PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$...

23
PHI 1500: Major Issues in Philosophy Session 10 October 8th, 2014 Human Nature: Sartre 1

Transcript of PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$...

Page 1: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

PHI  1500:    Major  Issues  in  Philosophy  

Session  10  October  8th,  2014  

Human  Nature:  Sartre  1  

Page 2: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

Rousseau’s  PoliDcal  Maxim  •  “It  is  therefore  incontestable,    •  and  it  is  a  fundamental  maxim  of  all  poli/cal  right,    •  that  peoples  have  given  themselves  leaders  in  order  to  

defend    their  liberty  and  not  to  enslave  themselves.”  (12)  

2  

-  Rousseau  insists  that  reason  will  always  prevent  us  from  submiPng  ourselves  to  the  absolute  power  of  a  sovereign  ruler.  

-  Such  an  agreement,  if  it  doesn’t  put  constraints  on  the  ruler’s  power,  is  too  risky  to  be  made  on  the  basis  of  sound  reason.  

-  Absolute  power  is  thus  “illegiDmate  by  its  nature”:      it  cannot  be  jusDfied  as  a  good  poliDcal  strategy.    

 •  Even  the  (corrupt)  French  monarchy  insists  that  its  rulers  must  obey  laws  just  like  ordinary  ciDzens  (top  of  p.  13).  

 

Page 3: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

Rousseau’s  Conclusions  •  Many  current  societal  problems  ought  not  to  be  blamed  on  human  nature,      –  which  is  gentle  and  good,  –  but  rather  on  historical  developments  in  our  process  of  becoming  civilized.  

•  We  aren’t  so  terrible  that  we  can  only  get  along  under  the  power  of  a  terrifying  leader.  –  Instead,  we  can  come  together  cooperaDvely  to  create  and  enforce  laws  that  are  good  for  everyone.  

–  Rousseau  explains  this  in  greater  detail  in                        The  Social  Contract.   3  

Page 4: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

•  Jean-­‐Paul  Sartre  (1905-­‐1980):  French,  considered  the  founder  of  existenDalism  –  Existen1alism  is  a  movement  of        ConDnental  philosophy,  with  implicaDons    for  metaphysics,  philosophy  of  mind,  ethics,  social  philosophy,  aestheDcs,  and  more.  

•  In  “Existen1alism  is  a  Humanism”  (a  public  lecture,  Oct.  1945),  Sartre  aims  to  dispel  several  misconcepDons  about  this  movement.  –  There  is  much  more  to  it  than  ‘existenDal  crises’.  

4  

Page 5: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

MisconcepDons  about  ExistenDalism  •  Sartre  starts  his  lecture  by  noDng  that  people  accuse  existenDalism  of  being:  –  too  bourgeois  –  too  gloomy  –  too  individualis/c  –  too  libera/ng  

•  He  will  explain  how  these  criDcs  have  misunderstood  existenDalism,  which  is  really  a  type  of  humanism:  –  a  view  that  empowers  human  beings  to  take  charge  of  their  lives  to  make  posi/ve  change.  

5  

Page 6: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

ExistenDalism  on  Human  Nature  •  Hobbes  and  Rousseau  each  assumed  there  is  such  a  thing  as  

human  nature:  a  collecDon  of  a^ributes  that  captures  our  most  fundamental  features  and  describes  every  human  being.  

•  Sartre  claims  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  human  nature.  –  There  is  no  cluster  of  traits  that  can  describe  every  person.  –  Moreover,  there  is  no  set  of  traits  that  we  are  born  with,  which  will  determine  what  sort  of  person  we  will  become.  

–  Instead,  each  of  us  determines  the  kind  of  person  we  are  through  the  choices  that  we  make.  

•  Sartre’s  posiDon  on  human  nature  is  an  elimina1vist  stance.  –  EliminaDvism  about  X  =  denial  that  X  exists.  –  An  eliminaDvist  must  explain  why  it  may  seem  that  X  exists,  even  though  it  really  doesn’t.  

6  

Page 7: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

“Existence  precedes  Essence”  •  This  summarizes  the  basic  tenet  of  existenDalism,  meaning:  

–  Each  person  comes  into  existence  when  they  are  born,  –  but  there  is  no  essence  that  defines  who  s/he  is,    –  Un/l  s/he  creates  his/her  own  idenDty  by  making  choices.                                                                                            

–                                                                                                             ?                      ?                        ?      

•  “What  do  we  mean  by  saying  that  existence  precedes  essence?    –  We  mean  that  man  first  of  all  exists,  encounters  himself,  surges  up  in  the  world  –  and  defines  himself  aeerwards.  

