Phases_and_Methods_of_Community_Organization_1

8/7/2019 Phases_and_Methods_of_Community_Organization_1

1/46

Please remember the Padikaathavan Film bunch dialogue Yengalai paarthavudan

pidikkaathu. Paarkkap, paarkkathaan pidikkum Just like that Padikkap

padikkathan community organization puriyum, pidikkum.u {} t. t t{} t.

"Community organization" t~ t{} t. t~ t~ -.

{ t t t - . ~ .

Methods of

Fact Finding / Problem Identification / Need Assessment

& Related Activities

Compiled byS.Rengasamy

Madurai Institute of Social Sciences

Phases in community organization. Study,Analysis,Assessment,Decision Making,Organization,Action, Evaluation, Modification and Continuation. Tools and techniques used in various phases.Methods of negotiation and conflict resolution. Skills required to handle the community organizationmethods.

Social Work students are familiar with phases studied in various methods Case work (intake, study,diagnosis, treatment, follow up, termination), Group work (planning phase, beginning phase, middle phase,ending phase). Phases or steps again repeated in welfare administration, social policy, project planning.Phases are integral part in acquisition of knowledge or carrying out action. Phases are rational that aid in

making rational decisions. It is inappropriate to use the terminology of diagnosis and treatment in communityorganization, instead we use analysis and decision making / deciding to act. But both the processes aresimilar. If the students understand these underlying similarities, it will be easy for them to internalize it.In case work and group work the phases can be described neatly. As a method moves from individualstic tocollectivistic, one cannot confine the phases in a standard phraseology. In community organization and socialpolicy, description of phases is complex and differs from author to author, reflecting the complex anddiversified nature of the subject matter.For example in community organization study is used alternatively as fact finding, problem identification,need assessment, asset mapping, social analysis, opportunity assessment etc. Each alternative has its ownvalue orientation and methodological specification. Fact finding and problem identification may look similar,but the usage of problem identification is neutral or academic in nature when compared with fact finding. Butthe usage of these different terminologies is not to confuse the learners but to catch the reality complex,diversified and risk prone nature of the community life.Besides these, there is multitude of methodologies available to use in every phase. The conventional survey,

different tools in PRA/ PLA, PPGIS, mapping of different types are some of the methods used by thecommunity organizers to explore the communities.
http://sr/http://sr/http://sr/http://sr/http://sr/http://sr/http://sr/http://sr/http://sr/http://sr/http://sr/http://sr/http://sr/http://sr/http://sr/http://sr/


2/46

Phases in Community Organization

PhaseAny distinct time period in a sequence of events; A short unit of time, or an episode of developmentor change, usually within the context of a longer period. The term has been used informallyStudy:

Application of the mind to the acquisition of knowledge, as by reading, investigation, or reflection:The cultivation of a particular branch of learning, science, or art: the study of law; personal effort to

gain knowledge: to understand community;Something studied or to be studied: research or a detailed examination and analysis of a subject,phenomenon, etc.: She made a study of the village.AnalysisAnalysis (from Greek "a breaking up") is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance intosmaller parts to gain a better understanding of it.AssessmentClassification of someone or something with respect to its worth; appraisal; the act of judging orassessing a person or situation or event; judgmentDecision MakingThe act of making up your mind about something, or a position or opinion or judgment reached afterconsideration.

And when people ordinarily consider their own definition of decision making, it is typical that theyconsider that somehow it is a thinking process, with lots of mental activity involved in choosingbetween alternatives.But this doesn't include the way some people make decisions. You may have heard people sayingI have a gut feeling; I know in my heart: I feel it in my bonesDecision making is the study of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values andpreferences of the decision maker. Making a decision implies that there are alternative choices to beconsidered, and in such a case we want not only to identify as many of these alternatives as possiblebut to choose the one that (1) has the highest probability of success or effectiveness and (2) best fitswith our goals, desires, lifestyle, values, and so on.Decision making is the process of sufficiently reducing uncertainty and doubt about alternatives toallow a reasonable choice to be made from among them. This definition stresses the information-gathering function of decision making. It should be noted here that uncertainty is reduced rather than

