 1



JOSIPOIĆ P ONETICS AN PONOOG FO STENTS OF E NGIS

Long r is ing ( .g

kosa):

Short r ising: ( .g. ksa)

Lon fal l i ng ps):

w/

� �

Short fal i n ps)

w

�

Figure 4 The our Croatan accents the morabased approach

The remain ing mras i e those which are not und erlyingly characterisedby the tone, by deau lt receive a L tone on the surface by a special type of rul ewhi ch operates in a later stage and need not concern u s at the present poin t Un-der ths app roach the accent is assigned on the basis o tone Thus the CratianStress Ru le is formu lated eegantly as ol ows

he syllable wth the lemost mora s peceved by the stener asstressed (c In kelas ad Zec 1 988 244)

ln the words with ris ng accents he re, where the tone is spread lewards,what counts as the leftmost mora i s the second mora o the sylab le ko' i n kwhich makes the syl lable ko sound accented In k the lemost mora is

agan withi n the frst m onomoraic syll ab le , which on ce again ts the defin ition of

122



PSI C PL

the accented syllab le In all in g accents the leftmost mora can be the first mora

of a bimoraic syll abl e, which results in a long fal l i ng configu ration , or the only moraof a mono moraic syll ab le , which is the case with the short fal l i ng pattern It sho ul dbe noted at this point that the r isin g configu rations dier from the fal l in g ones in thetonal specification of the postaccentual syllable In rising accents this syllable issti l l high a nd as a rul e the rising tonal movement reaches its phon etic peak withinit By contrast, the postaccentual syl la ble of the fal l in g configurations, as i n

is low

The advantages of the morabased approach to Croatian prosodic phenomena are man ifold It oers the formul ation of the Croatian Stress Rul e in a waywhich is more el egant and thus theoretical ly superior to any previous ap proaches.

Besides, it provides i mportant insi ghts into the operation of many lexica l rule s ofCroatian which , however, are not our direct concern here and wil l soon be i l lus-trated on the exampl e of hypocoristic formation Most importantly, by deali ng withprosodic phen omena in terms of such un iversal an alytical entities as discrete toneun its, it provides a 'common den omin ator' for the an alysis and comparison of suchtypological ly d iverse prosodic systems as those of En glis h and Croatian

An im portant point that needs to be made i n connection with the role of themora is that in Croatian it is i mportant only as a tonebearing u nit It shoul d benoted that Croatian is neverthel ess not a mora lang uage i n the sense in which theterm is usu all y employed in phono logy It is commo nly used to refer to the type of

rhythm in which moras are produced at approximately regular intervals, for instance in Ja panese.

Now that all syllable constituents relevant for both English and Croatianhave been introduced , it is i nstructive to show how the formation of hypocoristics(pet names ) is a prosodic operation defined by syllables Let us first define one ofthe English hypocoristic formation rules, which accounts for the most commontype of Eng lish hypocoristics, as in the fol lowing i l lu strative examp les

Victoria � Vickie

Virgin ia � Ginn ieRebecca � Beck ie

Frederick � Freddie

The p rincip l e is fair ly s imple either the in it ia l or the accented syl lable (whichare the most prominent) is copied onto the characteristic hypocoristic templateand is combi ned with the dim in utive end ing i Thus forms l ike *ictie or *Ariewould not make l i kely Engl ish n icknames Certainly , it is not sggested that thisrule covers all cases of hypocoristic formation i n Eng li sh It has been g iven he rejust as an i l l ustration of a prosodc operatin based on the syll abl e Li kewise , the

prosodic structure of the ty ical Croatian hypocoristic can be set out as fol lows:

123



JOSPOIĆ PONETICS AND PONOLO OR STDENTS O NLIS

Figure 4: The Croatia hypocoritic template

A ca be ee from Fgure 8 he characertc Croatia hypocortic abyl abi c word The fir ylabe log (bm orac) ad ha what traditi oal pho-no ogy cal a log rig accet (pread tone o the ecod mora) e re areome example of hypocortic fitting ito thi emplate

Vadm ir � Vdo

Mi rolav � Mro

Mi rjaa � M ra

vaka � va

t hould be noted that rrepecive of he type of accen in he orginalname , the oe of the derved hypocoritc alway the ong r ng becaue it ithu defied by the above template It alo teretig to note tha Croaiaword characteritic o baby talk olow the ame temp ate ad the l ike

The mai reao why hypocoritic ormatio i phoological ly iteretig ithat the ame type of templatc pricp le fol owed ome l angu age i n the fo-matio of dieret grammatica categor e ow we may refer back to agu agewth rootadpatter morphology, mentioned earl ier con ecton wh the kee-al ter A exemp lified that cotext in Sem itc lag uage , grammatca catego-rie of word are formed by mappg conoantal root onto keleta tempateow it hould be cear a thi done i coformity with the anguage permiible ylable tructure

Yet aother iteretig type o proodic operatio performed o the yll abl ei i lu trated by aguage game , alo caled d igs What i meat by aguag egame i thi context wil l be i lutrated o two game played for fu by g hpeakig and repectvely Croatanpeakig dvdua (motly chi ldren)

1



PSDIC PH NL

Te mot popu lar lud l in g played in the Engl ipeaking world i Pig Latin What

foll ow i a dem ontration of the prin cip le of wordformation n Pig Lati n :

pr ing � ingprayflower � owerflayhappy � appyayautumn � autumnmay

lt doe not take much detective work to figu re out the pattern be ind teytematic d itortion of the p hono ogca form of the word at hnd the onet ofthe i nit ial yl able of the origna word i taken of ad ued a the o net of the yable attached to the end of the word he attached y ab e formed according tothe fol owng template:

(I

copvi

N

Fgure 4 Te P igLatin uix temp ate

lt ou ld be noted tat it i the enti re onet at i copied onto te temp late,w i l e the rhyme prepecified a / A can be een from the PigLatin wordfor 'autum n , where the rigin al word begi n wit an on etle yll ab le , the defau ltPigLatin onet i m/ Thi i at leat the cae in the maintream verion of theanguage, a oppoed to ome 'diaect' where the default oet can be omeother cononant

he Coatianbae laguage game fol l owing a comparable templatc pinc ip le can be ca l led Je-pe-z-pk Here i an i l lu tration of te wordformation rule inthat langu age:

glava � glapavaparuka rupukapanoga � nopogapatol � topol

he origi na word i firt ivided into ylab le, from which the coda i detached, were there i one After each of thee codal e yllab le , a n extra ylla

15



JOSIPOVIĆ POETICS AD POOOG OR STDTS O GIS

ble i i nfxed , wi c cont of te p repecfied onet p and a r yme wic i a

copy ofe entire original rymeAltough baed on individual language, ecret language' l ike Pig Latin

and Jepezp ik ae intereting a an i l l utration of te un iveral role of te yl lable and t contituent in dealing wt morpoproodc phenomena n te textat foll ow we a ll be looking at yet anoter u niveral role of te yllable n connection with it functon a the carrier of tre

9. 3 Stress and Accent

The firt tin g to clear up in connection wth tre i te widepread term-

nol ogical confui on n the l iterature between the term 'tre' an d 'accent' So meponolog t and ponetician ue tee term ynonymouly, to denote any kndof promin ence, wil e ome oter make a ditinction between te two, reervingte term 'accent' for ome pa rtcu lar type of promin ence So, for exampl e, by ac-cent ome li ng uit refer excluively to promin ence achi eved primarily by meanof pitch , a i the ca e with the four Croatan lexical proodic pattern d cuedabove In ome olde ponetic l iterature the term accent' i reerved fo te treof te mot promi nen t item with n the entence In any cae, for the preent pur-poe, following wat eem to be the domi nant trend in current ponologica l te-ory, the two term wl l be ued ynonymouly

Let u recall from the chapter on acoutc that prom inence i acieved pho-neticall y by te cumu lative eect of tree factor change n p tc, increaed loud-ne an d longer d uration The bac doma in for te realization of ti eect i teyllabl e Tu witin a polyyllabi c word, te in dividual yllable ave variou de-gree of prominence, a nd i n E ngl h two uch degree are phonologically impoantand need to be identified ere the main or primary tre tat of te mot promnent yl lable in the word, a n te econd yl lable of begin' bI ' g/; an te ec-ondary tre, a te in te econd yl lab le of 'negotation nI , gau S I ' I Teneceity to identi econda ry te i n Eng li h, but not in ome other language incl ud ing Croatian , can be accounted for by a feature of the Engl ih rhymi c ytemwc wll be dicued later n conn ection wt rythm and the organaton of ylla-ble i nto feet on the next igher level of ponological ieracy Altoug te termtre' will be ued here in the widet ene, a expla ned above, it word trethat we hal l be focui ng on here n th connecton it ofen obeved that Engl ha one of the mot complex tre ytem known i n phono logy In contemporaryphonology, tre, l ke o many oter ponological phenomena , treatd within anonl near approac A mor contemporary teory deal ing wt te in metricalphoology (MP) It wa originally i ntroduced by Liberman and Prince in 1977 . t fo-cue on the organ iation of yll able nto feet, whch , however,il l be dcued nconnecton wit the foot a a proodc domai n

Wat i important fo a tudent of Engl to know about tre tat n l i n-gu itic typology two type of lan guage are d iting ui ed wit repect o were

126



POSOC PHONOLO

te tre fal l wt n a word Some la nguage ave a fixed stress In toe lan-guage t regul arly a partcul ar yl lab le tat treed Tu n Hu ngaran t te frt yl labl e n F renc te lat n Pol te penu lt mate one (te econd onefrom te end of te word) and n Macedonan t te antepenu lt mate yl la ble e te trd one from te en d En gl j ut l ke Croatan belong to te oter cate-gory compr ng lan guage wt free stress T mply mean tat tere n opartcu lar yll abl e wt n te word tat a to be treed a n te former cate-gory T owever doe not mean tat uc lan guage cannot ave retrctona to permb le and l l ct locaton of tre S o for examp le altoug ben g alan guage wt free tre Standard C roatan cann ot ave tre on te l at yllable of polyyllabc word n ot to menton retrcton concern ng te dtrbut on ofn dvd ual 'accent' wt n te wrd

Wat make Eng l partcu larly nteretng n te context of word tre tat tre emp loyed for d tncton amo ng partcu lar grammatcal categore Here are ome l lu tratve nou n/adjectve v. verb par :

OU/ADJECTIVE VERB

abtract < <<

accent < <

dget , st , ' stfrequent r i

n kwnt

perm t p3 : t tprotet prau , tst rsegment sn sn

ubject sbkt seb kt

lt ou ld be noted tat n ome of tee pa r oppoton of accentual pat-tern are man feted by te locaton of te tre on ly w l e n ome oter t accompan ed by l gt varaton of qu antty I n any cae Engl abo und n ucpa r of related dyl lab le n wc te word wt te tre on te frt yllable te noun or adjectve o r bot and t correlate wt te tre on te econd yll able te verb However t ou ld be noted tat tere are par of related wordwc do n ot conform to t pattern and be ng tu exceptona l often are m pronounced by foregner So for exampl e te word 'refrm ' treed on te ec-ond yl lab le n bot te noun and te verb Lkewe 'cmmen' a l-way pronounced a kont rrepectve of weter on e referrng t o tenou n or te verb

En gl rule of tre ag nment are too complex to be ela borated n tn trodu ctory coure but tree bac ponolog cal va rabl e tat tey take nto ac-count mut be ngled out at t pont ee are: yllable count from te rgt

yl lable wegt and yntactc and morpologcal nformaton T pont wl l be l

17



JOSPOIĆ: PONETICS N PONOLO OR SENTS O ENLIS

lutrated wit te example of te app lication of te E ngli Stre Ru le on noun

According to thi rul e, regul ar tre i nou fal on the pe ult imate yl lab le if iti eavy oterwie on te antepen ulti mate Let u i l l utrate ti wit te two fol-lowing nou n

c

\ / \�c c c c 1\c c

/\ R O R O R O R O R O R O R

I I �\ A � IN N N N N

I I I V G V G V G V G V G G G V V G V '

Figure 5 l igt penu lt imate v eavy pen ul timate

Anoter general point to be made about tre rule i tat tey ave ex

ception So for examp le , te word 'cynder' and 'calendar' ave eavy penulti-mate ylable, ad yet, ave atepe uti mate tre

9.3. Prosodi hierarchy

At a i ge r level of proodic organ iation yll able form metrical feet efoot () i te fund amental un it of rytm in ponology t repreent te centralotio of etrca Phonoogy, a theory of phooogy i which phoologicatring are repreented in a ie rarcica man ner A oppoed to poetry w ic al -low for equence coni ting of more tan two yll ab le to form a foot (e g dac

ty U U , or aapet UU , cotem porary Metrica Poology recogie o ly e-quece of two yla be a relevant aalytical en titie of poology i attitudei known a te axima iarty Princple (P), wic expree tewelletabied g eeraiatio tat l i gu itic rule do not cout beyod two Tuwhat cout a a foot i n te preet cotext i a equece of two ya ble one ofwic i trong (more promi nent) and te other one weak (le promi ent) Feetcoiting of oe yllable only are known a degeerate The h ierarcical relatio ip among yl abe i a equece are repreeted i evera way i the

l n m any conemporary models he foo s seen as conssng of sylable rhymes onl y, heonse be ng l e ou as rrelevan n h s respec owever for our purpose, we can aord o absracaway from sch h ighy heoreca i ssues as he staus of he onse in prosodc h ierarchy.

