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PHI 1500: Major Issues in Philosophy
Session 10 October 8th, 2014
Human Nature: Sartre 1
Rousseau’s PoliDcal Maxim • “It is therefore incontestable, • and it is a fundamental maxim of all poli/cal right, • that peoples have given themselves leaders in order to
defend their liberty and not to enslave themselves.” (12)
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- Rousseau insists that reason will always prevent us from submiPng ourselves to the absolute power of a sovereign ruler.
- Such an agreement, if it doesn’t put constraints on the ruler’s power, is too risky to be made on the basis of sound reason.
- Absolute power is thus “illegiDmate by its nature”: it cannot be jusDfied as a good poliDcal strategy.
• Even the (corrupt) French monarchy insists that its rulers must obey laws just like ordinary ciDzens (top of p. 13).
Rousseau’s Conclusions • Many current societal problems ought not to be blamed on human nature, – which is gentle and good, – but rather on historical developments in our process of becoming civilized.
• We aren’t so terrible that we can only get along under the power of a terrifying leader. – Instead, we can come together cooperaDvely to create and enforce laws that are good for everyone.
– Rousseau explains this in greater detail in The Social Contract. 3
• Jean-‐Paul Sartre (1905-‐1980): French, considered the founder of existenDalism – Existen1alism is a movement of ConDnental philosophy, with implicaDons for metaphysics, philosophy of mind, ethics, social philosophy, aestheDcs, and more.
• In “Existen1alism is a Humanism” (a public lecture, Oct. 1945), Sartre aims to dispel several misconcepDons about this movement. – There is much more to it than ‘existenDal crises’.
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MisconcepDons about ExistenDalism • Sartre starts his lecture by noDng that people accuse existenDalism of being: – too bourgeois – too gloomy – too individualis/c – too libera/ng
• He will explain how these criDcs have misunderstood existenDalism, which is really a type of humanism: – a view that empowers human beings to take charge of their lives to make posi/ve change.
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ExistenDalism on Human Nature • Hobbes and Rousseau each assumed there is such a thing as
human nature: a collecDon of a^ributes that captures our most fundamental features and describes every human being.
• Sartre claims that there is no such thing as human nature. – There is no cluster of traits that can describe every person. – Moreover, there is no set of traits that we are born with, which will determine what sort of person we will become.
– Instead, each of us determines the kind of person we are through the choices that we make.
• Sartre’s posiDon on human nature is an elimina1vist stance. – EliminaDvism about X = denial that X exists. – An eliminaDvist must explain why it may seem that X exists, even though it really doesn’t.
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“Existence precedes Essence” • This summarizes the basic tenet of existenDalism, meaning:
– Each person comes into existence when they are born, – but there is no essence that defines who s/he is, – Un/l s/he creates his/her own idenDty by making choices.
– ? ? ?
• “What do we mean by saying that existence precedes essence? – We mean that man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world – and defines himself aeerwards.
– If man as the existenDalist sees him is not definable, it is because to begin with he is nothing.
– He will not be anything unDl later, and then he will be what he makes of himself.” (3) 7
“Existence precedes Essence”
• The opposite (essence before existence) is how ar/facts are made.
– “Let us say, then, of the paperknife that its essence – …the sum of the formulae and the qualiDes which made its producDon and its definiDon possible – precedes its existence.” (ibid.)
• Anything that is made according to a design, with a predetermined purpose, will have an essence even before it comes into existence.
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- Example of the paper-‐knife (p. 2-‐3): “…it has been made by an ar1san who had a concep1on of it” (2)
- ArDfacts are made according to a design, that presupposes what that object is supposed to do.
CreaDonism & Human Nature
• “When we think of God as the creator, we are thinking of him, most of the Dme, as a [heavenly] arDsan.” (3)
• We assume that God knows precisely what he is creaDng. – Thus, the concepDon of man in the mind of God is comparable to that of the paper-‐knife in the mind of the arDsan:
– God makes man according to a procedure and a concepDon, exactly as the arDsan manufactures a paper-‐knife, following a definiDon and a formula.