eliminated. Very few decisions are made with absolute certainty because complete knowledge aboutall the alternatives is seldom possible. Thus, every decision involves a certain amount of risk.OrganizationOrderly arrangement of group effort; An organization is a social arrangement which pursues collectivegoals, which controls its own performance, and which has a boundary separating it from itsenvironment. The word itself is derived from the Greek word (organon) meaning tool. The term isused in both daily and scientific English in multiple ways.ActionA process or condition of acting or moving, as opposed to rest; the doing of something;exertion of power or force, as when one body acts on another; the effect of power exerted on onebody by another; agency; activity; operation; as, the action of heat; a man of action.Modificationpartial or slight change in form; product of such a change; slight reduction; moderation;

change in an organism caused by its environment and not inheritable


3/46

What is community organizing?Community organizing is a long-term approach where the people affected by an issue are supported in

identifying problems and taking action to achieve solutions. The organizer challenges those he or she works

with to change the way things areit is a means of achieving social change through collective action by

changing the balance of power. The tactics and strategies employed by the organizer are similar to theprocesses of leadership including timing the issue, deliberate planning, getting the attention of the populace,

framing the issue in terms of the desired solution, and shaping the terms of the decision-making process.

Why use community organizing?"A single bracelet does not jingle"- African proverb

Community organizing helps to bring out many voices to add collective power and strength to an issue.

Community organizing is a key part of an overall strategy to make changes in a community that are widely felt,

and that reflect the wishes of the people who are directly affected by alcohol-related community problems.

This requires the organizer to not only listen and be responsive to the community, but also to help community

residents develop the skills necessary to address their own issues in an ongoing way.

At the heart of community organizing are inclusion, ownership, relationship building

and leadership development.

Individual vs. Collective ActionCommunity organizing looks at collective solutions large numbers of people who engage in solutions that

impact even more people. These people usually live in the same neighborhood, town or block.

Many traditional agency responses look at individualsolutions. Agencies tend to focus on the individual as a

means to solve public health problems.

Problem identification: Social programs are developed to address social problems.

Obviously community organizers have to study and document the existence of the social

problem before developing a program

.

Need assessment / Problem

identification a crucial first step

in program development is a

systematic verification of the

existence, prevalence, location,

and importance of a social

problem as it is expressed in

needs for service.

Needs assessment / Problem

identification: Social indicator

method, Survey method: Group method

Fact- finding

Fact-finding includes activities designed to aid the discovery, ascertainment, assembling,

compilation and recording of facts.Most community problems are sustained by a wide variety of factors, and some are more

influential than others. The challenge is to locate the major factors that have an effect on the

problem requiring correction. To meet this challenge effectively, it is essential to gather

relevant facts regarding the background of the problem.

Why we need Community Organizationhttp://www.vcn.bc.ca/citizens-handbook/

We need more active citizens and CO is the way to do it

A way of tackling large public issues

Community Organization - A way of solving local problems

Community Organization - A way of improving liveability

Community Organization - A bridge to strong democracy

Community Organization is a recognized route to better health

Community Organization is a way of rekindling community
http://www.vcn.bc.ca/citizens-handbook/http://www.vcn.bc.ca/citizens-handbook/


4/46

Principles of OrganizingExperienced organizers know that the

process of organizing is seldom "tidy" it doesn't always happen in neat,predictable steps. It can be thoughtof as a process guided by principlesthat repeat in a cyclic, rather thanlinear wa :

In gathering information on the problem, the Community Organizer may be faced with two

difficulties: obtaining too much information that may

prove to be irrelevant; identifying too little

information from normal sources. Good judgment

must be used to distinguish noise (meaningless data)from information that helps in analyzing a problem.

Similarly when information is not easily available,

concerned individuals may be required to use

ingenuity, functioning like good investigative

reporter by checking out leads. With the advice of

the knowledgeable researchers, special studies may

need to be conducted as part of the fact-finding

process.