–  If  man  as  the  existenDalist  sees  him  is  not  definable,  it  is  because  to  begin  with  he  is  nothing.    

–  He  will  not  be  anything  unDl  later,  and  then  he  will  be  what  he  makes  of  himself.”  (3)   7  

Page 8: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

“Existence  precedes  Essence”    

•  The  opposite  (essence  before  existence)  is  how  ar/facts  are  made.  

 

 –  “Let  us  say,  then,  of  the  paperknife  that  its  essence                                      –  …the  sum  of  the  formulae  and  the  qualiDes  which  made  its  producDon  and  its  definiDon  possible                  –  precedes  its  existence.”  (ibid.)  

•  Anything  that  is  made  according  to  a  design,        with  a  predetermined  purpose,  will  have  an  essence  even  before  it  comes  into  existence.  

8  

-  Example  of  the  paper-­‐knife  (p.  2-­‐3):                “…it  has  been  made  by  an  ar1san  who  had  a  concep1on  of  it”  (2)  

-  ArDfacts  are  made  according  to  a  design,  that  presupposes  what  that  object  is  supposed  to  do.  

Page 9: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

CreaDonism  &  Human  Nature  

•  “When  we  think  of  God  as  the  creator,  we  are  thinking  of  him,  most  of  the  Dme,  as  a  [heavenly]  arDsan.”  (3)  

•  We  assume  that  God  knows  precisely  what  he  is  creaDng.  –   Thus,  the  concepDon  of  man  in  the  mind  of  God  is  comparable  to  that  of  the  paper-­‐knife  in  the  mind  of  the  arDsan:    

–  God  makes  man  according  to  a  procedure  and  a  concepDon,  exactly  as  the  arDsan  manufactures  a  paper-­‐knife,  following  a  definiDon  and  a  formula.    

–  Thus  each  individual  man  is  the  realizaDon  of  a  certain  concepDon  which  dwells  in  the  divine  understanding.    

9  

Page 10: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

•  According  to  the  tradiDonal,  creaDonist  view:  –  “Man  possesses  a  human  nature;  that  “human  nature,”  which  is  the  concepDon  of  human  being,  is  found  in  every  man;    

–  which  means  that  each  man  is  a  parDcular  example  of  a  universal  concepDon,  the  concepDon  of  Man.”  (3)  

 

•  AtheisDc  existenDalists  (like  Sartre),  believe  that:  –  “there  is  no  human  nature,    –  because  there  is  no  God  to  have  a  concepDon  of  it.  –  ...Man  is  nothing  else  but  that  which  he  makes  of  himself.”  (3)  

10  

•  Sartre  says:  •  “In  life,  a  man  commits  himself,  draws  his  own  portrait  and  there  is  nothing  but  that  portrait.”  (7)  

 

Page 11: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

SubjecDvity  •  =  “the  first  principle  of  existenDalism”  (3)  –  Recall  that  subjec1ve  means  “from  some  parDcular  perspecDve”  

–  Subjec1vity  =  having  such  a  perspecDve,  from  which  one  experiences  the  world  

–  All  human  beings  have  subjecDvity,  while  plants  and  some  simple  animals  do  not.  

11  

•  Each  human  being  is:    -  “something  which  propels  itself  towards  a  future  -  and  is  aware  of  doing  so.”  (ibid.)  -  …meaning  we  all  are  aware  of  ourselves  as  individuals  with  

beliefs,  desires,  and  plans  about  who  we  want  to  become.  -  Similar  to  Rousseau’s  idea  of  self-­‐perfecDon.  

Page 12: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

IntersubjecDvity  •  Sartre  agrees  with  Descartes  (specifically  with  the  cogito),                  

that  we  recognize  our  own  existence  from  our  inner  thoughts,  feelings,  and  subjecDve  experience.  –  “…there  cannot  be  any  other  truth  than  this,  I  think,  therefore  I  am”  (8)  –  This  is  “a  truth  which  is  simple,  easily  a^ained  and  within  the  reach  of  

everybody;  –   it  consists  in  one’s  immediate  sense  of  one’s  self.”  (8)  

•  But  he  adds  that:  –  “…it  is  not  only  one’s  own  self  that  one  discovers  in  the  cogito,                                      but  those  of  others  too.”  (ibid.)  

•  In  other  words,  we  reason  from  “I  think,  therefore  I  am”,                            to  “all  human  beings  think,  therefore  they  exist  too”  –  We  recognize  that  the  world  goes  beyond  what  we  see  from  our  own  perspecDve  –  that  everyone  else  has  a  perspecDve  of  their  own.  