– Thus each individual man is the realizaDon of a certain concepDon which dwells in the divine understanding.
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• According to the tradiDonal, creaDonist view: – “Man possesses a human nature; that “human nature,” which is the concepDon of human being, is found in every man;
– which means that each man is a parDcular example of a universal concepDon, the concepDon of Man.” (3)
• AtheisDc existenDalists (like Sartre), believe that: – “there is no human nature, – because there is no God to have a concepDon of it. – ...Man is nothing else but that which he makes of himself.” (3)
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• Sartre says: • “In life, a man commits himself, draws his own portrait and there is nothing but that portrait.” (7)
SubjecDvity • = “the first principle of existenDalism” (3) – Recall that subjec1ve means “from some parDcular perspecDve”
– Subjec1vity = having such a perspecDve, from which one experiences the world
– All human beings have subjecDvity, while plants and some simple animals do not.
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• Each human being is: - “something which propels itself towards a future - and is aware of doing so.” (ibid.) - …meaning we all are aware of ourselves as individuals with
beliefs, desires, and plans about who we want to become. - Similar to Rousseau’s idea of self-‐perfecDon.
IntersubjecDvity • Sartre agrees with Descartes (specifically with the cogito),
that we recognize our own existence from our inner thoughts, feelings, and subjecDve experience. – “…there cannot be any other truth than this, I think, therefore I am” (8) – This is “a truth which is simple, easily a^ained and within the reach of
everybody; – it consists in one’s immediate sense of one’s self.” (8)
• But he adds that: – “…it is not only one’s own self that one discovers in the cogito, but those of others too.” (ibid.)
• In other words, we reason from “I think, therefore I am”, to “all human beings think, therefore they exist too” – We recognize that the world goes beyond what we see from our own perspecDve – that everyone else has a perspecDve of their own.
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Responsibility • Because we have no predetermined
essence that will dictate who we become, – “man is responsible for what he is.” (4) – ExistenDalism “puts every man in possession of himself as he is,
– and places the enDre responsibility for his existence squarely upon his own shoulders.” (ibid.)
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• Furthermore, the choices we make for ourselves define not us alone, but all of humankind. • To choose to act in one way and not another is “to affirm the
value of that which is chosen”: to say that it would be good for anyone and everyone to do the same. (4)
• “I am thus responsible for myself and for all men, and I am creaDng a certain image of man as I would have him to be.” (4)
Anguish • Responsibility can cause anguish. – Making choices that define all of humankind is daunDng and stressful.
– “When a man commits himself to anything, fully realizing that he is not only choosing what he will be,
– but is thereby at the same Dme a legislator deciding for the whole of mankind[, and]
– in such a moment a man cannot escape from the sense of complete and profound responsibility.” (4)
• A normaDve, ethical claim: – “…one ought always to ask oneself what would happen if everyone did as one is doing;
– nor can one escape from that disturbing thought except by a kind of self-‐decepDon.” (4-‐5)
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Abandonment • AtheisDc existenDalists say:
– “God does not exist, and [so] it is necessary to draw the consequences of his absence right to the end.” (5)
– In other words, we feel as if we have been abandoned by a higher power, and realize we have to fend for ourselves
• Some secular moralists have argued that – even if there is no God, moral values “exist all the same, inscribed in an intelligible heaven” (ibid.)
– This posiDon is called moral realism: – it says that moral values exist a priori, independent of whether we understand them or act upon them.
• Sartre thinks that moral realists are wrong to believe that moral values exist independently of our acDons – Instead, Sartre thinks, we define moral values through our acDons.
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No God, No Excuses • “Dostoevsky once wrote: ‘If God did not exist,
everything would be permi^ed’; – Everything is indeed permi^ed if God does not exist, and man is in consequence forlorn,
– for he cannot find anything to depend upon either within or outside himself.
