PhilosophyPhilosophy

PhilosophyPhilosophy

PhiloPhilo (love) + (love) + sophiasophia (wisdom)(wisdom)

Philosophy is the love (or Philosophy is the love (or pursuit) of wisdompursuit) of wisdom

Wisdom is good judgmentWisdom is good judgment So, philosophy is the love (or So, philosophy is the love (or

pursuit) of good judgmentpursuit) of good judgment

WonderWonder

Philosophy begins in Philosophy begins in wonderwonder At the worldAt the world At what we doAt what we do At our natureAt our nature

Wonder —> reflection —> Wonder —> reflection —> critical examinationcritical examination

MetaphysicsMetaphysics

The study of what The study of what there isthere is What is the world made What is the world made

of?of? What kinds of things are What kinds of things are

there?there? What is real? What is What is real? What is

merely apparent?merely apparent? What am I?What am I?

EpistemologyEpistemology

The theory of knowledgeThe theory of knowledge How do I know?How do I know? What is knowledge?What is knowledge? Can I have knowledge of Can I have knowledge of

anything at all?anything at all? If so, where do I get it?If so, where do I get it? Can I know anything Can I know anything

independently of independently of experience, through experience, through philosophical reflection philosophical reflection alone?alone?

EthicsEthics

Ethics is practical— Ethics is practical— pertains to actionpertains to action

So, ethics is the So, ethics is the pursuit of good pursuit of good judgment about actionjudgment about action——

about what to doabout what to do

Is philosophy practical?Is philosophy practical?

Philosophy asks questionsPhilosophy asks questions What the world is like,What the world is like, How we know it, andHow we know it, and What we ought to do about it,What we ought to do about it,

Which affect our lives every dayWhich affect our lives every day Philosophy is the most practical of all Philosophy is the most practical of all

disciplinesdisciplines

Socrates (-470 - -399)Socrates (-470 - -399)

Contemporary of Contemporary of Sophocles, Euripides, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Herodotus, Aristophanes, Herodotus, and Thucydidesand Thucydides

First in West to advance First in West to advance philosophical argumentsphilosophical arguments

Wrote nothing; appears as Wrote nothing; appears as character in dialogues of character in dialogues of Plato (-427 - -347)Plato (-427 - -347)

Socratic method (Socratic method (dialecticdialectic))

Socrates asks what ___ isSocrates asks what ___ is Someone answersSomeone answers Socrates analyzes the Socrates analyzes the

definition and asks definition and asks questions to show thatquestions to show that It’s unclearIt’s unclear It’s too narrowIt’s too narrow It’s too broadIt’s too broad

Someone proposes Someone proposes another definition, etc.another definition, etc.

What is a chair?What is a chair?

ChairsChairs

Definitions and their problemsDefinitions and their problems

What is a chair?What is a chair? ““A kind of furniture”A kind of furniture”

Unclear: Unclear: WhatWhat kind? kind?

““A piece of furniture A piece of furniture with four legs and a with four legs and a back”back”

Chairs

Things satisfying the

Too narrow

Toobroad

definition

Definitions and their problemsDefinitions and their problems

What is a chair?What is a chair? ““A kind of furniture”A kind of furniture”

Unclear: Unclear: WhatWhat kind? kind? ““A piece of furniture A piece of furniture

with four legs and a with four legs and a back”back” Too broad: stools, Too broad: stools,

divans, sofas, benchesdivans, sofas, benches Too narrow: bean bag Too narrow: bean bag

chairs, chairs chairs, chairs suspended from ceilingsuspended from ceiling

Chairs

Things satisfying the

Too narrow

Toobroad

definition

The The ApologyApology “And so he [Meletus, the prosecutor]

proposes the death penalty. What shall I propose, O men of Athens? Clearly that which is my due. And what should I pay or receive? What should be done to a man who has never had the wit to be idle during his whole life?”