12  

Page 13: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

Responsibility  •  Because  we  have  no  predetermined  

essence  that  will  dictate  who  we  become,  –  “man  is  responsible  for  what  he  is.”  (4)    –  ExistenDalism  “puts  every  man  in  possession  of  himself  as  he  is,    

–  and  places  the  enDre  responsibility  for  his  existence  squarely  upon  his  own  shoulders.”  (ibid.)    

 

13  

•  Furthermore,  the  choices  we  make  for  ourselves  define  not  us  alone,  but  all  of  humankind.  •  To  choose  to  act  in  one  way  and  not  another  is  “to  affirm  the  

value  of  that  which  is  chosen”:  to  say  that  it  would  be  good  for  anyone  and  everyone  to  do  the  same.  (4)  

•  “I  am  thus  responsible  for  myself  and  for  all  men,  and  I  am  creaDng  a  certain  image  of  man  as  I  would  have  him  to  be.”  (4)  

 

Page 14: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

Anguish  •  Responsibility  can  cause  anguish.  – Making  choices  that  define  all  of  humankind  is  daunDng  and  stressful.  

–  “When  a  man  commits  himself  to  anything,  fully  realizing  that  he  is  not  only  choosing  what  he  will  be,    

–  but  is  thereby  at  the  same  Dme  a  legislator  deciding  for  the  whole  of  mankind[,  and]    

–  in  such  a  moment  a  man  cannot  escape  from  the  sense  of  complete  and  profound  responsibility.”  (4)  

•  A  normaDve,  ethical  claim:  –  “…one  ought  always  to  ask  oneself  what  would  happen  if  everyone  did  as  one  is  doing;    

–  nor  can  one  escape  from  that  disturbing  thought  except  by  a  kind  of  self-­‐decepDon.”  (4-­‐5)  

14  

Page 15: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

Abandonment  •  AtheisDc  existenDalists  say:  

–  “God  does  not  exist,  and  [so]  it  is  necessary  to  draw  the  consequences  of  his  absence  right  to  the  end.”  (5)  

–  In  other  words,  we  feel  as  if  we  have  been  abandoned  by  a  higher  power,  and  realize  we  have  to  fend  for  ourselves  

•  Some  secular  moralists  have  argued  that    –  even  if  there  is  no  God,  moral  values  “exist  all  the  same,  inscribed  in  an  intelligible  heaven”  (ibid.)  

–  This  posiDon  is  called  moral  realism:  –   it  says  that  moral  values  exist  a  priori,  independent  of  whether  we  understand  them  or  act  upon  them.  

•  Sartre  thinks  that  moral  realists  are  wrong  to  believe  that  moral  values  exist  independently  of  our  acDons  –  Instead,  Sartre  thinks,  we  define  moral  values  through  our  acDons.  

15  

Page 16: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

No  God,  No  Excuses  •  “Dostoevsky  once  wrote:  ‘If  God  did  not  exist,  

everything  would  be  permi^ed’;  –  Everything  is  indeed  permi^ed  if  God  does  not  exist,  and  man  is  in  consequence  forlorn,    

–  for  he  cannot  find  anything  to  depend  upon  either  within  or  outside  himself.    

–  He  discovers  forthwith,  that  he  is  without  excuse.  

16  

•  “For  if  indeed  existence  precedes  essence,    -  one  will  never  be  able  to  explain  one’s  acDon  by  reference  

to  a  given  and  specific  human  nature;    -  in  other  words,  there  is  no  determinism  –  man  is  free,  

man  is  freedom.    •  Nor,  on  the  other  hand,  if  God  does  not  exist,  are  we  provided  

with  any  values  or  commands  that  could  legiDmize  our  behavior.    -  Thus  we  have  neither  behind  us,  nor  before  us  in  a  luminous  

realm  of  values,  any  means  of  jusDficaDon  or  excuse.        

Page 17: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

“Man  is  condemned  to  be  free”  •  “Condemned,  because  he  did  not  create  himself,    •  yet  is  nevertheless  at  liberty,    •  and  from  the  moment  that  he  is  thrown  into  this  world  

he  is  responsible  for  everything  he  does.”  (6)  

•  In  other  words,    –  A  person  does  not  choose  to  exist,  –  But  once  s/he  exists,  s/he  must  act  upon  her/his  freedom  to  become  whoever  s/he  purposes  to  be,  

–  by  making  choices  about  how  to  live  his/her  life.  