Following are the techniques normally adopted for

fact finding. Documentation (Recording /Compilation of information), Formal Hearing (to

find out how representative citizens think on a

particular issue or proposal), Action Research

(Research combined with some other type of action

programs), Demonstration projects (to find out

whether a certain program will work or how

effective a particular type of program) and keeping

abreast of new developments and new information in regard to certain subjects

Model 1 .Model 1 .Model 1 .Model 1 . What are the facts to be collected?1. External conditions and factors

Levels of socio-economic development andits relationship to the area Location advantages Govt

policies & Programs

2. Characteristics of the area

Land resources Soil & Water Human Resources Quantitative---Age, Sex, Religion etc

Qualitative ----Education, Literacy

3. Social & Institutional Structure

Familial Corporate Units (Families-House) Associational Corporate Units (Caste) Territorial Corporate

Units (Panchayat Raj, Categoric Units (Religion)

4. Delivery System For Social & Economic Services

Economic i.e. Extension, Credit, Marketing Education, Health, Family Planning, Nutrition

5. Infrastructure Facilities for Production and MarketingRoad, Electricity, Irrigation, Telecommunication


5/46

Analysis:Analysis is the application of the six basic analytical questions i.e. what, whom, where,when, why and how?

What is the problem?

Where does it exist?

Who is affected by it?

When does it occur?

What degree it is felt?

Analysis lies midway between fact finding and planning. It involves collection of data,

exploring the content of the data, breaking up the content or problem, examining the interrelationships between the constituencies. The purpose of analysis is to gain insight, and

understanding.

Planning can scarcely exist without analysis. A sound plan normally implies that the

planner has the facts and that the facts and the problem have been analyzed as a basis for

the formulation of the plan.

Need IdentificationNormative Need: --i.e. a desirable standard---if the individual or community falls short of

this desirable standard then they are being in need. Middle class standard ---A is in need of

B and B is incompatible with the values held in society C and therefore B should be

changed.

Felt Need: --Equated with wants---Felt need is limited by the perception of the people.People may ask for help without really needing it. Exaggerate it or inflate it.

Comparative Need: -- Relative Need--- this need can be assessed by studying the

characteristics of the people who are receiving a particular service. Community A is in

receipt of service, because it has the similar characteristics of AB; Community B also has

similar characteristics, but not in receipt of that service. So Community B is in need.

Expressed Need: - Need is demanded.

E.g. Phone Facilities: USA-450 per1000; Europe-380 per 1000; Singapore-60 per 1000; INDIA---4

per 1000 (?) (Highest number indicate normative condition)Comparative Need My neighbor has a phone.Felt Need I am willing to be wait listed

Expressed Need I paid deposit for getting phone connection

Qualities of a good organizerCommunity organizers think strategically about their work while always keeping the final goal inmind and continually making contributions to the goal. This is especially important in communityorganizing campaigns to enact or change policies. Qualities include:

Imagination Sense of Humor Blurred vision of a better world An organized personality Strong ego/sense of oneself A free, open mind, and political relativity Ability to create the new out of the old (Saul Alinsky, 1971)


6/46

Analyzing the facts / Problem identification

What is the problem? Deteriorating Public HealthWhere does the problem exist? In the sanitary division No. 36 of Madurai CorporationWho is affected by the problem? More than 5000 families residing in the 36 division

{geographic} areaWhen does the problem occur? For the last two years.Why the problem occurred? Poor drainage facilities; increase in the wastewater

cover.To what extent the problem is felt? 35% of the patients who attended the local

Medical practitioners are affected by malarial feverProblem statement: In the past two years, the incidence of malarial fever increased35% in the sanitary division No.36 Madurai Corporation. 5000 families are affecteddue to this public health deterioration.

Community Survey:

The term survey derived from two words i.e. SUR(to see a particular thing) and VOR

(From a high place) Community Survey is a method by which quantitative facts arecollected about the social aspect of a communitys position and activities.

By survey method the Community Organizer can assess existing services and resources in an

area of need as well as gaps in service. Surveying both service agencies and community

residents, asking them how they perceive their unmet needs can identify potential demand for

service.Steps in Community Survey:

Planning the survey

Executing the survey

What's a community? In the physical world, communities are typically groups of people (a village, town, for

instance) held together by some common identity or interest. The same holds true for virtual oronline communities in that they, too, are comprised of people with shared identity or interestscoming together for a shared purpose.

This shared interest or intent offers a strong forum for members of the community to buildrelationships and affiliations out of which they can learn from one another and make an impacton the society or culture around them.