What Socrates tried to doWhat Socrates tried to do

“I have been careless of what the many care about-- wealth, family interests, military offices, speaking in the assembly, magistracies, plots, and parties. Reflecting that I was really too honest a man to live like this, I didn't go where I could do no good to you or to myself, but where I could do the greatest good privately to every one of you.”

Seek Virtue and WisdomSeek Virtue and Wisdom

“I sought to persuade every one of you to look to himself, and seek virtue and wisdom before he looks to his private interests, and look to the state before he looks to the interests of the state; and that this should be the order which he observes in all his actions.”

What do I deserve?What do I deserve?

“What should be done to someone like me? Doubtless some good thing, O men of Athens, if he has what he deserves. The good thing should be suitable to him. What would be a reward suitable to a poor man who is your benefactor, who desires the leisure to instruct you?”

A free lunch!A free lunch!

“There can be no more fitting reward than free meals in the Prytaneum, O men of Athens, a reward which he deserves far more than the citizen who has won the prize at Olympia in the horse or chariot race, whether the chariots were drawn by two horses or by many.”

Why?Why?

“For such a victor does not need free meals, but I do. He only gives you the appearance of happiness; I give you the reality.”

Divine CommandDivine Command “Someone will say: Yes,

Socrates, but can't you hold your tongue? . . . Now I have great difficulty in making you understand my answer to this. For if I tell you that this would be a disobedience to a divine command, and therefore that I can't hold my tongue, you won't think I'm serious.”

The Examined LifeThe Examined Life

“If I say again that the greatest thing a man can do is to converse about virtue every day, and that the unexamined life is not worth living-- you are still less likely believe me.”

To philosophize is toTo philosophize is to

Seek wisdom and Seek wisdom and virtuevirtue

Lead an examined lifeLead an examined life Reflect on what life is Reflect on what life is

and ought to beand ought to be Put your life in Put your life in

perspectiveperspective To see and reflect on To see and reflect on

“the big picture”“the big picture”

Confucius (-551 - -479)Confucius (-551 - -479)

Kong Fuzi (K’ung Fu-Kong Fuzi (K’ung Fu-Tzu)— grand master Tzu)— grand master KongKong

Contemporary of Laozi, Contemporary of Laozi, Buddha, Thales, Aesop, Buddha, Thales, Aesop, Biblical prophetsBiblical prophets

Superior person (Superior person (junzijunzi))

To philosophize is toTo philosophize is to

Try to understand the world Try to understand the world with an open mindwith an open mind

Seek the truth wherever it Seek the truth wherever it leadsleads 2:14. The Master said, "The

superior person is open-minded and not partisan. The mean person is partisan and not open-minded.”

Look WithinLook Within

Look within ourselves 15:20. The Master said,

"What the superior person seeks is in himself. What the inferior person seeks is in others."

To philosophize is toTo philosophize is to

Seek clarity 16:10. Confucius said, "The superior person thoughtfully

considers nine things: With his eyes, he wants to see clearly. With his ears, he wants to hear distinctly. In countenance, he wants to be warm. In demeanor, he wants to be respectful. In speech, he wants to be sincere. In business, he wants to be careful. When in doubt, he wants to ask others. When angry, he thinks of difficulties that might result. When he sees opportunity for gain, he thinks of righteousness."

To philosophize is toTo philosophize is to

Get to the bottom of Get to the bottom of thingsthings 1:2. “. . . The

superior person attends to the root of things. From the root grows the Way.”

To philosophize is toTo philosophize is to

Know yourselfKnow yourself 2:17. The Master said, "Yu,

shall I teach you what knowledge is? When you know something, to maintain that you know it; when you don't know something, to admit that you don't know it-- this is knowledge."

Two Philosophical IssuesTwo Philosophical Issues

1. Is the world independent of us, or do 1. Is the world independent of us, or do we in some sense construct it?we in some sense construct it?

2. Can we know anything about the world 2. Can we know anything about the world independently of experience?independently of experience?