•  “what  is  not  possible  is  not  to  choose.  •  …if  I  do  not  choose,  that  is  sDll  a  choice.”  (9)  –  8-­‐bit  philosophy  video:    bit.ly/1ty446f  

17  

Page 18: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

Despair  •  We  find  ourselves  in  despair  when  we  

recognize  that  we  cannot  change  the  world  to  suit  all  of  our  desires.  –  “For  there  is  no  God  and  no  prevenient  design,  which  can  adapt  the  world  and  all  its  possibiliDes  to  my  will.”  (6)  

•  We  recognize  that  we  can  only  act  to  achieve  what  is  actually  possible  for  us  to  achieve.  –  e.g.,  a  Brazilian  soccer  fans  experienced  despair  when  they  realized  it  would  be  impossible  for  their  team  to  win  the  2014  World  Cup.  

•  Eventually,  we  learn  not  to  hope  for  things  that  we  know  could  not  possibly  happen.  

18  

Page 19: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

Self-­‐Reliance  

•  One  can  never  know  how  future  generaDons  will                        transform  humankind  through  their  choices.  –  But  this  should  not  lead  us  to  quie/sm:  an  aPtude  where  we  think  we  shouldn’t  act  because  our  choices  won’t  ma^er  in  the  long  run.  

–  Instead,  Sartre  thinks  that  we  should  act  upon  a  convicDon  that  “whatever  may  be  in  my  power  to  make  it  so,  I  shall  do;  beyond  that,  I  can  count  upon  nothing.”  (ibid.)  

–  This  fosters  an  aPtude  like  Gandhi’s:    •  “Be  the  change  you  wish  to  see  in  the  world”  

19  

•  “I  cannot  count  upon  men  whom  I  do  not  know,  •  I  cannot  base  my  confidence  upon  human  goodness  

or  upon  man’s  interest  in  the  good  of  society,    •  seeing  that  man  is  free  and  that  there  is  no  human  

nature  which  I  can  take  as  foundaDonal.”  (7)    

Page 20: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

–  Some  people  are  horrified  by  this,  ciDng  their  bad  luck:  •  “Circumstances  have  been  against  me,  I  was  worthy  to  be  something  much  be^er  than  I  have  been.  

•   .  .  .  there  remains  within  me  a  wide  range  of  abiliDes,  inclinaDons  and  potenDaliDes,  unused  but  perfectly  viable,  which  endow  me  with  a  worthiness  that  could  never  be  inferred  from  the  mere  history  of  my  acDons.”  (7)  

20  

•  ExistenDalists  claim  that  man  is  “nothing  else  but  the  sum  of  his  acDons”  –  you  are  what  you  do.  

 

•  Sartre  insists  that  we  can  only  be  defined  by  what  we  do.  -  IntenDons  don’t  leave  a  trace  on  human  history,  but  acDons  can.  

 

Page 21: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

Humanity  across  Cultures  •  Sartre  thinks  that:  –  since  every  one  of  us  is  condemned  to  freedom,  –  we  can  each  recognize  that  all  other  human  beings  share  that  condiDon  with  us.  

•  We  all  share  “the  necessiDes  of  being  in  the  world,  of  having  to  labor  and  to  die  there.”  (9)  –  “…every  human  purpose  presents  itself  as  an  a^empt  either  to  surpass  these  limitaDons,  or  to  widen  them,  or  else  to  deny  or  to  accommodate  oneself  to  them.    

–  Consequently  every  purpose,  however  individual  it  may  be,  is  of  universal  value.”  (9)  

•  So  Sartre  believes  that  existenDalism  fosters                                  cross-­‐cultural  understanding.    

21  

Page 22: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

Morality  without  Rules  or  Values  •  Some  people  misconstrue  existenDalism  

as  advocaDng  people’s  freedom  to  do  whatever  they  want,  regardless  of  whether  it  is  moral  or  not.  –  Sartre  says  that  this  is  just  not  true.  

•  He  uses  an  argument  by  analogy  to  claim  that:  –  just  as  in  art,  where  there  are  no  known  aestheDc  rules  that  an  arDst  follows  in  order  to  create  a  beauDful  painDng,  

–  in  our  moral  lives,  we  can  behave  in  ways  that  respect  other  people’s  humanity,  even  if  we  deny  that  there  are  any  moral  rules  given  to  us  to  follow.  

22  

Page 23: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ Session10$ October$8th,$2014$ Human$Nature:$Sartre$ 1

Sartre’s  Conclusions  •  We  have  no  human  nature.  –  Instead,  each  of  us  individually  determines  our  own  character,  –  And  in  doing  so  we  make  choices  that  affect  all  of  humanity.  

•  We  can  behave  morally  without  a  God  or  set  moral  values  to  guide  us.  –  Because  we  recognize  that  our  acDons  have  an  impact  on  other  people,  –  Who  have  the  same  sort  of  struggles  (despair,  abandonment,  

•  ExistenDalism  empowers  people  to  take  responsibility  for  the  outcomes  of  their  lives.  

23