Coming from two Latin words meaning "with gifts," the term community suggests a generalsense of altruism, reciprocity, and beneficence that comes from working together. Communitieshelp generate a shared language, rituals and customers, and collective memory of those that

join the group.The 1998 Encyclopedia Americana defines a community as, "A relatively small, isolated center witha stable population, in which all economic and social services necessary to life can be maintained.The community is one of the oldest forms on human social organizations... The ideal type ofcommunity emerges as an intellectual concept when social change threatens to destroy a locality'sisolation, traditionalism, and solidarity.... [This] leads to a newer form -- including occupationaland professional groups, neighborhood groups, and ethnic and political groups -- becomes thefunctional equivalents of the older, ecological, isolated community, and they make it possible fortheir members to avoid the problems of a multidimensional mass society. Their members can finda focus for their social relations, loyalties, and interests."


7/46

Arthur Dunhams Classification of CO Methods

1. Methods of Planning and Related Activities1. Fact finding 2. Analysis

3. Evaluation 4. Planning

2. Methods of Group Decision Making and Co-operative Action:5. Meeting practice 6. Conference

7. Committee practice 8. Negotiation

9. Organization including Mass organization

3. Methods of Communication:10. Education 11. Consultation

12. Public Relations 13. Formal written Communication

14. Formal oral communication 15. The interview

4. Methods of Promotion and Social Action:16. Promotion 17. Legislative promotion18. Non Legislative procedural social action

19. Direct action 20. Exerting or invoking authoritative Action

5. Methods of Financing and Fund Raising:21. Fund procurement by governmental agencies

22. Fund raising by voluntary agencies

23. Federated financial campaigning24. Joint budgeting

6. Methods of Administration:25. Administrative activities of agencies concerned with social planning.

26. Administration of common services or community organization

27. Recording.

Information requirement to understand a community

1. Basic community characteristics [Physical features and population particulars]2. How the community

functions to meet its

needs [Physical needs

/Social and Emotionalneeds / Political needs /

Economic needs /

Educational and

communication needs]

3. Unmet needs4. Community resources

[Natural/Tangible

human made things /

Systems of serving

people / Social

relationships/Majorinstitutions / Financial

service /Human values /

Skills and talents /

Knowledge availability

etc

5. Capacity for dispositiontowards purposeful

change1. Basic community characteristics

Size [small or big] * Common places * Landmarks *

Look [dirty or clean] * Natural featuresPopulation

Number*Demographic break down [male female

/married / unmarried/old/young/] * Population density *

Nature of families [joint/nuclear/male and female

headed/family members]

2. How the community functions? [Function means

community attempt to meet its needs]2.1. Physical needs

Access to adequate needs * Affordable medical care *

Adequate and safe transport system * Adequate waste

and drainage system * Clean environment * Routinemaintenance2.2. Social and emotional needs

Safety and security * Pride in the community *

Confident of their own and others abilities * Caring by

others * Groupings * Handling of deviants2.3. Political needs

Ability to work together * Participation in decision-making * Formal/Informal process of

making community decisions * Formal government structures and leadership positions

* Recognizing community problems * Dominants [vocal] and passive [silent]

* Basis of community power * Carrying out decisions

Understanding aCommunitys Agriculture

Agricultures Role in theCommunity1. Environmental Role2. Economic Role3. Cultural RoleLaws that Protect AgricultureUnderstanding Specific Aspects ofFarming1. Timeliness and Seasonality ofFarming

Practices2. Manure Management3. Odors and Noise4. Use of Roads5. Use of Pesticides6. Animals in Pastures


8/46

2.4. Economic needs

Access to goods and services * Income and occupational levels * Opportunities available

[plenty/limited] * Earnings [inside/outside] * Production centers * Forces which influence

economic health2.5. Educational and communication needs

Ways of learning about the things happening in the community /world * How people decideabout what is true? * Whom they listen and their credibility? * Schools and training

programs * Formal provider of news-their philosophical and editorial basis

Informal methods of providing news * Interest in communicating with one another3. Assessing the communitys unmet needs

When a community cannot meet its goals or sustain it self, the community has unmet needs

Needs are often undiscovered, undeclared or

considered unimportant by those who could

do some thing about them Recall*Normative need/Comparative need/Expressed

need/Felt need

Symptoms of need and solution to need

one should not mistake this as a need it self

E.g. Over crowded clients-inadequate chairs

- Symptom

Putting adequate chairs

- Solution [Both may be wrong]

Timely service may be the solution

4. Community resources

A need arises not because of the absence of

resource. Allocation of resources and our

inability to recognize and develop resourcesmay result in need. In order to meet the need,

collect the required information about the

resources available in a community.