Realism and IdealismRealism and Idealism

1. Is the world independent of us, or do we 1. Is the world independent of us, or do we in some sense construct it?in some sense construct it?

RealismRealism: Some things are independent of : Some things are independent of mindmind

IdealismIdealism: Everything depends on mind; : Everything depends on mind; things are constructions or projections of the things are constructions or projections of the mindmind

What difference does it make?What difference does it make?

RealismRealism IdealismIdealism

TruthTruth CorrespondenceCorrespondence InstrumentalInstrumental

StandardsStandards ExternalExternal InternalInternal

ProgressProgress RepresentationRepresentation From a point of From a point of viewview

Rationalism and EmpiricismRationalism and Empiricism

2. Can we know anything about the world 2. Can we know anything about the world independently of experience? independently of experience?

RationalismRationalism: Yes: Some knowledge of the : Yes: Some knowledge of the world is independent of our own experienceworld is independent of our own experience

EmpiricismEmpiricism: No: All knowledge of the world : No: All knowledge of the world comes from experiencecomes from experience

What difference does it make?What difference does it make?

RationalismRationalism EmpiricismEmpiricism

Philosophical Philosophical reflection— the reflection— the humanitieshumanities

Independent Independent source of truthsource of truth

At best, At best, depends on depends on sciencescience

Knowledge Knowledge beyond beyond experience— experience— God, the soulGod, the soul

In principle, yesIn principle, yes NoNo

Four Kinds of Four Kinds of PhilosophersPhilosophers

Classifying philosophersClassifying philosophers

RealistRealist IdealistIdealist

RationalistRationalist ExplorerExplorer DreamerDreamer

(Platonist)(Platonist)(Kantian)(Kantian)

EmpiricistEmpiricist ScientistScientist SkepticSkeptic

(Aristotelian)(Aristotelian) (Humean)(Humean)

Explorers (Platonists)Explorers (Platonists)

RationalismRationalism:: We can know We can know something about the world something about the world independently of experienceindependently of experience

RealismRealism:: Some things are Some things are independent of mindindependent of mind

Explorers (Platonists)Explorers (Platonists)

We can know something We can know something about the world as it is, about the world as it is, independently of mind, independently of mind, through reflection alonethrough reflection alone

Explorers (Platonists)Explorers (Platonists)

How?How?

The structure of the mind The structure of the mind matches, in some matches, in some respects, the structure of respects, the structure of the worldthe world

Mind and world harmonizeMind and world harmonize

Architects (Platonists) tend to be:Architects (Platonists) tend to be: > > Internalists:Internalists:

Knowledge is justified Knowledge is justified true belieftrue belief

> > Correspondence Correspondence theoriststheorists: truth is : truth is correspondence with correspondence with realityreality

Plato, Origen, Plato, Origen, Augustine, Avicenna, Augustine, Avicenna, Descartes, LeibnizDescartes, Leibniz

Dreamers (Kantians)Dreamers (Kantians)

RationalistsRationalists: We can know : We can know something about the world something about the world independently of experienceindependently of experience

IdealistsIdealists: Everything is mind-: Everything is mind-dependentdependent

Dreamers (Kantians)Dreamers (Kantians)

We can know something about We can know something about the world through reflection the world through reflection alonealone

How?How? Our minds construct the worldOur minds construct the world

Dreamers (Kantians) tend to beDreamers (Kantians) tend to be

> > InternalistsInternalists: : Knowledge is justified Knowledge is justified true belieftrue belief

> > CoherenceCoherence theoriststheorists: : Truth is maximally Truth is maximally comprehensive comprehensive coherencecoherence

Buddha, Laozi, Kant, Buddha, Laozi, Kant, HegelHegel

Scientists (Aristotelians)Scientists (Aristotelians)

EmpiricistsEmpiricists: All : All knowledge of the world knowledge of the world comes from experiencecomes from experience

RealistsRealists: Some things are : Some things are mind-independentmind-independent

Scientists (Aristotelians)Scientists (Aristotelians)