1



PROSOIC PONOLOY

fom of a metrcal g id , by mean of a tee rep eentation , or, in te latet deve lop

ment of te teoy, n tem of paramete wich pecify the poition of headwt n p ae n any cae, at ti po int we are not going to go nto deta l of rep-reentation formalim Rate, n connecton wit te topc tat follow we alllook at ow yl l able ae organ ed nto feet

94 Posodi h ieachy

Let u n ow i l lu tate ow Engl i may be analyed i nto feet by anal ing thetructue of te p ae drycleaned clote in tem of feet:

k ku

Figure 5 Organ ation of yllable i nto feet

Te ph rae hee con t of two feet, one leftheaded ( w) foot an d one de-gen erate foo For te peent pu rpoe t wa notatonal ly convenent to incoporate t epeentation into a metical tee epreentaton, wic, a explainedabove, on ly one of the poibl e way of fomal aton Te yll abl e dom natedby te hg et node of te tree ten te mot pom nent one in te p ae (n ticae t clote)

l n ome l anguage te foot i te mot mportant uni t of rytmi c organia-tion So, for example, in te Balt ic language t te doman for al l the majoythmical rule , a wel l a fo phon otactc retrcton a nd a n umber of egmental

rule The main reaon wy te foot i nteeting fo a tudent of Engli h in tepeent context tat t i the do ma n for the app li cation of two im potant rul e ofegme ntal po nology ee rule ave aleady been efered to eal er in varoucontext, but te ful l expla nation wa each time potponed for a later pont owtat we are fam l ar wt te noton of foot, we can fina ll y provde tee explana-tion Te two ul e un der condeaton are Apration and Flap ping

Wen te notion of apiration wa introduced n te context of teartculatoy decripton of ome allopone of Englih phoneme, the tuctualdecption for t rule wa omewat awkwadly and poviona lly defned a tepot ion before a treed vowel Accodngly , t wa oberved tat te plo ve of

word lke ay' 'tea' o 'ke' were full y apirated Howeve, it wa alo expla ned

1



JOSIPOIĆ PONETICS AND PONOLOGY OR STUDENTS O ENG LIS

tat n conon ant cluter l ke toe of 'spit' 'sink' or 'skin ' te ame cononant

were dea pirated , wi c wa n contradicton to te frt obervatio n, a n a ll treeword from te former category, te plove a re tl l folowed by tre ed vowel Te necety to redefne t e context for te a pp lcaton of ti ru le can be evenbetter il lu trated by te contrat between te fol lown g two p rae:

not at ue vs not a t ue ' not e t ' I S : ] not e t I S U : ]

Obv ouly , n bot cae te fol lowed by a treed vowel and yet, on lyte one of tiue ap irated . T can be explaned f we analye te proodc

tructure of tee two p rae: A o o o o o o o o

t t S j t t S j Figure 52 Footfnal vs footn it al

We can now redefne te tructural decrpton of te Engl Apraton

Rule wt reference to te foot It app l e f te cononant u nder conderaton ifootin it al , a the cae n t ue' .

Te other ru le w c we a ll now defne wt reference to te foot tat ofFlapping (alo ometme referred to a Tappng). Let u recall wat wa oberved n connecton wth flap and tap in chapter Mot varietie of AmercanEng l , a wel l a Ulter En gl and En gl poken n Tynede n certain con-text ave a flap or a tap (repreented n te I PA notaton by te ame ymbol , A an examp le we can u e the above context for the unapi rated , n ot at ue , nce te tructural decription for fappi ng i jut the op poite to te one for apiration. In oter word, flapping take place elewhere, i e , were t not

footin t al It mportant to note that th not te ame a aying 'footfina l' , be-caue not all n on n tial poition are automatical y fina l Thu, ap art from the ofat i n te above example, cae of flappi ng in nonfootin t al poit ion can be llu trated b y quotng te famou entence by wc a wellknown p ubl c figu repeak ing Scoue (the Lverpool d al ect) open he r TV how:

''ve got o lot of fun for you'

[I gO e D e f fun ]

On the next level of the p roodic h ie rarcy feet are orga nied nto phono

logical words t i m portant to tre that te ponologcal word doe not nece

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PROODIC HONOLOGY

arly alway conc de wt te word n te morpologcal ene Altoug mot of

ten t doe, tere are cae were apat fom a morpologcal word t ncludecliis a well Cl t c are word wc do not ave ter own tre, but ave tooccupy a partcular poton n te entence n wc t ' lean' on te adjacentword, t hos Te ponoog cal word te doma n for varou type of ponologcal rule n language In Engl , apart from beng te doman for te treul e, t alo te doma n of te rule eferred to n capter a Fnal Tenng l nCoatan te ponologcal word te doma n for rule on te locaton andpreadng of te lexcal tone Te latter type of ule can be l lutrated by tetre ft fom te ot to te proclt c (te cl tc wc 'l ean on te wod tat fol low), n cae l ke toe wen 'u kću' become kuću'

l n te ame way n wc t wrong to den tfy te ponolo gca l word wtthe yntactc category of word, te next category n te proodc erarcy, tephoological phrase c need not concde wt te yntactc phrae ere noconenu n phonologcal l terature on ow c ould be defned In ome contemporary model of n tonaton t dentfed wt te doma n of te potlexcal accent (contratve entence accent) Accodngly, t often alo efered to a teacceual phrase () Te emant c and pragmatc coelate of te ponologcalprae conceved of n t way, te focu A wl l be own later, n contemporary ntonatonal model te doman for te agnment of an mportantntonatona l morpe me, known a te ptc accent (T*)

al o general ly accepted a a un t of t mng organaton , e , a te doman for varou penomena of lengtenng and compenaton n language I nEngl t alo te doman for te applcaton of te Rytmc Reveral Rule,wc wa ntroduced earler, wen connectedpeec penomena were dcued T te rule wc turn te prae 8 3 : t : n n] nto [ 8 3 : t : nn

Te next entty n te erarcy of poodc categore te ioaiophrase , contng of a eque nce of pobl e ponol ogcal prae A te doman for ntonatonal penomena, t wl l be dcued eparately n connectonwt ntonaton Mot often conc de w t the yntactc category of entenceHowever, a wt oter proodc categore, t eay to fnd example weretere no uc concdence A cae n pon t tat of vocatve, w c a re aocated wt eparate ntonatonal patten, al toug tey do not conc de wt entence, a n te fol lowng exampl e

Ezabeth where are you?

42 Ths may be l lusraed b y he followng exampl e 'He w pbabJy never ere heensng aecs he fnal vowel of he clc e, raher han ha of s hos. Thus me would bepronounced as [m whch p roves ha he hos and he cl c ma ke up a unay prosodc doma n for he

appl caon of hs ru e.

13 1



JOI OVIĆ HONETIC ND ONOLOG FOR TDENT OF NLI H

The h ghe place n he h erarchy of proodc doman occuped by he

utteace (u) whch probably he mo dcu l of the p roodc caegore to defne n the wren vero n of a ex a po bl e correlae of he uterance wou ld behe paragraph Te relevan ce of he uerance a he doman for onal phenomenan Engl h be l l utrated by he pheno menon of 'newcateree cl max I of-en oberved ha at he end of he utterance Engl hpeakng newcater endo produce a onal clmax manfeed a a dlocated nuclear one

9.4 Rhyhm

Rhyhm refer o he regul ary of occurrence o f reed un Here rhyhmw ll be d cued n he conex of he ypology of rhyhm c ytem T parc-

ul arly m poran for he preen cou e becaue n h epec Engl an d Cro-aan are rk ngl y deren and rhym cal derence among l anguage epre-ent a very mporan ue n he tudy of foregn accen Tha rhythmcd toron n he peech of a non natve peaker can be dec ve for he creaonof an overall mpreon of a foreg n accen Thu rhym c d ference beweenEng lh and Croaan pl ay an m poran role n e appearance of a foregn accenn En gl h poken by nave peaker of Croaan and vce vera

A few decade ago p honecan and phon olog t regul arly refered o awelletablhed dvon of hyhmc yem no stesstmed and syllabletmed The bac dea wa tha n language wth tretmed rhyhm uch

En gl h reed yl lable occur a regula r nerval ndep endenly of he nu mberof un reed yllab le between them By conra la ngu age wh yllabletmedrhythm uch a Croaan were decrbed a hoe n whch each yllable between wo ree ake rougly he ame amoun of me o produ ce and uconrbue equ al ly o he overal l d uraon of he nerre nerval Le u conde rthe fol lowng wo exampl e:

Eng l h : O rang s

and ba nas, IEappl

and E berries.

Croaan A ranče i ba a� A nanas i bo ROV nice

l n ee example he reed yllable are n d caed by capal bold l e-er wh le nertre reche are wren n al c and un derl n ed Accodn g othe above dtncton uch n erre nterval were al l u ppoed o be of abouequal duraon n Englh uterance T preumable characerc of retmed language referred o n he phonec and phonologcal l teaure asochoy and wa aumed o be acheved by adutng e eher horenngor lenghen ng he egmenal materl n nterre retche of peech Experence ha hown hat the dtncon beween hee wo ype of rhyhm moteal y remembered by he nformal mpreon c dncon arbued o Cry-al He once referred o remed lan guage a 'rumptytumpty' language aoppoed o yl lab lemed lang uage whch e cal led 'ra-ta-ta-ta-tat' language

13



PROSODIC PONOLOY

However, uc a trctly formulated ocrony ypote wa challenged n

te 1 980, when a conderable body of reearch howed tat no uc d uraton adutment take place obectvely to make the du raton of ntertre tretche morecontant or more regular Thu, in recent time it a been argued tat te diference between the ocalled tretimed and yllabletmed rytm are not at allbaed on t he temporal organiation of peech Actually , it turn out that the derencebetween te two type of rhytm baed on the perceptual lluon of ocronyThank to evidence from a great num ber of language, a well a the availab lity ofmodern method of computer ynthei of rhythm, what wa known a the 'trongocrony hypote along wt the ditinction between tretmed and ylla-bletmed language, ha recently been completely reected It i nowaday agreed

that when decribing the rhythmc ytem of any g iven language, rather than categoring t a eter tretmed or yllabletimed , we ould locate tat language in thergt pl ace on an mag nary rythmc cale The cale would reflect the degree of'conpiracy' between tre and yl ab le tructure One extreme of that cae wouldcorrepond to a typical language wt rhythm baed on tre (ence stressbasedlanguage), exemplifed, accordng to a general conenu, by Engli At te oterextreme , there woud be a lang uage wth a totaly oppoite rhythm c nature, e , a an-guage w t te typical feature ofsylabebased rytm , uc a Span The po-ton of a g ven language on tat cale would be determned by te extent to whc terhythmic feature of one or te other type are preent

Tu, ponetcan and ponologt agree n accepting te ocal ledweak ochrony ypothei Ti mean that alto ugh t in di putabl e that trueochrony doe not exit and that te perception of ceain rhythm ic ytem aocronou baed prmarily on a perceptve l luon, tere are, neverthele,certa n way of quantitatve adu tment of ntertre tretce to the on e or theother type of rythm Apat from te d ierence in the degree of 'conp racy' between tre and yllable tructure, language nclined toward trebaedrhytm and toe nclned toward yllablebaed rythm dier in feature tatmay be u mmed up n te fol lowing tabe (cf opović 1 994)

Sssbs hyhm ( s h) Sybbs yhm ()1 geate educton of unstessed syllabespopotona educton of al syllabes;

wt te ncease of ntestess matea ;

geate qu anttatve deences amon g sma e qua nttatve deences among ununstessed syllables; stessed syllables;

3 geate extent of fna engten ng; sma e extent of fna l engten ng;

pefeence fo antc patoy compesson pefeence fo egessve compess on ofof stessed vowels n a stess goup; stess ed vowels n a stess goup ;