Natural resources -- Land, Water, Trees etc.

Tangible human made things--E.g.Libraries, bridges, cars etc

Systems of serving people Localgovernment, grievance procedure, games,

health etc

Social relationships Family, friends,business associations etcMajor institutions Temples, schools,government departments etc

Financial services Money, barter etcHuman quality and values Honesty,

determination, passion etc

Skills and talents Carpentry, plumbing etcKnowledge availability Science, history etcResources that can be used in multiple ways Temples, meeting places etcResources that can be combined to produce new resources Storage place that can beused to collect used books

ModelModelModelModel Six stages of effective

community organizing:Assess the community Create an action team Develop an action plan

Mobilize to action Implement EvaluateAssess the communityIt's extremely important that you get to know thecommunity you will be working in and the historyof the issue you will address. Allow two to threemonths to become familiar with the community, itshistory, make-up, demographics, geography andpolitical leadership. Continue to learn about thecommunity by going door knocking andconducting one-on-ones ". The organizer mustlearn what community members concerns are, and

find out what they identify as problems, not tell thecommunity what the problem is.


9/46

5. Capacity for change and Disposition to change

The desire for change often involves correcting injustices, but it is not limited to this. It can

also involve providing new opportunities or challenges, escaping the boredom of the routine

All communities have some capacity to change, though some have more constraints than

others. E.g. Public employees legally limited to take political action.

Each community also differs in its disposition to change E.g. Some communities are happywith the existing conditions

How to find out what we need to know?

Library/Census/City directory/Community profile/Publications/News paper files/Local

magazines/Year books/Resource directories / Impact or issue publications /Lists of local

clubs and organizations/Travel or tourism books/Economic profiles/Community trend

profiles etc

Look for organizations that do at least one of the following things

Sell your community: Chamber of Commerce, Tourism organizations etc

Sell in or from your community: Provision stores, Retail estate associations, Businessconcerns

Serve your community: Schools, Temples, Churches, Service providers

State a particular concern about your community: Environmental organizations, Police,

Transport

Study your community: Universities, Planning bureaus, consulting companies.Guided personal discussionsFocus groupsSurveys and questionnaires

Collecting list

Membership lists *Donor lists *List of officers or board of directorsOfficers of political parties *Creating our own lists

A check list that can be used to facilitate discussion. Adapt it to local conditions

For each of the following statements, please indicate your response using the following key:

Strongly agree -5, Agree- 4, Disagree 3,Strongly disagree 2, Dont know -1

1 This community feels like home to me 5 4 3 2 12. I can get help from my friends when I need it. 5 4 3 2 13. If I need information to make an important decision I know where to find that

information.5 4 3 2 1

4. The community is able to respond to important issues 5 4 3 2 15. I think of myself as similar to the people who live here 5 4 3 2 16. People here are confident about the future of our community 5 4 3 2 1

7. I am able to get the services I need in my community 5 4 3 2 18. I shop locally whenever I can 5 4 3 2 19 The community has strong local leadership 5 4 3 2 110 There is a strong sense of cooperation and community pride 5 4 3 2 111 Our community is highly regarded in the region 5 4 3 2 112 I stop and chat with my neighbors 5 4 3 2 113 I feel my concerns and opinions about local issues can be heard 5 4 3 2 114 The local businesses support the community 5 4 3 2 115 I feel safe in my community 5 4 3 2 1In the past 3 years16 Have you ever joined a local community action to deal with an emergency? YES/NO

