Phonemes/ Allophones/ Complimentary Distribution/ Free VariationsDistribution and Realization of English ConsonantsThe Syllable Structure

Prepared by: Zhian Fadhil Asaad

May 2, 2023 2

What's Phoneme?

A phoneme is a basic unit of a language's phonology, which is combined with other phonemes to form meaningful units such as words . The phoneme can be described as "The smallest contrastive linguistic unit which may bring about a change of meaning". In this way the difference in meaning between the English words kill and kiss is a result of the exchange of the phoneme /l/ for the phoneme /s/. Two words that differ in meaning through a contrast of a single phoneme are called minimal pairs. Gimson, ed. Cruttenden (2008). pp. 41

Phonemes are meaning distinguishing sounds ,they contrastively and they are abstract .they are in the mind. Fromkin &Rodman(2003).p283

May 2, 2023 3

Phone and Allophone

Phone: is a term in phonetics to refer to the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in stream of speech. From the viewpoint of segmental Phonology , phones are the physical realization ofphonemes.Crystal(2003),p347

Allophones: A set of phones all of which are version of one phoneme ,An Allophone is therefore a predictable phonetic variant of Phoneme. Fromkin &Rodman(2003).p285

May 2, 2023 4

Distinguish between Phoneme and Allophone

1.Phoneme: Substituting one phoneme for another will result in a word with a different meaning as well as a different pronunciation.Recognized by speakers as separate soundsWe use slash // to enclose phonemes .2. Allophone: Substituting one allophone for another would result in a different pronunciation of the same word no change in the meaning.Speakers hear them as the same sound.We use square brackets [] for Allophones or Phones.Yule (2006),p45

May 2, 2023 5

Complimentary Distribution

Complementary distribution is commonly applied to phonology, where similar phones in complementary distribution are usually allophones of the same phoneme. For instance, in English, [p] and [pʰ] are allophones of the phoneme /p/ because they occur in complementary distribution. [pʰ] always occurs when it is the syllable onset and followed by a stressed vowel (as in the word pin). [p] occurs in all other situations (as in the word spin).There are cases where elements are in complementary distribution, but are not considered allophones. For example in English [h] and [ŋ] are in complementary distribution, since [h] only occurs at the beginning of a syllable and [ŋ] only at the end. But because they have so little in common in phonetic terms they are still considered separate phonemes.When two or more sounds occur in the same phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in Complimentary Distribution. ex:When oral vowel occur, nasal vowels don’t occur and vice versa. In this sense the phones are said to complement each other. Fromkin &Rodman(2003).p287,290

May 2, 2023 6

Free Variation

Free variation in linguistics is the phenomenon of two (or more) sounds or forms appearing in the same environment without a change in meaning and without being considered incorrect by native speakers. When phonemes are in free variation, speakers are sometimes strongly aware of the fact especially where such variation is only visible across a dialectal , and will note, for example, that tomato is pronounced differently in British and American English, or that either has two pronunciations which are fairly randomly distributed. However, only a very small proportion of English words show such variations. In the case of allophones, however, free variation is exceedingly common, and, along with differing intonation patterns, variation in allophone is the most important single feature in the characterization of regional accentsClark, John Ellery; Yallop, Colin; Fletcher, Janet (2007).Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 110, 116–18.

May 2, 2023 7

Distribution and Realization of English consonants

Distribution: the English stop consonants could be defined by the following set of

minimally contrasting words:- i) /pɪn/ vs /bɪn/ vs /tɪn/ vs /dɪn/ vs /kɪn/ Only /ɡ/ does not occur in this paradigm and at least one minimal

pair must be found with each of the other 5 stops to prove conclusively that it is not a variant form of one of them.

Again, only five stops belong to this paradigm. A single minimal pair contrasting /ɡ/ and /k/ is required now to fully demonstrate the set of English stop consonants.

/ɡæɪn/ vs /kæɪn/ eg. In English, /h/ and /ŋ/ are in complementary distribution. /h/ only

ever occurs at the beginning of a syllable (head, heart, enhance, perhaps) whilst /ŋ/ only ever occurs at the end of a syllable (sing, singer, finger). They are, however, so dissimilar that no one regards them as allophones of the one phoneme. They vary in place and manner of articulation, as well as voicing. Further the places of articulation (velar vs glottal) are quite remote from each other and /h/ is oral whilst /ŋ/ is nasal.

May 2, 2023 8

Aspiration – strong explosion of breath. In English a voiceless plosive that is p, t or k is aspirated whenever it stands as the only consonant at the beginning of the stressed syllable.

Lack of plosion – In English a plosive (p, t, k, b, d, g) has no plosion when it is followed by another plosive or an affricate inside words or across word boundary.

Nasal plosion – In English a plosive (p, t, k, b, d, g) has nasal plosion when it’s followed by nasal, inside a word or across word boundary.

Partial devoicing of sonorants – In English a non vocalic sonorant that is not a vowel (j, w, l, r, m, n, ŋ) is partially devoiced when it follows a voiceless sound within the same way inside a word.

Complete devoicing of sonorants – In English a non vocalic sonorant is completely devoiced in the position of aspiration, when they follow a voiceless plosives (p, t, k) standing as the first consonant at the beginning of the stressed syllable.

May 2, 2023 9

Partial devoicing of obstruents – in English language a voiced obstruent is partially devoiced next to a pause or next to a voiceless sound, inside a word or across its boundary.

Dentalisation – in English t, d, n, l become dental before voiced and voiceless English ‘th’ sound.

Retraction – in English t, d, n, l are retracted before r.

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allophone

May 2, 2023 10

The Syllable StructureThe structure of English spoken syllable can be summarized as follows:Minimally , a syllable consists of a vowel , or a vowel like sound which acts as a nucleus ,center or pick of the syllable.Many syllables have one or more consonants preceding the nucleus. These make up the syllable onset :me ,so, play. Traditionally they are known as open syllables.Many syllables have one or more consonants following the nucleus. These make up syllables coda :am, ants, eel. They are traditionally known as closed syllables.Man syllables have both an onset and a coda :cat, jump.

May 2, 2023 11

•The combination of nucleus and coda has a special significance, making up the rhyming property of syllable: cat sat, jump, clump .In analysing syllable structure its important to look for the pronunciation behind a word spelling. although ooze ends in a written vowel , it ends in a spoken consonant and its structure is VC. Similarly all is VC not VCC, jumped is CVCCC not CVCCVC and fox is CVCC not CVC.Crystal(2003)p246

May 2, 2023 12

Syllabic Consonants There is one exception to the rule that a syllable must have a vowel as its nucleus. This occur when certain vowel like consonants-/l/,/r/, or a nasal –act as the center of the syllable , as in bottle /bDtl/,button /bʌtn/, and in those accents which pronounce /r/ perhaps /prhaps/. syllable onset rhyme nucleus coda Crystal(2003)p246

May 2, 2023 13

References Cruttenden, Alan, 2008, Gimson's Pronunciation

of English, 7th ed., London. Clark, John Ellery; Yallop, Colin; Fletcher, Janet

(2007).Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell.

David Crystal,2003,The Cambridge Ensyclopia of the English Language,2nd ed.

Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman,2003,An Introduction to Language,7th ed.

George Yule,2006,The Study of Language, 3rd ed. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allophone