5 n cease of speec ate aceved at te ncease of speec ate aceved at teexpense of vowes expense of consonants

able 4: Strebaed rhytm vs ylablebaed rythm

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JOI OVIĆ HONTIC AND HONOLOGY FOR TDNT OF NGLIH

Taking al l ti i nto conideation we can ay tat a cucial dieence be

tween Engl and Croatan rytm i tat te Engli ytmic tem i moetebaed tan te Coatian o ne . Ti c lai can be made on te bai of teempi ical data povided by a large body of contative eeac T ae al l co-me a no upre, n ce Eng li i u ual ly efeed to a one extreme pont onte i mag nary cale of ytmc ytem Conde ng t d ference one may expect tee obectively meau able ponetic deence to pl ay a con deab le olein creating te mp eion of foregn accent n te peec of Coatian peaker ofEn gl T can alo geneall y apply to te peec of non native peake of anylanguage weneve we ae dealing wt a 'cla of two typologically difeentytmi c ytem

To um up , t e Engl i ytm c ytem typologcal ly dieent fom teCoatian one: Engli a wat i called tebaed ytm wile Croatianytm i ylla blebaed T d feence man ifeted i n two type of ytm icaldierence Fi t, n Engli tee ae moe tik ing procee of temporal adutment in te d iecton of aceving a weak tempoal regu la raton (toug not l it-eral ocrony) of ntertre tetce Secondly Engli exibit ponologicalconpiracy between te and yll able tructue pima ily ac eved by vowel e-duction wic eult in te peceptive i l lu on of ocony

Expeimental eeac ow tat ytm c d totion in fore gn accent p mai ly peent a poblem of production ate tan peception t ould alo benoted tat uc d totion reu ltng fom typological derence between t e twolang uage wil l al o entai l tonal d itoton, wic w il l conit in te wong locatonof melodic peak witi n te yl labl e.

l n oder fo te uvey of te typology of ytm c ytem to be compl ete,two oter type of ytm ou ld be identfied foobased ytm and moraba

sed ytm Sytem baed on te foot ae actually a ubtype of tebaedytem . A a u le tey exi bit all toe featue tat caracteie te tebaed ytm Wat make tee ytem pecific i te fact tat te doma in fo alltee pocee i t e foot rate t an te ponologi cal prae or wod Rytm

baed on te foot i a common featue of te Baltic language Moaic ytm iuu all y i l lu tated wit te examp le of Japanee At ti point it oul d be teedtat altou g te mora tu n out to be te tonebea ng u nt i n Coatian te rytmof Coatian notably, doe n ot fit te etabl ied defin it ion of moaic ytm Tefact tat Croatian yllable can be divided nto neently long (bimoai) and n-eently ot (monomorac) one doe not neceaily mply tat pocee oftem poral adutment Iengten ing an otening take place on te morac level a i te cae wit moabaed lan guage To u m up te poodc nature of Croatan in a nutell we can ft it into te categoy of yllablecountng moa language, . e. l angu age n wic te mora erve a te tonebeang u nit , but te

enti e yllable cou nt a a meaue of temporal d tance

13



PROSODI C PONOOY

9.5 Intonaton

9 5 1 I noducion

I n te capter on acoutic ponetic it wa oberved tat pitc pattern areued to convey variou kin d of mean in g. It wa alo expla ined tat for te p urpoe of li ng uitic tudy it i au med tat pitc variation tat make u p intonationalpattern are reflected b y te pattern of Fa movement troug time . I ntonatin iextreme ly elu ive and mot pon logit would agree tat a uc it repreent temot comp lex ubect of tudy in phonology It i for ti reaon tat intonation ioften le out from introductory coure of ponetic and ponology and potponed for ome advanced intonoogy coure

Depite te compl exity of te ubect owever n tonation wil l n ot be let outof te preent book. A brief urvey of ome current iue in contemporaryintono logy will be oered More notably te peent capter i meant a an attempt to outli ne a model of intonation w ic i n owaday generall y recogn ied ate mot influ entia an d wic a te advantage of being appl icable to al l kind oftypological ly dierent lan guage a well a to al l varietie of Eng li pronunciation t wi l be own ow ti model can erve a a 'common den omin ator' in tecomparion of a pair of language wic on te urface eem to be utterlyproodical ly incompatb le a trebaed intonational language l ike En gl i anda yl la blebaed moraic pitcaccent langu age l i ke Croatian .

95 Basic issues i n contemporary intonoogy

Altoug i ntonolog it ave alway agreed tat variati on in Fa can be takena te pyical correlate of variation of intonation there a alway been a greatdeal of controvery in te ponological analy of intonational contour i e. inetabl i ing and repreenting the ing uitical y relevant variation of Fa and principle according to wic tee relevant variation are organied into anintonationa ytem . Te main iue by wic in dividu al ap proace dier arete fol l owin g

Wat are te minimal intonational unit into wic ndividual intonation

contour may be analyed? Are tee un it ome baic me lod ie or rater d icrete tone level?

How many of uc baic u nit (me lodi e or tone) are tere and ow aretey to be repreented?

Do uc u nit by temelve carry ome mean in g in te ene in wichmorpeme carry meaning in morpology or can teir nature be compared o te nature of ponem e wic i n themelve and by theme vedo not carry any meani ng but erve a 'bu il di ng b lock for te creation ofmeani ngful un it on a ige r level?

I te intonational yte i ndependent of te accentual ytem or are i n

tonation and accen on ly two apect of one an d te a me ytem?

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JOSIPOIĆ POETICS AD POOLOGY OR STUDETS O EGL S

If tere are in tonatona l morpeme, w c proodc categore are tey a-

ociated wit? Wat are te ponological rule governng te combnationand nteracton of tee morpeme at te level of te i ntonation prae?

Apart from te d verty of anwer oered to te above quetion , wat i alo confuing te abundance of notational and terminological ytem nintonology Among t e man y divere i ntonatonal approace foun d in l iterature,two baic type can be ditingu ied te radiioal and geeraive approacWat i meant by traditio nal in t context i any app roac wc developed before te emergence of te bioal geeraive composiioal encefort approac introduced in 1980 by Janet Perreumbert, a well a oter,later noncompoit onal and nongenerative ap proace

I ndiv dual approace ave ter trengt and weaknee Some of temare more adeq uate tan oter for repreentn g te ntonatonal ytem of partc-ul ar lang uage , w le ome oter are more 'u n veral and tu more u itable tocontrative ntonology Some are more uted to teac ng pu rpoe, a oppoedto ome oter, wc are too opiticated for uc purpoe, but are teoret-cal ly uperior for ben g more explan atory and n ig tful erefore, it eem to beimpoible to evaluate ntonological approace n an abolute ene A gvenntonologi cal app roac i good inomuc a it i uited to a given pu rpoe In tepreent capter we al l be earci ng for an approac wic woul d be te motexplanatory n te comparon of te two proodc ytem we are concerned

wit: En gl i and C roatan i requ ire a brief u rvey of te development of tevariou app roace to te controverial ntonolog ical i ue

9 5 1 Conous vs d iscee ones?

e earc for bac un it of intonational a naly a pr mari ly been a reu ltof attempt to etab l te nventorie of ditinctive entence melode for n divd ual language A crucal iue concerning intonational unt in wc indvidualmodel may dier refer to te ponological nature of intonational pattern wocool of tougt are ditng uied n l iterature, according to te way tee pat-tern are analyed te riish and te America cool Te main dierence be

tween tee two app roace i tat 'te Brti ' beli eve tat te bac and atomic3 As wi be expained in geate detai ate compositiona efes to te beief tat into nation

can be decom posed into meani ngf i ntonationa mopemes . Te appoac nde consideation isaso efeed to in iteate as a tosegmenta-metica bt i n te pesent book te te�m BG C wi besed fo geate tanspaency atog admittedy, it as not been estabised as te oiia name fote mode.

n taditiona p onoogy posodic domain s wee ide ntified wit syntactic ones ence teseac fo te sentence meody as te basic meodic patten As expain ed at te begin nin g of tepesent capte, contempoay posodic teoy opeates wit domains wic do not necessaiycoincide wit syntactic categoies and ae in dependent of tem

5 t is impoant to stess tat te divis ion of te Ango-Saxon i ntonoogica tadition in to Bitisand Ameican is not at a based on nationa o geogapica citeia. Te distinction ests fom te

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PROSODIC PONOLO

unit of intonational analy by nature are contour Ti mean tat intonationalpattern are analyed nto equence of mall er contour, or, n oter word varia-tion of tone are een a movement Fa fal or rie troug time ) The advocateof ti approac are in princ ipl e oppoed to any furter decom poition of tee m in i-mal contour into dicrete tone level , a they bei eve that, rater tan reaci ng certain tone level at particu lar point n time , te eence of intonation i tonal move-men elf Even if tey are not op poed to te decompoton of kinetic tone intotone level, tey beleve tat ti i utfed only a a mean of notation, a teyconder uc dcrete level a ponologcally irrelevant

Te mal le r contou r nto wic te repreentatve of te B riti traditi onanalye entence contour, i e , melodic pattern or tune are te ucleus, te and te tai e i ntrodu ction of tee fun ction al u nit made it poibe forPal mer ( 1 922) to oer te firt ytematic ana yi of En gl i i ntonation e n ucle u i defin ed a the treed yl la ble of the m ot prominent ( i e , accented)word i n a tune He di ting uhe ix type of nucleu Tey dier among temelve by e drecton an d range of tonal movement Accord ngly , Palmer nd -cate em by arrow of dierent d recton and ze Te nu cleu can be preceded by a ead and may alo be fol lowed by a tai l W l e te ta l determn ed byte ype of e nu cleu te ead can ave one of tree poible ape , wccan be freely combined wit dferent nucle i Tu te combnaion of te ead nuc leu and tai l i n ti kn d of ytem m ake up a l i mited inventory of tune

Te inventoy, claification an d poib i l it ie of combination of thee baicele ment of intonation al analyi i n te Briti tradit ion vary from model to model So, for example, with time intonoogit tarted to analye te ead further intopreead and body Te fundamental idea, owever rema n te ame al l teeeleme nt are n te r nature tonal m ovement n oter word te mal le func-tona l u nit of ntonati on n t i kind of app roac are conceived of a min imal melo-die Weter tee mn mal melodie by temelve carry any meani ng an d canbe condered a ntonational morpeme or weter ntonaional me anin g aigned only at te level of te entire entence tune, i a eparate iue n anycae, we can ay tat by tei r kinetic approac to baic i ntonational un it, member of the B riti traditio n make u p a u nitary co ol of tought

A oppoed to te repreentative of the Briti i ntonationa l choo l, the rep-reentatve of te ocalled Amercan cool ee te baic element of melodcpattern a tatc, rater tan kinetic ente Tey beli eve at wat matter ponologica lly are indiv dual point in te contour, wic repreent wat are known a tar-get tone Fa level) in te peaker mi nd ntonational analy accordn g to tiview, ould cont in aociating tee crucial pont, i e, dcrete tone levelwit ome crucial point in the text In other word t he Fa movement wic make

fac ha one of he wo approaches developed and gave s mos promnen proponens n Branwhereas he oher one s n he same sense prmarly assocaed wh Amerca hus here areAmercan l ng uss who adop he ews f he Brs school (e g Boln ger), as well as Brsh l ngu sswho subscrbe o he Amercan approach (e g Ln dsey)

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JO OVIĆ HO NETIC AND HONO LOGY FOR TDENT OF ENGLIH

up e conour beween ee ponologcally relevan pon mply a reul of

er l n king i e i nerpolaon and can be worked ou and yneiedA breakroug in e developmen of nonaion al model ook place wi ne framework of e American cool w e adven of e BG C approac o n o-naon Te fr proper generave model wa developed by Perreu mber ( 1 980) ln er famou experimen e vared e onal range n e pronuncaton of oneenence ( nna came with Manny and proved te relative ditance between n di-vidua l meodic peak to be conan By hi experimen e den iely etabihede relevance of F arge Wiou gong no e deal of e noaonal and ermnolgcal yem of mode l a pon oul d be reed a i analye emelodc invenory of Engli uing only two dcree one level H and L Every

intonational pattern i analyed a a equence of underlying H and L one, wicaccord ng o e way tey are aocaed w e mercal repreenaon of e exare claifed no ree ype T model alo ofer an elaborae yem of ruleand algorm o ranform ee underlyng repreenaon no concree F con-fgu raton and tu prove o be very ueful n peec ynte The rule for egeneration of peech meodie formu lated wihi n the framework of h n onationalmodel can be underood a a e of nrucon o e compuer for e generaonof F curve baed on a e of defned parameer Te relevan parameer unc lude level e F value a ceran crucal pon of e ex raer an omemi n mal melodi c contour a te Brit mode would ugget Percepua experi-

men ave own a raer atfacory level of naturane of une generaed n way no on ly for Engl b ut alo for Japanee

Ye anoer ype of experimenal reearc peak n favou r of e approacbaed on d cree one eve I turn ou at peaker of variou proodcaly d -vere anguage n te identificaion of indvidual contour (of eier eirmoerongu e or a foreign language) prmar ily rely on e creron of e m ng ofcrucial ona l peak or val ley raer an e d irecon of onal movemen

ln hor he gene raive approac o nonaton a own at e ana lyof ntonaion ino d cree one eve i n o conrary to te naure of eit er produc-on or percepo of lan gua ge T afer al l borne ou by e app lcaion of e