We can gain We can gain knowledge of the world, knowledge of the world, but only through but only through experienceexperience

Scientists (Aristotelians) tend to beScientists (Aristotelians) tend to be

> > ExternalistsExternalists: Knowledge = : Knowledge = true belief from a reliable true belief from a reliable processprocess

> > Correspondence Correspondence theoriststheorists: truth = : truth = correspondence with realitycorrespondence with reality

Aristotle, Confucius, Aristotle, Confucius, Nyayayikas, Aquinas, Locke, Nyayayikas, Aquinas, Locke, Mill, RussellMill, Russell

Skeptic (Humean)Skeptic (Humean)

EmpiricistsEmpiricists: All : All knowledge of the world knowledge of the world comes from experiencecomes from experience

IdealistsIdealists: Everything is : Everything is mind-dependentmind-dependent

Skeptic (Humean)Skeptic (Humean)

We know at most our own We know at most our own ideas, and those only ideas, and those only through experiencethrough experience

We have no better insight We have no better insight into the workings of our into the workings of our minds than into the world minds than into the world itselfitself

Humeans tend to beHumeans tend to be

> > InternalistsInternalists: : Knowledge = justified Knowledge = justified true belief (or would true belief (or would be, if we had any)be, if we had any)

> > SkepticsSkeptics: We know : We know nothing at allnothing at all

Sextus, Nagarjuna, Sextus, Nagarjuna, Berkeley, HumeBerkeley, Hume

What is Philosophy?What is Philosophy?

Philosophy has been Philosophy has been called many things and called many things and it can have many it can have many meaningsmeanings

Those single words or Those single words or statements on the right statements on the right side are only some of side are only some of themthem

What words would you What words would you add?add?

WisdomWisdom RealityReality TheoriesTheories Meaning of LifeMeaning of Life Nature of being humanNature of being human Life perspectivesLife perspectives

Here is One Definition:Here is One Definition:

Putting the nature of the universe, including Putting the nature of the universe, including meaning, people, and relationships, into an meaning, people, and relationships, into an understand-able or explainable perspectiveunderstand-able or explainable perspective

What is your definition???What is your definition???

The purpose of this presentation is to acquaint you with various philosophical systems or models. Each system or model can be interpreted in terms of the education or training of adults.

Once you examine a particular system or model, ask yourself such questions as (a) With what parts do I agree and with what parts do I disagree? (b) How might they impact on or affect the way I train or educate adults? (c) What does the model have to say for my role as an adult educator or trainer?

Examine the visual representation of these notions in the next slide.

Various Philosophical Systems or Models

Idealism Humanism

Can be Interpreted in Terms of Educating/Training Adults

With Implications for Training/Educating Adults

With Implications for Adult Educator Roles

IDEALISMIDEALISM

Meaning is in the ideals of life itselfMeaning is in the ideals of life itself Reality is made up of absolute truthsReality is made up of absolute truths However, a “truth” sometimes is only in the However, a “truth” sometimes is only in the

eye of the beholdereye of the beholder Educationally this means the use of Educationally this means the use of

inductive reasoning, lecturinginductive reasoning, lecturing Plato was an early key proponent of this Plato was an early key proponent of this

modelmodel

REALISMREALISM

Meaning comes through empirically proven Meaning comes through empirically proven factsfacts

Reality is made up of natural laws, factsReality is made up of natural laws, facts However, empirical facts are always subject However, empirical facts are always subject

to changeto change Educationally this involves scientific Educationally this involves scientific

reasoningreasoning Chisholm and Whitehead proponentsChisholm and Whitehead proponents

PROGRESSIVISMPROGRESSIVISM

Meaning comes through concrete factsMeaning comes through concrete facts Theory based on truth makes up realityTheory based on truth makes up reality Problem solving and experimenting are Problem solving and experimenting are

instructional techniquesinstructional techniques But does this diminish the teacher’s role?But does this diminish the teacher’s role? John Dewey a leading proponent (had a John Dewey a leading proponent (had a

huge impact on American education)huge impact on American education)