17. Have you ever taken part in a community project? YES/NO

18. Do you help out a local group as a volunteer? YES/NO

19. Have you ever been part of a project to organize a service in your area? YES/NO

20. Have you taken part in any education or training program? YES/NO


10/46

21 What do you think are the three most important issues for this community?

22 Is there anyone else you think would be interested in doing this survey?

23 Is there anyone else you think would be interested in doing this survey?

24 Would you like to make any comments about your community?

Model Checklist

COMMUNITY BUSINESS SURVEY Adapt it to local conditionsCategory of Business ....................Number Employed: Years Established . . . . . . . . .Are you a member of any local business organization? YES NOIf YES which organization/s?1. Which of the following best describes how you run your business? (One or more)

a. We provide an essential service so customers come to us YES / NOb. We provide a competitive service and seek customers out YES / NOc. We provide competitive, quality services and have loyal customers YES / NOd. We provide specialized services so customers seek us out YES / NOe. We provide a specialized service and people are referred to us YES / NOf. We keep trying new ways of winning business YES / NO

g. We have an advertising budget YES / NOh. We sponsor several local activities YES / NOi. We sponsor one major local activity YES / NOj. We employ trainees/ cadets YES / NOk. We participate in work experience programs YES / NO

Technology and your businessIs there a role in your business for information technology? YES / NO2. Which of the following best describes the technologies you use?

a. manual bankcard/credit card facilities YES / NOb. electronic banking for our business needs YES / NOc. an electronic payroll system YES / NOd. basic computing- word processing and spreadsheets YES / NOe. software for stock and inventory control YES / NOf. commercial software packages YES / NOg. industry specific software YES / NOh. internet address and website YES / NOi. email address YES / NOj. online catalogue/ ordering facility YES / NOk. We use industry specific technologies YES / NO

About your potential business growth3. Which of the following business strategies do you have in place at the moment?

a. We are planning to grow our business YES / NOb. We have a working business plan YES / NOc. We have a projected cash-flow for the next 12 months YES / NOd. We have a marketing plan YES / NOe. We have a contingency plan for financial emergencies YES / NO

About the Business Community:5. Yes, completely satisfactory 4. Yes, but not completely satisfactory 3. Somewhat, but need attention tobe satisfactory 2. No not at all. Not satisfactory 1. Don.t know

4. How do you feel about each of the following issues in the business community?a. The business sector works together well 5 4 3 2 1b. We know which businesses have leakage to bigger centers 5 4 3 2 1c. We work to reduce that leakage 5 4 3 2 1d. We have a .buy local. strategy 5 4 3 2 1e. The community supports its local businesses 5 4 3 2 1f. We work together to promote the benefits of shopping locally 5 4 3 2 1g. The community is open to alternative economic activities 5 4 3 2 1h. The business sector promotes customer service 5 4 3 2 1i. The business sector is optimistic about the future 5 4 3 2 1j. Businesses work together to maximize opportunities for the future 5 4 3 2 1

6. Business, Council and the Communitya. There is a spirit of mutual assistance and cooperation in the community 5 4 3 2 1b. There is a strong level of pride in the community 5 4 3 2 1

c. Meetings around significant issues in the community are well advertised and open to the public 5 4 3 2 1d. There is a high level of optimism in the community 5 4 3 2 1e. There is a strong working relationship between the Council and the business community 5 4 3 2 1


11/46

f. Council represents and balances local needs and priorities 5 4 3 2 1g. All groups are included in community decision-making 5 4 3 2 1

6.You as a member of the community7. Are you involved in any community organizations outside work? YES/NOif yes, please provide details:

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. Do you undertake any voluntary work/ service in the community? YES/ NOIf YES, please give details of what you do and how many hours each week is involved.


12/46

METHODS OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONMETHODS OF GROUP DECISION

MAKING AND CO-OPERATIVE ACTION

Meaning of Group: Two or more people who interact with and influence each other towards a

common purpose. (Who interact

with one another;

psychologically aware of one

another; who perceive

themselves in a group)

Meaning of Decision Making:Selection of a preferred course of

action from or more alternativesMeaning of Group Decision

Making: When two or morepeople who interact and

influence each other attempt to

select a preferred course of

action from two or more

alternatives

Group decisions emerge from

group meetings. These meetings

may be called as conferences,

committees, staff meetings etc

Groups in the context ofCommunity Organization

The work of the organizations is

largely the work of the groups.

Most of the stuff of community organization discussing, planning, and decision -making

and camaraderie occurs in groups. Building a successful organization demands an

understanding of the functioning of successful groups.