BGC model apar from o En gli o uc ypologcal ly d vere la nguage a Jap-anee German Bengal or Duc

ln connecon wih e conrovery beween e Brti and American ap-proach ome ntereing iue a rie Do te dierence between hee wo ap-proace reul from ome eenal dference beween Br and AmercanEng l ? If ey do wa doe derence coni n? f no wo en r g aconcern e naure of inonaona entie? There are inguit from bo idewo believe ta hee dierence in e reatmen of Engl intonaton reufrom ome d erence beween Amercan and Br En gl Tey beli eve a i more naural o an alye BriEn gl nonaion n o kineic elemen and dealw AmercanEngl nonaon in erm of ac un becaue Bri Eng l

13



ROSODI C ONOLOY

uppoedly caaceed by gradual, gl dng F ran on, w le n Amercan

Eng l ere are caracerc ud den onal u mpHoweve, uc claim about te diference between Britih and American intonaion ave no yet been proved Aloug i ntonoog it generaly al low for the exience of uch dierence, the maority of them do not beieve tat they could haveplayed a decive ole n e etablimen of e conovery beween te two appoace I ofen argued a e mpeion of e pevalence of eie gradual orudden anion i baed on e percepual l lu ion reuling fom ynactic and lex-cal diference beeen Amercan and Bi Engli Ae all, e fi inonationalmodel baed on dicree tone level wa acual ly developed from an analyi of Br Eng li l wa a 9one yem oered by Coleman a early a 1 9 14

Taking a l l i i nto conideration, w e can conclude a the controvery inconnection with e nature of baic un it of i ntonation primari ly reut from dier-ent radiion Thi, of coure, doe not exclude the poibil ity tat thi controvey wa enco uaged by ome p oodic d eence beween Bri and Amercan Engli Unfounaely, uc deence ae l l lagely a mae ofgu ewok, n view of te lack of exac cienfic evdence

Sin ce bo appoace gve mode l wc ave led o inereing and praccally uefu l n g, wen opng for ee of tem , i doe no appear o be ufedo d m e oer one a wrong ' One mply deal ing w wo dieen way oflooki ng a e ame penomenon , eac of wic a it weaknee and trength

Tu e rig approac i the one wic i more uited to a paricuar p urpoe So,for examp e, e Briti approac , at lea in the preen age of e deveopmentof nonology, eem to be uperio egarding i applicab il y to pracical lang uagelearning and eacin g I would be un reaonable o expec pupil a cool o mae e opicaed ytem of generaon of indivdual nonaional contou witn e Amecan app roac, f tee clea and uefrendly Bri taxonomy pcureque and mnemoni c name for nd vdual configu aion, uc a 'Swan ', 'Serpenne or H g Fall , make i ddactically upeior On te oer and , e Amecanapproac prove uperior in dea ing wit ome teoreical iue Ti pr imarily refer o it app icaion in the comparion of wo language a proodical ly diferent a

Engl i and Croatian The d icrete one leve of the American aproac can ervea analyical u n i repreenting a common denominator' They ao ave te ad-vanage of beng eq uall y appl cable n e ana ly of lexical , a well a polexcalproody T a decive advanage in dealing w e neacon of tepitcaccen proody and nonaon n Croaian A uc, e Amercan approaccan lead o n g t wic d iecly ind irecly (troug e ceaon of didactic o-wae) can be ued for eacn g pupoe

5 ol ist ic compositional appoach

Do inonational pattern f a la ngu age ave teir ol iic, (un anayabe)

mean ng o can ey be deompoed no mal ler pat wic cary ome mean

13



JOIOVIĆ HONETIC AND HONOLOGY FOR TDNT OF ENG LIH

ng, conriuing o e mean ing of e conour a a wole? T one of e key

ue n inonology acually boil down o e queion of weer ere areinonaonal morpeme and oally ndependen of e conovery beweene Br i a nd e Amercan ap proac o e naure of nonaonal e lemen

Te advocae of e holistic approac be leve a inonaon al conourare un ana lyable wole n erm of er meanin g Adm ed ly ome of e pro-ponen of vew do al low for e ana ly of conour n o dcree one level ,bu ey ave e eorecal tau of nonaional poneme T a i, uc onelevel belong o e leve l of Martne econd ariculaon and u do no carryany mea n ng n oer word e proponen of e ol it c approac bel eve amelodic patern are oed a unitary enie n e nonational lexcon of epeake min d n e nonologcal l eraure e preumed n ab l iy of ng l nonaton al paern o be analyed ofen i l l uraed (bu alo d proved) we famo u examp le of wa i known a e conradicory conour org ina ll y uedby Liberman and Sag (1 9)

lehantiasis isnt inuale

Figure 53 Te contradicory conour

Te proponen of e ol ic approac u bel eve a e inonaionallexicon of e n gl l ang uage cont of uc conour wic i n er opiniondo no cont of any malle r meann gful elemen e ey cann o be analyedn o any kind of no naiona l morpeme

Te oppoe vew eld by e proponen of e compositioal ap-proac wo po n ou a ceran group of une are ome onal feaure awell a ome apec of meann g T mp lie a ee nonaional paterncon of ome mall er meani ngful componen, wc can be cal led nonaional

morpeme So for exampl e, f al l e inonaonal paern of n gl w ic avea ig riing n ucleu exib ome emanc or pragmac im la r ie mean ta te nuc leu can be conidered a an i nonaional morpe me In i connec-on it oul d be treed a e accepance of e decom poio n of mel odi c pa-ern ino maller elemen uc a e nucleu doe no automaclly mply acompoiion al approac Ta i , i i no a iue weer nonaon al patern areanalyable ino maller unit Wa dpuable weer uc maller uncarry any meanng

Wtin e framework of e compoit onal approac, dierent model id en-tify derent enit ie a i nonatonal morpem and te nuc leu i only on e of

em, wic a te mot widely acceped, a been mentoned n te preen

10



ROOD C H ONOLOGY

contet by way of ll utration Te na ture of tee entite een n varou way ,

dependng on te ntonational approac Te ue of ecognng or efutng teextence of ntonatona l morpeme i n fact boil down to accepting o refutng teapplicabil ity of Martinet' firt articulation to ntonational analyi However, ithoul d be treed that te attitude of ind ividua l l i ngu it in connection wth ti iue i i ndepen dent of weter tey accept te econd artculaton , e , te ex-tence of ntonational poneme t alo independent of wete they ubcibeto te Brit (k netic) or American (tatc) approac By te comb nation of teetree criteria, intonational model could be divided into four type a own in ta-ble were for each of the four type of model the mot im portant proponent arenamed

OAOA OAOAPONEMES MORPEMES

1 adefoged ( 1 967) conou s �-

beman (1 975) eves �

3 ol nge ( 1 986) � contous (pofes)

Peeumbet

eves (ones) eves (accens) scbeg (1 987)

able 5 Type of ntonatonal model

Recent ntonological l teatue abound in argument n favour of tecompotonal approac Example a e oered of ow te ame o a vey mil ameaning can be conveyed by eveal dierent contour Likewe, one and teame contour, uc a the contradictory' one from figure ca in dierent context convey totally in compatible meani ng Beide, it argued that an an alywich lack te morpological decom poition of intonational pattern mi e out onmportant generaliaton on im lar potnuclear configuaton T p marily refe to te emantc and pagmatic im ilaity among patten wt a fn al fall or rie

Te compoit ional ap proac ha prevai led in recent intonologcal teoryStl l , t oul d be n oted tat tee two vew are not necearly and comp letely incompatib le Tu Bol nger ( 1 989) a ltoug beng a n ardent opponen t of te pureol itc approac, pont to cae in Engl were ntonatonal a nalyi requ erefeence to ome global intonational feature, uc a te tona l range and regiter, whic ign ificantly contribute to ntonational m eani ng Beide, he recogn iea pecal, idomatc tatu to certain contour, uc a te call ing contour

l i a

bet

E

4



JOI POVIĆ PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGY FOR TDENT OF EN LIH

Accodng o Bolnge conou canno be decompoed no malle

meanngful elemen, no can t funcon a an nonatonal mopeme whnlage contou On t e ote a nd , the two mo promnent poponent of eAmecan appoac oppoe o Bol nge' Hrbeg and Peeumbet al lowfo e extence of domac unanalyable combnaon of nonaonal mopeme

By way of conclu on , there a e enoug h a gumen to ugget a te de-compot on of ntonaton nto ntonatonal mopheme poble Howeve,wee t neceay a epaate u e Te anwe to qeon d epen don e pu poe and am of nonaonal anal y a doe te decompot on of n-tonaon nto dcrete level nonatonal mean ng tun ou o be oo complex o

be analyabe fo pactcal learnng and teachng pupoe Howeve, he mophoogcal analyabl ty of nonatonal patten cannot be gnoed by anynonaonal model wc am o be decrpvely adequate n g at fol l owfom uc a model a e no onl y theoecal ly gn fcan bu can alo be nd eclyappl ed n language leanng and teacng, ee by pontng o gnfcann tonatona l dference among lan guage or by beng ueful n te ceaton of teadequae ddacc owae baed on ntonaon yne

9. 5 3 The Pi eehumbe (8GC) model

9 . 1 . Intoducton

Te f ng o be teed ee ta e peen ex on e BGC modelof ntonaon mean onl y a a bef u vey of e natu e and a m of one model ofnonaton Te eaon wy t pacul a model a been coen fom te p Ieoa of extng teoe on ntonation have already been expla ned n the pecedng text St l l , l et u um them up a foll ow BGC n owaday ecogned by tewold leadng expe on ntonaton a te mo nfluenal teoy of nonaonand te mot mpotan developmen n 20 centuy nonology Secondly, un gome u nvealy ap pl cable an alycal ent e, patculaly uted o the com-paron of typoog cal ly deent langu age A uch t can oe ome vau abl e ng no te natu e of poodc dfeence between En gl and Coatan

T e d and even moe mpoan pon o be made a e BG C model a gly opcated eoy mean fo pecal n e feld, o tee noway a tudent can be ealy n t ated no t tough a n gle chapte n a n i ntoductoy coure of phonetc and phon ology To fu lly u nd etand the heoetical backgound and detal of e pobl y of t paccal applcaton n are uc apeech ynte, t wold ake a epaae coue Tu e ex a followhould be undetood merely a an lutaton of one conemporay model ofntonatonal a nay and the pob l t e of appl caton of t noton and metodfor comparatve pu poe

The BGC model ofe a ponologcal epeenaton of poble ntonaona l patten of Engl , account fo te way ey ae aocaed w



PROSODIC PONOLOGY

derent text and formulate rule wc turn tee underlying repreentaton

nto ponetc Fa confgu raton Te model wa developed troug experimentalreearc baed on American En gl i but one of it eentia feature and advan-tage i t appl icabi l ty to oter varetie of te En gl lang uage a well a tooter language

ntonationa l pattern are decrbed a equ ence of un derly ng L (l ow) andH (hi g) tone, wich alway perform one of tree poible intonational function Tat i , they can function a one of tree type of intonational morpeme whicwil l al l be dcued n g reater detai l later n prnc ple te meanin g jut l ke tedentity of indvdual ntonatonal morpeme arbitrary tat languagepecific a nd contribute to te overal l mean ing o f ntonatona l pattern

Te compoit iona mod e thu impl ie tat te meaning of tee baic analyt icalelement of intonation can and ou ld be iolated Th i i wat Pierre um bertdoe n er more recent work in coautori p wit Ju l a H rcberg Howeverte component of te model wc deal wt n tonatonal mean ing yet anoterubject wic would requ ire mont of tudying o n te part of an un in it iated tudent Terefore intonational meaning wi l not be dicued here in more detai lta n neceary to give om e very general i dea of wat a compot onal approaclook li ke Te preent bref u rvey of te BGC model of ntonati on o uld tu beundertood merely a a demontraton of a metod of ponolog ical decrpton ofintonation

9 . Bac analytcal notion of te BG C model

Te baic un it of intonational decription a e t correpond to watn tonologi t often call a mel odi c or intonational pattern The tone wic any tuneconit of are me lod ic correlate of accent and prae groupin g Te domain ofte tune i a proodical ly defned ntonat ion p rae te eg ment of text in tedicou re between two pau e wc are not a reul t of etation or wc canbe urrounded by paue witout itorting te ent ire melod c configuration

Every tune i a equen ce of tone (T) , i e L and H tone level organ edinto ree kind of intonationa l morpeme

pic acce *

ph rase accen T

bodary one %

Every mut ave at leat one pitc accent Te d oma in for te ag nmentof T* i the accentua l p hrae (), un dertood a te carrier of te potlexca ac-cent n other word , at te l evel of every accentu al p rae, t mot prom in ent