– He discovers forthwith, that he is without excuse.
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• “For if indeed existence precedes essence, - one will never be able to explain one’s acDon by reference
to a given and specific human nature; - in other words, there is no determinism – man is free,
man is freedom. • Nor, on the other hand, if God does not exist, are we provided
with any values or commands that could legiDmize our behavior. - Thus we have neither behind us, nor before us in a luminous
realm of values, any means of jusDficaDon or excuse.
“Man is condemned to be free” • “Condemned, because he did not create himself, • yet is nevertheless at liberty, • and from the moment that he is thrown into this world
he is responsible for everything he does.” (6)
• In other words, – A person does not choose to exist, – But once s/he exists, s/he must act upon her/his freedom to become whoever s/he purposes to be,
– by making choices about how to live his/her life.
• “what is not possible is not to choose. • …if I do not choose, that is sDll a choice.” (9) – 8-‐bit philosophy video: bit.ly/1ty446f
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Despair • We find ourselves in despair when we
recognize that we cannot change the world to suit all of our desires. – “For there is no God and no prevenient design, which can adapt the world and all its possibiliDes to my will.” (6)
• We recognize that we can only act to achieve what is actually possible for us to achieve. – e.g., a Brazilian soccer fans experienced despair when they realized it would be impossible for their team to win the 2014 World Cup.
• Eventually, we learn not to hope for things that we know could not possibly happen.
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Self-‐Reliance
• One can never know how future generaDons will transform humankind through their choices. – But this should not lead us to quie/sm: an aPtude where we think we shouldn’t act because our choices won’t ma^er in the long run.
– Instead, Sartre thinks that we should act upon a convicDon that “whatever may be in my power to make it so, I shall do; beyond that, I can count upon nothing.” (ibid.)
– This fosters an aPtude like Gandhi’s: • “Be the change you wish to see in the world”
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• “I cannot count upon men whom I do not know, • I cannot base my confidence upon human goodness
or upon man’s interest in the good of society, • seeing that man is free and that there is no human
nature which I can take as foundaDonal.” (7)
– Some people are horrified by this, ciDng their bad luck: • “Circumstances have been against me, I was worthy to be something much be^er than I have been.
• . . . there remains within me a wide range of abiliDes, inclinaDons and potenDaliDes, unused but perfectly viable, which endow me with a worthiness that could never be inferred from the mere history of my acDons.” (7)
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• ExistenDalists claim that man is “nothing else but the sum of his acDons” – you are what you do.
• Sartre insists that we can only be defined by what we do. - IntenDons don’t leave a trace on human history, but acDons can.
Humanity across Cultures • Sartre thinks that: – since every one of us is condemned to freedom, – we can each recognize that all other human beings share that condiDon with us.
• We all share “the necessiDes of being in the world, of having to labor and to die there.” (9) – “…every human purpose presents itself as an a^empt either to surpass these limitaDons, or to widen them, or else to deny or to accommodate oneself to them.
– Consequently every purpose, however individual it may be, is of universal value.” (9)
• So Sartre believes that existenDalism fosters cross-‐cultural understanding.
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Morality without Rules or Values • Some people misconstrue existenDalism
as advocaDng people’s freedom to do whatever they want, regardless of whether it is moral or not. – Sartre says that this is just not true.
• He uses an argument by analogy to claim that: – just as in art, where there are no known aestheDc rules that an arDst follows in order to create a beauDful painDng,
– in our moral lives, we can behave in ways that respect other people’s humanity, even if we deny that there are any moral rules given to us to follow.
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Sartre’s Conclusions • We have no human nature. – Instead, each of us individually determines our own character, – And in doing so we make choices that affect all of humanity.
• We can behave morally without a God or set moral values to guide us. – Because we recognize that our acDons have an impact on other people, – Who have the same sort of struggles (despair, abandonment,
• ExistenDalism empowers people to take responsibility for the outcomes of their lives.
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