Community organizers see group methods of ensuring authentic participation as a means

towards transformation. Groups are seen as preparing ground for participation. Trust and

dialogues are pre requisite for group process.

Founded on love, humility and faith, dialogue becomes a horizontal relationship of mutual

trust. Trust is established by dialogue; it cannot exist unless the words of both parties

coincide with their actions.

Nor can dialogue exist without hope. Hope is rooted in our human incompleteness, from

which we move out in constant search, which can be carried out only in communion with

other people.

Group decisions require an intense faith in human beings; founded on love, humility and

faith, group decision-making process develops mutual trust. (It requires intense faith in

SynopsisMeaning of a Group

Meaning of Decision Making

Meaning of Group Decision MakingGroups in the context of Community Organization

The importance of GroupsUnderstanding the Groups

Stages of Group Formation

Johnson & Johnson / Napier & GreshenfeldTask roles and Relationship rolesImproving the efficiency of the Groups

Providing proper learning climate

Deciding the sizeGroup Decision Making

Involvement / Types of decision making

Difficulties in decision-making

Making good decisions

Advantages & Disadvantages in group decision makingForms of group decision-making

Meeting practiceConference practice

Committee practice


13/46

human being; requires love and humility; requires hope, which is rooted in human

incompleteness; involves critical thinking)

Issues facing the people are often complex and no expert has all the answers. On the other

hand no body is totally ignorant. To discover valid solutions every one needs to be both a

learner and a teacher. A may provide a fact; B may provide a premise; C may provide avalue judgment; D may provide a complete alternative; E may provide second alternative.

This may lead to valid solutions. To discover valid solutions, every one needs to be both a

learner and a teacher. Groups provide an environment for mutual learning process.

Understanding the GroupsStages in the development of a group.

The following stages are identified in the life cycle of a group.Tuckmen and Jenson Napier and Gershenfled

1. Forming Stage

Members are unsure of themselves andthe group. They try to figure out wherethey fit in with these new relationships

1. Beginning Stage

This stage is a period of watching, waiting and testinghow to act

2. Storming StageIt is characterized by rebellion asmembers assert their individuality andresist authority

2. Movement toward Confrontation StageAfter people have dropped their polite facades andbegin acting more like themselves. Questions arise overwho makes decision and how. Members try to firmlyestablish their place in the group seeking prestige andinfluence. This bound to cause some conflict

3. Norming Stage.Members establish procedure and asense of how they should act in thegroup

3. Compromise and Harmony StageThe group starts reversing confrontative trend realizingthat if continues the group will disintegrate. This periodof goodwill, tolerance for different behaviors and moreacceptance of individuals. Collaboration is increasedand competitiveness is reduced. There is a pressure topreserve the spirit of harmony

4. Performing StageThe group concentrates on the tasks tobe achieved

4. Reassessment StageThe group starts feeling that the pressure to preservesuperficiality makes them to ignore the memberspersonal needs, suspicions and realize that it stands inthe way of accomplishing goals. The group realizes thatsurvival depends on increasing shared responsibility aswell as personal accountability. This in turn increasesthe trust and individual risk taking

5. Adjourning Stage

When the group completes its work,which results in a change in therelationship among its members

5. Resolution and recycling stage

The group realizes that periods of harmony are normaland conflicts are handled easily and quickly.


14/46

Task roles and Relationship roles:

TASKS AND RELATIONSHIP NEEDS IN ANY GROUP

In every group some one is needed to play each of the following roles if the group is toaccomplish its tasks and keep good relationships among its members. Any action thatstrengthens the task or relationship level can be considered a leadership action.

Task NeedsTask Component: any action the groupundertakes to accomplish its purpose / goal. Iftask component receives little attention, thegroup wont accomplish very much.

Relationship NeedsRelationship or Maintenance Component:

Actions not directed at the working of the, butto enhance the harmony among individuals andthe group. Maintenance component includesthe ability of the group members to work welltogether, to effectively manage their conflictsand to feel good about them. This necessaryafter a sequence of intense task activities orotherwise the group will probably fall apart

1. Starting the discussion or helping thegroup to begin a job.

2. Asking for information. Asking groupmembers what information they have and / orwhere the information can be found on thetopic being discussed3. Giving information. When group memberdo not have particular facts that are relevant tothe topic.4. Asking what people think. Getting groupmembers opinion is for good decision-making.It is also important for people to be willing toshare what they think.