6 Te symbo T is us ed fo a tone gen eall, iespective of wete it is a o L tone t iscombin ed wit te diacitica signs" and % fo dieent types of intonationa mopemes

143



JOIOVIĆ HONTIC AND HONOLOG FOR TDNT OF NGLIH

ylable ag ned on e ptc accent, T* Te T* can cont of one or two tang

tone, H or L Takng nto conderaton the pobil ity of a combnaton of twotone wt n te ptc accent, te pob t e for ptc accent are eter mp letone, H* an d *, or compex, btonal entt e, n wc on e of te tone a lwayu bord nated n it prom nence to the other Tat , one of them i aociated wthte mot prom n ent yl abl e n te e , wt te metrcal ly trong yl lab e, and terefore nd cated by an ater k, accord ng to te notaton a convention of met-rcal phonology The oter one ether mme dately precede it or m med ately fol-ow t T a floatig toe47 wc n princp le dock onto a yl lable adjacentto tat aocated wt T* , but tere are cae were, due to te lack of egmentalmateral both of te componen t tone of the b tonal pitc accent are compreedonto te reed ylla ble In any cae, te relaton p between tee two tone,T* and T of te comp lex ptc accent correpond to te relaton p between tetrong and te weak ylable n te foot Te functonal nk between tee twotone nd cated by the 'plu ' g n between tem

Te B GC mode recogn e four uc btona combnat on n Eng :

H*+*+HL+H*H+*

Theoretical ly, te mode alo a ll ow for the extence of comb n aton of theame tone vaue wtn comp ex ptc accent (H*+ H, H+H *, L*+ and L+* nan gu age, but tee are not n cluded nto te nventory of ptc accent etabl hed for Engl i

S nce te mode l ue two tone eve onl y and doe n ot rey on te noton oftonal regter, for te un dertand ng of the ponologca d entty of te bac analytcal un t, t eential to expl a n te d erence between H an d L tone It canbe um med up a fo ow

n the ame context, H away realed a ponetcaly iger tan LSecondly, H and L beave derently unde r empai : H get hi gher, L get lower,up to te pont of aturaton F na ly , H and L tone beave derenty n rule of n -terpoaton , w c ca n be utrated e re by a comparon of te me lod c movement between two H* and tat between two L * :

H* H* *_

*�

54 H vs tone n nterpolaton rule

4 n nonlinear ponology a foatng tone s one wic wc as no assocaton wt anypaicla tonebearing n it in te repesentation

144



PROSODIC POOLO

A oppoed to te p tc accent, te prae accent, T , doe not ow any af

fin ity toward metricaly trong yab e T i tone i rea ized i mmediately afterte nucear accent (te lat pitc accent in te ) and it ign ificantly determin epotnucear movement A wit the oter type of intonational morp eme ,te peak er of Eng a te coice between two tone from ti category, Hand L, and eac of tem a t mean ng , wc can be ol ated and wc contrib-ute to te overal l mean in g of te J In recent verion of te mode , t a been ob-erved tat tere are cae of coexitence of two prae accent witin one JTi a motivated te i ntrodu cton of a eparate dom ain for t i ntonatona l morpeme wit in te J, te i ntermedate p rae For te purpoe of ti cu rory urvey of te mode , owever, we can aford to leave ti u e a de

t i i mportant to note that te BGC mode doe not in any way im py the un iver-aity of te bitona inventoy of te prae accent in te word anguage or theundertand ing of te role of the prae accent a a teoretica entity in intonoogy, it iuefu to pont to te diference between te BGC mode and te traditional Britmodel concern ing te treatment of te potnuclear pa of te ntonationa patternl n contrat to toe Briti model , te BGC mode analye te potnuclear contour(tail ) into two i ntonational morpeme of diferent kind, one of wic te praeaccent Te olation of te prae accent in te ponologica ana lyi of ntonatona lpattern doe not necearly mp ly tat T mut be vbe a a prominent pont in temeodic contour By it very preence in the phonologica repreentation of anintonationa paern it pay a crucia roe i n determini ng te overa ape of te con-

tour By contrat wit te foating tone of te b itona pitc accent, wich occur at areativey contant ditance from te metrical y trong T*, T doe not do o, a it oca-ton varie coniderably depend ing on te context If te two floatng tone u nder con-ideration are compreed onto a o tretc of egmental material, tey can beneutraied and it become mpoible to ditingui tem

Te tird type of intonational morpeme in te BGC mode i te bou ndarytone , T% It i obligatori ly aocated wit te rgt edge of te J, but te modelao al ow for an optiona T at the begin nin g of te J A wit te oter ntonationamorpeme, te peaker a te coce between two tone H a nd L A a reutof the app ication of te i ntonationa rue of pstep te p onetic vaue of the fina

H% i added t te pon etic vaue of te precedi ng praeaccent tone a nd tu te intonationa pattern wit a fnal H% coincide wt te category of ring tuneTe unmarked, default nital boundary tone for te tandard varetie of Britiand Amercan En gli L % Terefore, i nit ial T% i n te analy of Eng i in d-cated ony f it H %

l n ort, every welformed ntonationa l p rae of Eng m ut con t of atleat one pitc accent (T*), one p rae accent (T) and one b oundary tone (T%) Weformed tune are gene rated o ut of tee baic eement, and eac of thepoible combination of tee tree intonational morpeme repreent a

48 Te pecise ocation of ts tne vai es and is po noogic aly ielevant. st ike te

sbodin ate tone of te btonal pitc accent t is is a foatng tone.

145



JSIPIĆ P HNEICS AN PHNLY R STNTS E NLISH

wellformed E ng li h tun e f we take into coni deration onl y the i mplet type of

tune e , the one with one melodi accent only and one phrae tone only, Eng lihha the following inventory of wellformed configu ration :

%

ure 55: Wellformed Englih configuration Perrehumbe

The overall hape of a tune follow from the combnation of thee threetype of intonational morpheme and their nteracton , a well a from intonationalrule wh ch define how thee thee key elem ent of the tune a e interpolated andule wh ch aign concete F value to ndvdual tone Genealy, there are

three type of rule i n thi mod el : readjutment ule Uptep and Downtep, nter-polation ru e and p ementaton ru e A thee intonationa ule ae too complex to be di cued here, for an e laboration , the intereted reader referred tothe related l iterature from the li t of ugg eted readi ng The examp le that fol lowwil l be ued to i l l utrate the ana lyi of ome imple En gl ih tune from the orig inal Pierrehum bert corpu:

z

ure 56: JPH 1

46

\\\\\\\\

\ � LL

\ 1\

A " .

1

� -

Ann cme wh Mnn

H* L L%



Fgur JPH 29 1

%

POSOI C PONOLO

%

J d d d

L L

.

.

t

%

1

l

____________-

_

d L L L

Fur 5 PH 260

7



JOSI POIĆ: PHONTICS AND PHONOLO OR STDNTS O EN ISH

(Hz)

. "

t

gg

Figure 5 JP 2 60 B

z

*" - .

*

%L . _ .

Ts y n in Cnd.L LH L H

Figure 6: JP 268

14

t



PROSODI C PONOLO

9 5 3 3 The BGC model and intonatonal meanng

T e BGC theory of ntonational mean ing i a cience in telf and to gain a ful lundertanding of it would take m uch more than a chapter in an introductory coureof phonetic and phonology Perrehumbert and Hirhberg baed their theory ofintonational mean ing on the theory of di coure propoed by Ward and H irchberg(1985), and te original verion of the theory wa ignificantly elaborated upon byHobb ( 1 990) The m ain point to note about thi approach i that intonationa l mor-pheme are conceived of a fulfll in g ome pragmatic function in the di coure

To oer ome idea of how a compoit ional model o f intonaton of mean ingwork, the meaning, or, rather, the pragmatic function of each of the 2intonatonal morpheme of Eng lih identified i n Fgu re 55 wl l be umma red For

the preent purpoe th wi l l necear ly have to imply ome imp lification So, fora more elaborate and nightful account of any apect of intonational meaningwithi n te mode l, t he i ntereted reader aga in referred to the relevant l iteraturefrom the l it of uggeted read ing

Pitch accent expre the tatu of indivi dual elemen t in the d icoureTe type of ptch accent give further informaton on the type of promi nence , o rsal iece to ue the orignal Pierrehumbert term The link between the type ofpitch accent and the type of alience i arbitrary and languagepecific Thu inEng lih the mea ning o f mp le ptch accent (T*) dier from the m eani ng ofbtona l ne (T + T) n that the former po int to ome referent (extral in gu itic itemreferred to) , wh ile the l atter g ive alie nce to ome dcou re cale Th wil l proba-bly be cl earer when we bri efly defne the fun ction of each of the pitch accent:

H* the mot common, e, the mot unmarked type of pitch accent n Eng-li, mot typical ly aociated with declarative utterance It imply introduce omeali ent referent nto the et of belief hared by the paicipant of the di coure, orut expree the aumption tat the referent under conideration al ready belongto thi et of bel ief By cntrat, by L * the peaker elicit the collocutor attitude con-cerning the tatu of a g ven referent Tu , L * i characteritic of ye/no quetion i nEngli h, a well a of the ocalled contradictory contour:

o prues have feet? ( H H%)

(P&H:22)

A et's order the ha teauband for two

B: don't eat beef

(H H%)

(P&H23)

49 Te i nfomaon n e backes efes o e pag e n mbe a wic e exampe s fon d i nPieembe & iscbeg ( 987). o eac of e exampes n is g op on y e pc accens w

149



JOSIPOVIĆ PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY FOR STUDNTS OF E NGLISH

Among te bitonal ptc accent (T+ T) a d itinction i made between pre

fixed (T + T*) and ufixed (T*+ T) accent Prefixe wit in pitc accent general lyerve to correct or mod i te col locutor' un dertanding o f te tatu of ome p ieceof information Accordi ngly te mea ning of H+L* can be parapraed a lthughyu ar nt awar f t r prhap d nt bv t th pc f nfrmatn mthng gvn r knwn Ti wl l be i l l utrated wit an example wc requi re te decrption of te di coure context in whic te under conideration i uttered

A young woman ha s a d scusson with h er motheri nlaw n whch they dsagree about wh y the

baby had awakened in the midde of the night Te motherinIaw advances a mutualy known fact as

the correct explanaton:

h tthng

H+L* (P&H23)

i i l ike aying f cur th th nly lgcal xplanatn h mthng that a a yung mthr yu huld knw

By ana logy in view of te 'correctve fun ction of te prefxe te meanin gof te L +H* accent can be p arapraed a Althugh yu may thnk that th pcf nfrmatn nthng nw t ndd Alternatively it can be ummed up aw m gng t rval t yu mthng ray ntwhy

A t t ht fr Apl

B t vn warm fr cmbr

L +H* (P& 2)

A for uixed pitc accent it hou ld be noted tat apart from te u bordi nated tone of te b itonal pitch accent T*+T te category of uixe alo inc lude

praeaccent tone and boundary tone Te reaon wy tey are treated aforming a unitary category i tat t i poble to iolate te meaning tey allare i meanin g i d efined b y Hobb (1 990) rater l iberal ly Te H uix indi-cate o me k ind of dicoure openn e i n t e broadet ene Thu with L *+H te H uix expree tat te item un der coni deration requ ire furter dicuon before an agreement reaced about it tatu i n con nection wit te et ofte common ly ared bel ief Here i an exampl e

be ndcated to fac l tate focusng on t he tem under dscusson. Thus for the time beng w e shallabstract away from the postnucear movement of the tune, whic in tis example woud be H H% forinstance, as we sha discuss and exempify these other two types of intonationa morphemeseparatey

150



PROSODC P ONOOGY

A Alan is such a klutz

B : e's a ood badminton playerL*+H

(P&H 2)

( nerpreaon : B s u ncera n abou wheher a good badm non player provdes relevan nfor

maon abou he degree of clums ness )

The L uix i mply defned a i e , a the abence of dicoure open-ne Within the bitonal pitch accent H*+L, it meanin g can be paraphraed a fol-

low''m intducin this item into the set of shared beefs

(expreed by the H * e-ement of the configuration) , and its status as such is not disputable because it isinferrable fm the knowlede that we share ' Thi intonational morpheme i aloreferred to a ' pedagog cal' It i characteritc of teachn g ituation :

lt is speled with two dots

H*+L H*+L

(Perrehumbert )

A expla ined above, the p hraeaccent tone ao count a uixe To put

it impl y, H expree ome kn d of dicoure nd ependent of the ph rae it be-long to what precede or fol l ow in the d coure The mot l lu trative exampleare thoe n whch the conit of two intermedi ate p hrae and thu ha two T

( 1 ) o you want apple juice or orane juice ?

H* H* L L%

(2) o you want apple juice or orane juice ?