LIBERALISMLIBERALISM

Freedom comes through a liberated mindFreedom comes through a liberated mind Humans endowed with reasoning abilityHumans endowed with reasoning ability Thus, educationally you teach learners the Thus, educationally you teach learners the

classics and develop their mindsclassics and develop their minds But, the past may not relate to modern But, the past may not relate to modern

problems and situationsproblems and situations Aristotle was an early proponentAristotle was an early proponent

BEHAVIORISMBEHAVIORISM

Human behavior tied to prior conditioningHuman behavior tied to prior conditioning External forces control all human behaviorExternal forces control all human behavior Could learning be too complex for the Could learning be too complex for the

control of certain behaviors?control of certain behaviors? Teaching methods include behavioral Teaching methods include behavioral

conditioning, feedback, drill and practiceconditioning, feedback, drill and practice B. F. Skinner well known proponent (he also B. F. Skinner well known proponent (he also

impacted heavily on U.S. education)impacted heavily on U.S. education)

HUMANISMHUMANISM

Intellect distinguishes humans from animalsIntellect distinguishes humans from animals Humans have potential/innate goodnessHumans have potential/innate goodness Thus, educationally you facilitate and Thus, educationally you facilitate and

encourage self-directionencourage self-direction Some educational needs may be missed?Some educational needs may be missed? Abraham Maslow early proponentAbraham Maslow early proponent

RADICALISMRADICALISM

People themselves create meaningPeople themselves create meaning Knowledge leads to an understanding of Knowledge leads to an understanding of

reality and, ultimately, necessary changereality and, ultimately, necessary change This approach can be idealistic in nature This approach can be idealistic in nature

and often leads to confrontationand often leads to confrontation Teach by dialogue and problem solvingTeach by dialogue and problem solving Paulo Freire prominent proponentPaulo Freire prominent proponent

ECLECTICISMECLECTICISM

Fortunately, there is a way of dealing with all Fortunately, there is a way of dealing with all the various modelsthe various models

Eclecticism is not a philosophical system or Eclecticism is not a philosophical system or model, but rather is the synthesizing and model, but rather is the synthesizing and per-sonal interpretation of various models to per-sonal interpretation of various models to draw out the best components for yourselfdraw out the best components for yourself

Thus, you pull the best from various models Thus, you pull the best from various models in any effort to build your own statement of in any effort to build your own statement of personal philosophypersonal philosophy

Selected ReferencesArchambault, R. D. (1964). John Dewey on education. New York: Modern Library, Random House.Bambrough, R. (Ed.). (1963). The philosophy of Aristotle (A. E. Wardman & J. L. Creed, Trans.). New York:

New American Library of World Literature.Bergevin, P. (1967). A philosophy for adult education. New York: Seabury.Brubacher, J. S. (1969). Modern philosophies of education. New York: McGraw-Hill.Chisholm, R. M. (1961). Realism and the background of phenomenology. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.

Cushman, R. E. (1958). Therapeia: Plato's conception of philosophy. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York: Macmillan.Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan.Elias, J. L., & Merriam, S. (1980). Philosophical foundations of adult education. Malabar, FL:

Krieger. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Herder and Herder. Lindeman, E. C. (1928). The meaning of adult education. New York: New Republic.Maslow, A. (1976). Education and peak experience. In C. D. Schlosser (Ed.), The person in

education: A humanistic approach. New York: Macmillan. Rogers, C. R. (1969). Freedom to learn. Columbus, OH: Merrill.Skinner, B. F. (1971). Beyond freedom and dignity. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.Taylor, A. (1926). Plato: The man and his work. London: Methuen & Co., Ltd. Whitehead, A. N. (1933). Adventure of ideas. New York: Macmillan.Zinn, L. M. (1990). Identifying your philosophical orientation. In M. W. Galbraith (Ed.), Adult

learning methods: A guide for effective instruction. Malabar, FL: Krieger.