H* L H* LL%

(Hobb 1 990)

ln exampl e ( 1 ) the H tone of the phrae accent imp le that item 'appleju ice and 'orange ju ice ma ke up an exhautive l it Thee are the two kind ofju ice that are avail ab e y contrat, i examp le (2) the L tone doe not ugg etthat the item under conideration form uch a larger interpretive entity hi i aif the peaker were actuall y ak ng 'o you want a drink such as apple juice or orae juice or perhaps somethin else? '

The bou ndary tone , T %, convey information about the itonation ph raea a whole It doe o by exprein g it orientation' That , t indi cate whetherthe under conde raton hou ld be nterreted primari ly in connection with the

previou or wit the fol l owin Here i an example

1 1



JOSIPOVĆ: P HONETICS AND PHONOOGY OR STUDENTS O E NGLS H

My car manual i almot unreadable

t' quite annoyinL T%

pent two hour fiurin out how to ue the jack

L L%(P&35)

The interpretation of thi text depend upon the tonal pecification of theT% in 't' quite annoyin'. In cae t i H% , the it refe to the fact that the peakerpent two hour doing the ob, becaue the H% indi cate that the it belong to i

oriented toward the text that fol ow In cae the bou ndary tone u nder conider-ation L % , the it refer to the car ma nu al

9 5 3 4 Th e BGC mod e and comparative i ntonology

A obeved ealer, the ma n advantage of te BGC model t applcab l tyto typologicall y diferent proodic ytem I n the preent chapter it wil l be briefly il -lu trated how it i poible to ue the analytical ntion of thi model to compaeEngl ih intonation with that of Croatian , depite the fact tat tee two languageare proodica lly totally d ierent in all repect Th i will be done by givi ng a u rveyof the reult of reearch in which Eng ih and Croatian were compared withi n the

framework of the BGC model For thi , an nventory of Coatian intonational mor-pheme had to be etabl ied , and ti ad to take i nto conderation the i nterac-tion of Croatian lexica proody (i e the four lexical proodic patern of StandardCoatian) and intonation A roatian n itelf not te direct obect of nteet ofth book, the focu will be only on the ma n poin t of the eu lt of thi comparion

n th e category of ptch accent two type of intonational morpheme wereetablihed: te oigi na l lexical proodic patten (accent) , p eeved witi n thentonatonal context and the L *+ configuration On the potIexical , e ,intonational leve, within the BGC model , the former category, i e the four trad-tional accent are epeented a foll ow

EXIA PATTE

Fal in s , s

H

ITATIA MP HEM E

5 Th e mehodology used for esabl sh ng he ideny of hese nonaonal morphemes wasanalogous o the one orgnal ly used by Pie rrehum ber. t was based prmarly on he analysis o

152



Ri i sa sa

I I A l

H

PROSODIC PHONOLOGY

+

Figure 6 Repreentaion of Croatan LP Ps preserved n intonation

A ca be een from figure 1 with n the BGC ramewor i n the i ntoational

context, the preserved fall ing patterns are analyed as * and the rsing one as*+ A expaned earler, t he ' l ong accents are aociaed wit bi moraic ya-be, while the hot one are aocated with monomoraic ylable

A for te oter wo categories of ntonatona morpheme, the samebiona nventory of intonatona morphemes was estabhed for bothraeaccent and boundary tone Thus the iventory of Croatian intonationamorphem e look ike ths

Pitch accent H* H*+ L*+Phrae accents LBoun dary tone H % , L %

h inventory cod now erve a a tartng pont for a comparison of tetwo intonational ytem Thi wa doe by mean o compaing the originalPierreh um bert corpus of dialogue with the r Croatian tranlation e qu valents heollowng conclions were reaced

Croatian has a conside raby mal er iventory o pitch accent I n compari-on wth E ngl h , which ha ix intonationa morphemes n thi category Croatanha onl y wo One of thee two can phonolog ca ly an d phonetical ly be ide nifed

with th lexical proodic pattern (P P) , which thus eroms a doub e ucton nCroatian On the lexical eve t give dentity to ndividual words wi le on theintonatonal level t function a an intonational morpheme the pitch accenWithin the B GC ytem it ana yed a * or H*+ (deend ing on whether it sfal ig or riin g) an d can be asocated with a mon omoraic or bimo raic y labe Te LPP n Croatian fnton a a pragmatical y nmarked nonatona mor

meod peaks an d vaeys and her behavour u nder diferen degrees of emphass his was a d one

using pichracking sofware

53



JOSIPOVIĆ PHONETICS AND PHONOOGY OR STUDENTS O E NGLISH

pheme and in h e ranaon eq valen of pragmaic aion mo oen fnc-

ion a a correlae of al l ix Eng li h pich accen

The oher pich accen eab lihed for Croaian L *+ Alhogh phon o-logically ad pho neicaly i ca be compared o he Eg lih L *+ , in he majoriy ocae i occr a a correl ae of oher pich accen Th in i pragma ic fn cio i no comparabe wih he Eng l h L *+ The an aly of he Croaian corphow hi configraion ha he a of a pragmaicaly marked inonaonalmorp hem e ad i pragmaic fcion ca aeraivey be pe rformed by he com-bi naion of he nm arked LPP wih one or more on ionaion al mea of expre-ion ch a pragmaic parice (pa ma) emphaic prono n pecial rhyhmi cfea re facial exp reion ge re and characerc voice qal iy eare

The pecific nare of Croaian exica proody i no ony refleced in heonal ideniy of he mo common Croaia inoaiona morpheme he LPP bualo i n i locaio which i deermied by he ype of he lexica accen o individ-a word So for examp le e Croaan nonaional morpheme * i n boh i vari-eie (n boh a monomoraic and bimoraic yllable i ypicaly phoneicaly rea-ized earl ie r i he yl lab e han he Eng lih * which by defi i ion phoneical lyraized i n he la hird of he yl labl e Thi i why he mo nmarked gihpch accen *, on d more i ke he Croaian rii ng paern o a Croaian ear Thi iaion i frther comp icaed by he rhyhmc dierence beween he wolangage A a rebaed langage Engih ha more exenive procee

o em phaic and fin a lenghei g boh o which afec he locaion of he oe Even he nonexience of o me ionaioal morpheme reu rom he

general incompab l iy of he two proodic yem The fac ha Croaian ha noprefixed pich accen come a no rprie becae ch ene wold be i n con-radicon o he Ma n Sre Rle of Croaian which ae ha he accened yla-ble (*) coincide wih he oe which ha he efmo mora Likewie henonaional morpheme *+L cold hardly fi ino he Croaian onal yem be-cae n i phoneic realzaion wod be oo im il ar f no idenical o he config-raion of he ocall ed fall in g accen whch are anayed a no havng he L x

For he caegorie of phraeaccen and bound ary one he ame bionalinveory wa eabli hed or Croaia a for Eng i h Moreover i urn o hahe BGC defin iion of he pragmaic fn cion of hee oe baed on Eg i hare app icab le o Croaan a wel owever wha characerie Croaian i ha ie L one more frequeny in hee wo caegorie ha n En gl ih doe Th canagain be aociaed wih he more exeive e of oninoaional pragmacmean of expreio n For he caegorie of ph raeacce ad bo da ry one hee occr no only a alernaive feare combned wih one In Croaianhey are alo exenvey ed wh and % . So i r n o ha he Croaan

he research presented n os povć ( 993) sh ows that ths s the case as many as 95%cases!

154



JOSPOVIĆ: P HONETCS AND PHONOOGY OR STUDNTS O ENGSH

z)

1*

/

zH

� 3

�

1

L

%

l �1 OO 1 11 1 ms

Figure 65: Another orange (urprie) natve vs nonnative

Whi le the p itch track on the lethand ide repreent tune rom the orig inalPerreh umbert model thoe on th e right id e repreent dialogue acted out nanalogou pragmatc ituation by a natve peaker o Croatan luent in Eng l

l n igu re 62 the H* i realzed toward the end o the nucle which meanthat to a Croatian ear it woud ound a r iin g By contrat the H* o the ana logouCroatian intonation phae i p hon etically reaized a a peak which tart rom thevery begin ni ng o the n ucleu and begn to al l a lready i the econd hal o theyl lable

ln igu re 63 the Engl ih tune ha a preixed conigu ration LH* , wherea nit Croatian cou nterpart at th e anal ogou point there i a exica proodic pattern in thi cae H* , realized in the it ha o the in itia yla ble o Can ada '

he Engl h L*H in igu re 64 not matched b y a comparable Croatian cong-uration eithe Once again n Croatian we ind the LP P a in the preceding example

n the urprie contour o igure 65, En glih ha a r iing potnuclea movement o the tune achieved by the comb ination o H and H , wherea the correponding Croatian tune end in a all Experimental reearch eerred to earlieha hown that in th e tranlation equ ivalent o thee Eng lih ntonation ph raeCroatian peaker reort to a wide range o noni ntonational mean uch a thepragmatic expreion emphatic ponoun acial expreion getue andvoice qu ality Thi i not to ugget that En gli h doe not make ue o uch meano expreion t certan ly doe but apparently not to the extent to which C oatian

doe hi partly conirm the amou ayng attributed to Mark Libeman thatwhat other lang uage expre by geture Engl h expree by the gotti

lt i p robabl y not u nreal itic to expect that in t he nea r uture comp uter o-ware wi l be avai abl e to correct uch cae o wrong ocation an d identity o phonological ly cruc al poi nt in the F contour

Exercises

1 ame ome proodic eatue2 Syl labiy the word Engl ih and analye the tucture o it yl lab le by mean

o a tree diag ram

156



PROODIC PHONOLOGY

3 ve an exampe of a core sy \ab e n ng l sh

4 Stae some phon otactc restrctons of n g s h5 Give an example of an onsetess n g sh sy \abe6 Wha is he Sonority Seqen cng General ization?7 Wha s the M axmal Onset Prncipl e? Syl\ abfy the word 'exerience' takng ths

prncip e nto accont8 Why s an open sy \abe n ot necessari y l g ht? Gve an example of sch a syl \a

ble9 Why s sy \ab e weght mportant n phonol ogy?1 0 What is a mora? ow s t important n the prosodic analyss of Croatian?

1 1 ow is the Croatan Stress R le formated within the mo rabased app roach?1 2 Why is the formaton of hypocorstcs i n ang ages morphophonoogical \y interesting?

1 3 What are l dl i ngs? ow do yo say 'luding' n Pg Latn and n JPZIPI K?1 4 Gve an examp e of an ngi sh word whch has a secondary stress1 5 am e some ang ages wth fxed stress and some wth free stress1 6 G ive an examp le of an n g s h no nverb par d erng n the ocaion of stress1 7 ow does the n gl sh Stress Re define the locaton of stress n n ons? I I Is-

trate this wth an examp le1 8 xpain an d \ strate the roe of the foot n the formaton of some n gl sh

phonoogica r le1 9 Give an example n which the phonologica word does not concde with a mor-

phologca word

20 What is the doma n for the appl caton of the Rhyhmi c Reversa Re n ngish?

2 Which prosodc doma ns are larger than the phonoogca p hrase?22 xpa in the d ference between ng l sh an d Croatan wth respect to thei r re-

spective p aces n the typology of rhythm c systems?23 xpa n the controversy between the Brtish and Amercan approach n n tono-

logy24 What s the diference between the hol stic and compositiona app roach to n

tonaton?25 am e some p rposes for whic h the BGC mode of intonaton s particlary

sted

57



JOSI POVIĆ PHONEICS AND PHONOLOGY O SUDENS O EN GLISH

ome of he canddae for he op wod be t S 3 : t S z t S 3 : t S s and

t S 3 : Z/ I rrepecve of the ang uage we are dea ng wh he re are wo u nver-a prncpe ha deermne whch of he poena op form w be choenOne of hem Faihuess I he force ha re o make the oupu form den tca o the n p form owever ang age are no away fahf Th why nhe exampe at hand he correc p ra of 'chrch no t S 3 : t S z The oher prn-cp e that of markedess. the tendency n ang uage o prefer pron uncaon n form ha are more common e n marked n rea y he eecon of theoup reu from he nteracon of hee two force Each o f he wo p rnc pe repreened hrogh nvera conran

Amog he conra nt expreg Fathfune three mportant one are uu-

ay nged o One of hem ha he deeon of egmen prohb ed ha heoup houd be maxmay fahfu o he n p In he OT noaon h contra n n -dcaed a The nex conran proh b he neron of egmen e heop hod be enrey dependen on he np The noatona convenon for hconran epO The h rd conra n tate tha a egmen n he otpu dentca o he correpond ng egmen n he n p expreed a Ide()

Let now u trae two mportan contrant expreg U nma rkedneOne of hem ha eqence of b an corona rden are proh bed wh nh e word It expreed a *SibSib h e other refer o he proh b on o f e-qence of obren wh n he ame y abe ha do no agree for voc ng I

ndcaed n noaon avoicevoice52

The eva a on of he cand dae op expreed n he form of a ab e For h examp e h e abe wod ook ke he one preened beow The n pform o be eva uaed n d caed n he op ehand ce An aterk n a ce n-dcae ha he form n ha row voae he conra n n ha co mn The comb nato of the aterk an d the excamaon mark mea n hat he voaon faaand herefore emnaed from frher conderaon The row of he abe repreent he cand dae for evaaon The co mn nd cae he contran hat arereevan n he partcar cae he opma form e he one ha wn o marked Shadd ce n d cae ha he correpond ng conran have beene m n ated a rreevant o he fae of the form concerned

t 3 : t - Z *ibib DepO *avoiceavoice"

t 3 : t Z *! , *

t 3 : t Z ' *

t 3 : d Z *!./

t 3 : t * !

able 6 OT evaaon o f he candd ae op of t S 3 : t S z

52 n ponoogica notation, '(' is te sybo fo eite of te two possi be bin ary specifications

+ or - hus if a is (+) -( is (-) a nd vice versa

160



RCN TRNS N PHONOLOGCAL HOR

t i obviou rom th bl th in Englih it i mor imortnt to obySibS ib thn I O h i, n th Engl h hrrchy o conri, S ibS b imor hi ghly rnkd thn IO

By wy o concluio n , it my b id tht inc th rly 990 nd th dv o Otm y hory, honol ogc ru hv bn bdo d nd rcdby un ivrl t o contri nt tht r rn kd on ng ugrticul r bihi bri i l l utrtion o th bic rincil o honoogicl nlyi within th Oroch w mn onl y o oin to h di rcto wc contmorry honol ogyi tking A lwy, or mo r indth count , on i rrrd o th ci dlitrur on th ubjct

Exrciss

Wht do th xron O mn?2 Wht i th bic dirnc btwn th O roch nd t h rl ir

roch to h onologicl nyi?3 Nm nd xln on iun cond on nd ind xm whr h

condit ion i violtd in En gl h

4 Whi ch contrint would b violtd i n th orm b1 or th u r o 'bus

5 rw u n O tb or th lction o th otm url ouu t o zi6 Tking into conidrton l l th roch rntd in t hi book, wht i

your vour wy o ccoutng or h roun cto o rgu r u r orm En g ih? u ti you r choc (O cour, t hr r no corrct or incorrct nwr hr )

161



PPNX

30 Featue geomety 106

3 1 SP E vs. featue geomety 1073 RP gottal saton 107

33 e skeleal te 108

34 two sylabe stuctue 1 1 4

35 in syllable stuctue 1 1 4

36 l ttle syllable stuctue 1 1 5

37 e coe syllable of Engl s 1 1 5

38 Engl s pon otactc estctons concenng 1 1 6

39 e amb sylabc cea I ' of yeow 1 1 6

40 Onsetless Engls sylable 1 1 741 Sylabe w a brancng onset 1 1 7

4 Open vs closed sylabe 1 1 8

43 Heavy sylabes: bancng n te yme 1 1 9

44 e l gt sylla ble of II 1 1 9

45 e morac stucture of te Coatan l ong accents 10

46 e moac stuctue of te Coatan so accents 1 1

47 e fou Coatan accents te moabased a ppoac 1

48 e Coatan ypocostc template 14

49 e Pgatn template 1550 gt pe nutmate vs eavy penultmate 18

5 1 Ogansaton of sylabes nto feet 19

5 Footfnal vs footntal I 130

53 e contadctoy contour 140

54 H vs tones n ntepoaton ues 144

55 Welfomed ngls cofguatons 146

56 JPH nna came with Manny 146

57 JPH: he cardamon bread was good 147

58 JPH Its reay too good to be true 14759 JPH: hats a remarkably clever suggestion 148

60 JPH here is a lovely one in Canada 148

61 Repesentaton of Croatan P Ps preseed n ntonaton 1 53

6 nna came with anny nat ve vs nonnatve pronuncaton 155

63 here is a lovely one in Canada nat ve vs nonnatve 1 55

64 Rigmale is monomorphemic nat ve vs nonnatve 155

65 nother orange! nat ve vs. nonnatve 156

64



Tables and charts

Table 1 : RP consonants

Table : Mean frequency values for the formants of RP vowels

able 3 Mean freque ncy values for the formants of Croatan

Table 4 Stressbased vs syl\ablebased rhythm

Tabl e 5 Types of ntonatonal models

Table 6 OT evalu aton of the canddate outputs of lt S : t S -zi

PA consonantal cha

I PA vowels

Words typical ly mi spronou ced

APPENDX

page

34

81

81

133

141

160

170

170

A it wou b imoib to ovi xhutiv it o wo which mioouc by Coti tut o Egl ih , it i btt to iti om bh uch m iou ctio Ni ctgoi o Eg lih wo wil b igl outh ott y 'ticky' i th o ch o thm om tyic xmwil l b giv Th hou l b u rtoo o l it, to which tut -coug to th ow xm tht giv thm icult ou citio

Words with tricky spe ings

Thi ctgoy o g i h wo i bt i l l utt by th xm ou i th Stut Athm , ' A Dul gug', giv i th t Aix S o,i it o to th xml ou th l t u o w mtio w oth

buy i

cml l

oky

i ict ' toccu ov

wom W /thym tI

2 Proer names

o m comm o ly t mo iiculty i o uc itio , otbcu thy o oEgih oigi om xml o commoly

mioouc o m

5



AENDIX

Bassinger b Ie (r)/

Con necticut n IkeLeicester ls

Malcolm <

ottingham nDtIemTha il and <n

Thames temz

Thomas De

Tucson us

3 Words with typicaly mispronounced accentual patterns:

Some E ng lis h words are typical ly wrong ly accented by foreigne rs So me-times this happens because they belong to adjective/nou nverb pairs which areexpected to dier by the location of stress, an d in fact they do not, beca use theyare exceptions to that rule A case in poin t would be the nou n 'efom ', which for-ei gners often wrongl y stress on the in itia l sylla bl e, to di stin gu ish it from the relatedverb I n fact, both the nou n an d the verb have stress on the second syll abl e rI ' f Within thi s categoy, mention sh ould also be made of words in whichnonnative speakers of nglish typically wrongly locate the seconday accentProbably the most famous such exampl e is that of 'negoation', which is usual lymisp ronounced as * [ , geu S I ' I S en] instead of the correct guJ I S eniAnother famou s exampl e to be mentioned in ths category is that of 'spiitual'. Thisadjective is typically mispronounced as * [pI S uel] and it should bestressed on the first syl labl e pI rIt S ual .

4 Words withTrisy abic Laxing

Som e En gl is h words present dificulties for foreigners because their pronun-ciation requires the application of the rul e ofTrisyllab ic Laxing , d iscussed i n chapter8 5 of the present book Cases in point would be 'analysis' e < and 'Bibcal' bIblIkeli but most ironically, the bestknown example in this category isthe adjective ' infamous' , which is in deed infamous for this reason Rather than thecommonly heard * [In ' fIe] , its correct pronunciation i s ns/

5 Words key

to be mispronounced unde r the nfu ence of Croata n:

On e subcategory f these words in clud es those items which a t some pointhave the combi nation of a sonorant and s/. These a re typical ly in ternational isedwords of atin orig in , which in Croatian are pronou nced with z rather than s atthe relevant point ere are some examp les

ew peope know that th e popu ar actress Kim Bassinger pronounces he r ast nam e as

ind icated above and not *// as most peope think

166



APPNX

un verty u I V3 : seI

cononant I kseent I ' sIs

The other ub categoy comrie word which Croatan h a borrowed romEn gl h and ad ated to t own hon olog ical ytem A uch , thee word rere-ent otential ou rce o m ronu ncaton . Here are two uch examle

jukebox I k boksteak

6 Homographs

ln Engih there are a ew cae o word whch are elled n the ameway, bu t the y are ronoun ced derently and , accord ng ly, carry d erent mean-n g Here are two uch cae or l lu tration

drawer I I = 'sding container'

2 r8 : e = 'one who draws'

rayer Ire = 'act Iwords of praying '

2 I prIe = 'one who prays'

7 Wods confused for thei rsimi ar ity

awl 18 I = 'a pointed hand tool' vs

ow u = 'a noctual bird of prey'

crochet I kr eu S I = 'a iece o needlework or the related verb vs

crotchet I ' kro S I = a note n mucceae Is s = toeze I = caturedoe Idu = amoun t taken at one tmedoze d = lee l gt ly

Words subject to the /g/-Deetion Rue nger I sIe/ ng ng I Ihang er I h�e/ hangi ng h�Itrong sro/ but I sroge I srogIs

9 Foreign words i n Eng ish

hor doeuvre 1 dvkarate I r : roux Iru 1

obrquet I seubkI167



APPNDX

16

A Dreadful anguage

tudents phoneti anthem

text: trdition l ( un known uthor)

mu ic by J I kić D P ln inec A S im ić

I tke it you l redy know

O though nd bough nd cough n d doug h?

other my tumb e bu t not you

On h iccough thorough rough nd through

Wel don e And n ow you wih erh

o len o le mi ir t?

Bewre o hed dredu l wod

ht ook l i ke berd nd o und l ike bid

And ded it id l ike bed not bed

For goodne ke don t cl l it deed

Wtch out or met n d gret nd thret

(They rhyme with uite nd tright nd debt)

A moth i not moth in mother

Nor both in bother broth in brother

And here i not mtch or there

Nor de nd er o ber n d e

And then there doe nd roe nd l oe

Jut look thee u nd gooe nd chooe

And cok nd work n d crd nd wd

And ont nd ront nd word nd word

And do nd go nd thwt nd ct

Come come ve hrdy mde trt

A dredul l ngu ge? Mn l ive

d mteed it when w ive



APPDX

Abbreviatios

ant. anteror

ATR advanced tongu e root

bck back

BGC btonal generatve compostonal

C consonant

V vowel

cg constrcted gotts

cont contnuant

cor. coronal

CV card nal vowel

dB dec beldel rel delayed release

fundamental frequ ency

GenAm General Amercan

H hg h tone

h hg h (feature)

H Hert

PA nternatonal Phonetc Alphabet

JPH example from th e Perrehumbert corpus

kH kloHert

L low tone

lab. aba

PP lexcal prosodc pattern

MBP Maxmal Bnarty Prncple

MOP Maxmal Onset Prncple

MP Metrcal Phonology

msec ml l second

O Optma lty heory

phar. pharyngeal

rnd round

RP Receved Pronuncaton

sg spread gottsson. sonorant

SP E Sound Patern of Engl sh

S PP Speech Proucton and Percepton

SSG Sonorty Seuencng Generalaton

tone

BF tongu ebody features

BU toebearng unt

SL rsyllab c Laxng

V vowel

V voce onset tme

17 1



APPENDIX

Suggested redgs

Car J & C Ya lop ( 1 990) , A n ntduction to Phonetics and PhonologyBacwel

Cruttenden A ( 199) , ed Gimson 's Pnunciation o English 5th ed dward Ar-no d

Gieger ich J ( 1 99 ) , Englsh Phonology: An ntduction CUP

Guenhoven C & Jacob ( 1 998) , nderstanding Phonology London ewYor Sidney Aucand Arnod

Jacon MTT ( 1997) , ed peech Pduction and Perception CD Cambridge MA Seni metrc

Katamba F ( 1 98 9), An ntduction to Phonology LongmanKentowcz M ( 1 99 ) , Phonology in Generative Grammar Blacwel l

Ladd D R ( 1 99 ) , ntonational Phonology Longman

Ladefoged P ( 98 ) , A ourse in Phoneics. BJ Pub iher

Mače D ( 1 999) , Englesi šim sveta Zagreb Artreor forthcom ng

Spencer A ( 1 99 ), Phonology Blacwe

Reerence leraure

Crytal D ( 1 990) , A ictiona o inguistics and Phonetics Bacwe l Pu l um G & WA Laduaw ( 1 98 ) , Phonetic ymbol Guide. h e U nivertry ofChcago Pre

Tra RL ( 1 99) , A ictiona o Phonetics and Phonology Rouedge

Wel J C ( 1 990) , Pnunciation ictiona Longman

Refereces

Anderon S R ( 198) , Phonology in the Twentieth Century The Univerty ofChcago Pre

Baran J ( 199) , Zvučna l ia hrvatoga govora B I S grafa

Chomy ( 197) , Syntactic Structure The ague M outon & CoChomy & M ale ( 198) , he Sound Pattern of ng ih ew Yor

vanton and Londo n arper & Row Pub iher

Cohen R J Morgan M Po loc ed ( 1990) , nention in commu nicaton Cam-bridge MT Pre

Coeman O ( 1 9 1 ) , I ntonation and empha Mice la nea Phonetica Pari London AIP

Gimon AC ( 1980) , An nroducion to he Pronu ncation of ng ih LondonArnod

172



APPNDX

Genhoven , C & Jcob ( 1 998), U ndertnd ng Phonology London ew

York S dney Acklnd Ano ld le , M ( 992), ' Phonoogcl eture' l n I ntent on En cycloped o Ln gu-t c, Vol 3, ed W Bght , 2072 2

obb , J ( 990) , 'The Peehum bet chbeg theory o ntonto menng mde mple ' l n Cohen, et l ( 1 990) , 3 3323

I nkel, S & D Zec ( 1 988), 'SerboCrotn ptch ccent he n tercton o tone,tre, nd ntonon ' Lngug .

Ktmb, F ( 992), An I ntodcton to Phonology LongmnJckon, MTT , ed (1997), Speech Prodct on nd Percept on Cmbdge,

MA Sen merc

Jopovć, V (993), Supregmentne onove tnog kcent neugjeprozodjkh utv hvtkog englekog jezk P h D the U nvertyo Zgeb

Kentowcz, M (1 994), Phonology n Genertve Grmmr Blckwel l

L bermn, M & A Pr nce (1 977), ' On tre n d l n gt c rhythm ' Lngutc I n-, 249339

Lbermn, M & I Sg (1 974), 'Proodc Form nd Lng tc Fnct on ' l n Pperrom the 1 0th MC LS, 41 6427

Mček, D ( 999), Englek š rom vjet, fohcoming. Zgeb: Artreor

Pmer, E (922), Engh ntonton wth Sytemtc Exerce CmbdgeHeer & Son

Perreh mbert , J B (1 980), The Phonology nd Ph onetc o Eng l h ntonton Ph D the M IT

Perreh mbert , J B & J rchberg ( 1 987), he Men ng o Intont on Contorn te nterpretton o Dco re AT&T Lbortore echn cl Memorn -dm

Pnce, A & P Smol enky ( 993), Optml ty Theory: contrnt ntecton n genertve grmmr ew Brunwck, J uge Unverty

Pul um, G K ( 996), Phonetc Symbol Gd e The U nverty o Chcgo PeSzpy, (995), hree Ter n Po h nd Eng h Phonoogy ub n

Wydwnctwo U nverytet Mr Cre Sklodowkej

rbetzkoy, S (1939), Grndzge der Phonologe rvox d cerclel n gt qe de Prge 7

Wel l , J C ( 1 982) , Accent o Eng l Vo l , I I , I I CUP

173



APPNX

Anderson, S . R

Bakran

Baudoun de Couenay, J

Bernou , D

Bonger, D

Chomsky

Coeman, H.O

Crysta, D

de Saussure, F.

Gmson, C.

Gussenhoven , C.

Ha e, M

Hschbeg, J

Hobbs , J R

nkeas, S.

Jackson, MT.T

Jacobs, H.

Jakobson, R

Jones, D.

Jospovć, VKatamba, F

Kenstowc, M.

Kparsky, P.

adefoged, P

adusaw, W.A.

berman, M.

ndsey, G

Maček, D

Martnet,

Pamer, HE

Pckett, J .M .

Perehumbert, JB.

Pnce,

Pu um, G K .

Sag, .

Smoensky, P

Spyra, J.

Trubetkoy, .

Wad, G

We s , J C

Zec, D

17

Name I dex

page

30

81

26

2 1

137 141

89

139

132

9 , 30 , 90

81

9 1 , 1 1 5

89, 90, 1 0 3

1 4 1 1 4 3 , 1 49

149152

121

79

9 1 , 1 1 5

3090

38

1 33 , 1 5430

91 , 1 03

109

79, 1 41

56

1 4 1 , 1 56

137

3 3, 47

10 , 14 1

137

84

1 3 6, 1 3 8, 1 4 1 1 56

1 59

56

140

159

109

2 8, 30

149

33, 43, 55, 66, 67

121



Amharc

Arabc

Austraan Englsh

Aerbajan

Baltc languages

Bengal

Brtsh Columban French

Burmese

Bushman languages

Canadan Engl sh

Chnese

Classcal G reek

Cockney

Cech

Dalmatan dalects

Desano

Dubrovnk accent

Dutch

Eskmo

EweFnnsh

French

Georde

German

Hawaan

Hnd

Hungaran

gbo

r sh Engl sh

tal an

JapaneseJepepk

Kajkavan dalects

Mandarn Ch nese

NeoŠtokavan

New Zealand En glsh

Persan

Pg Latn

Pol sh

Language Index54

page

52

44 52 1 02 1 07 1 1 7

54

44

1 2 9 1 34

138

44

29 44

52

54

74

27

2 1 33 60

44

1 1 7

102

40

1 38

52

5640

22 40 1 02 1 27

40 54

22 28 40 4 1 56 1 1 7 1 38

1 1 5

29

56

52

53

4 7 59

27 56 75 1 20 1 23 1 34 1 38125

29

40

1 2 1

54

44

125

56 1 27

APPNX

hs ls also ncludes vaous v

ees of nvd ual languages as well as ludl ngs P GenAm

ad Sandad Coaa ae no ncuded as hey ae couously dscussed hugho he book

175



APPNDX

Potuguese 55

Quecua 52

Scotts E ngl s 2 2 53

Scouse 130

Semtc languages 1 07

Snd 52

Slavonc l anguages 75

Slovene 44

Sout Afcan Engls 54

Spans 44 56 63 1 3 3

Swal 44

Sweds 40 75

a 1 1 5ndad E ngl s 54

Ulste Engl s 54, 1 30

Vetnamese 52

Wels Engls 55

West County Engls 55

Xosa 52

Zulu 52

Subject Idex

accent 33 1 26accentual pase 131acoustc ponetcs 10

Adams apple 2acate 35

al lopone 26 5660alveola dge 3ambsyl labcty 1 1 6Amecan Scool of ntonology 1 361 39antepenultmate stess 1 1 0anteo 94apas a 15

append 1 1 5appomant 38, 83ac 58

aea of toleance 27

atculato featues 91

17

page



arytenod cartage 0artcuatory phonetcs, 1 0a sp rat o n 5 7 1 1 0 1 9 13 0ass aton 6 1 0astersk 1 60autosegenta phonoogy, 1 03 1 07audtory phonetcs 1 0back, 9back of the tongu e 3Bernou eect, 1bnarty, 30bade of th e tongue 3

BGC ode of ntonat on 1 36 1 38156b aba , 3btona 138156beedng , 99boundary tone 1 31 56branchng 1 1 brdge, 35

Brtsh Schoo of ntonoogy, 1 361 39broad transcrpton 1 bu s eye, 5ca ng contour, 11

cardna vowe scae, 381ced a 56

centra vowe, 0centrng dphthong , 6

cear Il 37 97cck, 5 93

c n ca phonoogy 15c t c 1 31

cose vowe, 39cosed sy ab e 1 1 8cosng dphthong , 6

coaescence 65cochea, 17coda , 1 1 5copetence 9copeentary dstrbuton 6copostona approach 1391copresson 67

conneted speech, 6 1 67consonanta 9 1constrant 1 59constrcted gotts 9

contnuant 93

APPNDIX

177



APPNDIX

contadctoy contou, 140contast, 27core syl lab le, 1 1 5cone, 58corona l , 23, 92, 1 1 5Croatan Stess Rule, 122cown, 23

cul y backets, 97CV t e , 1 08

dak Il 37, 97decbe, 76degenerate foot, 1 28

delayed elease, 94D ep O , 1 6 0devaton, 159descptve appoach , 9

dactc, 5760dphthong, 46, 81dst nctve fetue, 29 , 9097dstbuted, 94dosa, 92dosum , 23double aculaton , 1 0

Downstep, 1 46egessve asteam, 1 8eectve, 51 52eson, 65

envonmenta ba, 97epenthess, 98, 09epgotts, 22

euhythmca anguage , 63Fathful ness, 1 60

fa ng accents, 1 52fa ng d ptong, 47

featue geomety, 1 03feedng, 1 00Fna ens ng , 13 1

fsh hook , 54fxed stress, 1 27fap, 54F a pp n g, 54 , 1 1 0 , 1 2 9 1 3 0 , 1 34

floatng tone, 1 44foot, 1 28footbased hyth m, 1 34

foensc phonetcs, 1 5

fomant, 78

178



free stress 1 27free varaton 27frcatve 3 7frcton less contn uant 38front vowe 40fundamental frequency 7275forensc phonetcs 1 5formant 7885

front of the tongu e 23generatve phonoogy 891 1 1g de 37gotta l stop 21 60 94 1 041 05 1 07

glottal c sounds 51gott s 2 0grammatcal words 62guttura 52halfclose 39halfopen 39halfrng 59hard palate 23harmonc 77head 137heavy syl lable 1 1 9

h gh 92holstc approach 1 391 42homorganc 5 1hypocorstc formaton 1 231 2Ident(F) 1 60mplementaton rule 146mplosve 5152ntensty 76ntermedate phrase 1 45Internatonal Phonetc Aphabet 14

nterpolaton rules 1 46

ntonaton 135ntonaton anguag e 74ntonat on phrase 1 1 31

ntonatonal morpheme 1 391 42ntonology 1 35ntrusve r 66sochrony 132Jepek 1 251 26un cture phenomena 66aba 92langue 9

aryngea features 94

ADX

17



APPNDIX

laynx 20lateal 36 9lax 3 93lexcal posodc patten 1 52lexcal ponology 1 09lexcal le 1 1 0lexcal wod 62lexcon 1 09lason 65l gt syl lable 1 1 9l nkng 65long fal ng accent 1 201 2long sng accent 12012lodness 7577low 92ld l ng 12

velasaton 3793mansteam RP 33maoclass featues 91 1 031 0mann e feates 93manne of aclaton 3makedness 0axmal Onset Pncple 1 1 8

axmal Bnaty Pncple 128AX O 1 60melodc t e 1 01metafeates 1 0metcal ponology 126 128mnma l pa 28moa 12012moabased ytm 1 3mu lttered ponology 1 00naowband spectogam 78naow tanscpton 1

nasal 36 93NeoŠtokavan Accent Sft 1 2 1netalsaton 28newscasteese clmax 1 32nonl nea ponology 1 001 09nonplmonc 51nonotc 1 02Notumbn bu 55n ucleu s 1 0 1 1 1 1 37obstuent 91oesopags 19

onset 1 0 1 1 03 1 1 1 1 8

18



open sy labe 1 1 8open vowel 39opposton 28optma 159Optmalty eoy 1 59oa cavty 22ovetone 77palata 3paatoaveoa 3paole 9penut mate stess 1 1 0pefomance 9

pespectogam 8paynx 22

ponaton 20 91poneme 2530ponoogcal pase 1 31ponoogca wod 1 30ponotactc estcton 1 02, 1 1 pase accent 1 31 56Pg atn 125ptc accent 1 31 56ptcaccent language 7

ptc tack 737place of atculaton 3, 92posve 35

postexcal ues 1 1 0PostNasa Delet on 1 1 0PostSP ponoogy 1 00 1 1 59Pague Scoo 30

pex 1 50pescptve appoac 9pmay cadnal vowels 0posodc featues 1 1 3

posody 1 1 3pseudofomant 80pumonc asteam 18pue vowels 1 , 9597quadangu a vocac system ange of pefomance 27

atatatatat angu age 1 32eadjustment u e 1 6Receved Ponun caton 22 33edu ndant 29Regula Plual Rue 1 2 981 00, 1 1

etofex 55

ANDX

18 1



APPENX

otcs 5355yme 1 01 1 03

ytm 1 32Rytm c Reversal Rule 1 31rsn g accents 1 53rsng d ptongs 47

ootandpattern morpology 1 07 1 24root o te ton gu e 22ound 93umptytumpty language 1 32salence 149seconday card na l vowels 40so al l ng accent 1 2 1sot rsng accent 21sb lant 160skelea l te 1 01 1 071 08skeleon 1 071 08smootn g 66so palate 22sonorant 91

Sonorty Sequencng Generalaton 1 1 8spectrum 76spectrogram 7785

spectrograp 77speec patology 1 5SPE ponology 901 00Speec Staton2 72 73 84speec syntess 1 5spread gotts 9495stress1 26stressbased 1 331 34stressm ed 1 32strdent 93stong socrony ypotess 1 33

strucural c ange 97srucural descrpton 97structure peservaton 1 1 1subgottal pressure 20substuton 28sux 1 50

supraglottal pessure 20suprasegmental eatues 1 1 3syl labc er 1 01syl lab le 1 01 1 03 1 1 3 126syl lablebased 1 331 34

syllabletmed 1 32

2



ta , 1 37tap, 5appng , 1 1 0 , 1 91 30tepate, 107108, 1316tense, 3, 93t de, 37, 59tone anguage, 7tongu ebody features, 9trachea, 19tree representaton, 1 0 1tr l , 5trangu lar voca syste,

trphthong, 7rs labc axng, 1 1 0underdot, 59underrng, 37, 59underspecfcaton, 91unarkedness 160

APPENDIX

Phonetics and Phonology for Students of English - Visnja Josipovic

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