5. Explaining. Giving practical examples tomake a point clear.6. Summing up. Repeating what has beensaid clearly in few words.7. Checking to see if everyone agrees8. Analyzing the problems under discussion9. Making creative suggestions to resolvethe problems10. Having clear process for making eachdecision11. Evaluating. Looking at the strengths andweaknesses of the groups work and seeing

how it can be improved

1. Encouraging. Being friendly, responding toand building suggestions made by others.Showing acceptance and appreciation of othersand their ideas.2. Giving every one a chance to speak

3. Asking what people feel. Sharing what onefells and checking group feelings

4. Encouraging shy members, especiallyyoung women or those who less formallyschooled5. Resolving arguments

6. Encouraging creativity in the group.

7. Sharing responsibilities8. Developing the confidence and skills of allmembers9. Setting standards. E.g. shall we agreethat nobody speaks more than twice10. Diagnosing difficulties E.g. may besome of us are afraid of the consequences ofthis decision

11. Relieving tension. By bringing it out intothe open, putting a problem in a wider context,or making a well timed joke

Improving the efficiency of the Groups

Providing proper learning climate


15/46

Deciding the size:

Majority of people find it difficult to speak in a big group of strangers. Also there is usually

not enough time for every one to speak. Therefore if every one is to participate actively, small

groups are essential.Pairs are useful for

Interviews, intimate sharing, practicing some skills, ti stir a passive sleepy group in to action.3s are very useful for Getting everyone thinking and participating actively Testing out an idea one is hesitant to present to the big group. If two people think it is

worthwhile, one might risk saying it to the whole group

4s, 5s, 6s is useful for,Good size for a planning team or discuss about more complex situations. The bigger the

group gets, the longer the discussion time needed and the longer it will take to make

decisions.6-12

This is a good size for sharing ideas and insights when the group has plenty of time. But the

group is bigger than this, it need an appointed animator or leader. All members should try tobe sensitive to the needs of the group (task and relationship needs)30s

An ideal size to develop the sprit of a community. But it is also necessary with groups of this

size to break into smaller groups of different kinds for different purposes.30 200 >

Useful to inform new ideas and policy. But these groups should be broken in to small groups

and animators or facilitators are needed to break the passivity.

Group Decision Making

Community organizers frequently use a number of small group process in decision-making /

problem solving process. The use of decision-making groups typically called Committeesis common in almost all community organization settings. Decision-making isdefined as

the selection of a preferred course of action from two or more alternatives. Group

decision-making has several advantages over individual decisions making. They are:Greater knowledge; greater number of approaches to the problem; greater acceptance of the

solution through participation and support; better comprehension of the decision.

Involvement / Types of decision making

It is neither possible nor desirable to involve everybody in every decision. One of the main

skills in democratic leadership is deciding who should be involved in making which

decisions. The basic rule is that the more deeply people are affected by a decision, the more

important it is they should share in making it.If we analyze how many people were actively involved in making a decision, we will find

they all fall some where along the following line

The plop:

Here the group makes a decision by not making a decision. Not to decide is to decide. Someone makes a suggestion but drops like a stone into a pond and no one pays any attention to it

Plop Hand Clasp Minority Majority Vote True Consensus

One Person Clique Silent Consensus


16/46

all. If the person who made the suggestion really felt enthusiastic about it, the fact that it was

totally ignored could make that person withdraw or resist later suggestions.

The one-person decision:

This is quickly made, but later when the decider depends on free or voluntary support from

others to implement it he /she may find himself / herself carrying it out alone.

The hand Clasp:

One person makes a suggestion. Another says, what a marvelous idea, and without further

discussion, the matter is decided. These decisions are more frequent than one thinks, and

often passed unnoticed at the time, but resentment comes to the surface later.

The Clique:Decisions are made by a small group who plan beforehand to get their way, because they are

better organized than those who disagree. They are often successful on the immediate issue,

but they bring a spirit of rivalry rather than the co-operation in to the group. Sometimes

groups of people who have formerly been excluded or silent form a caucus in order to present

a common agenda. This can be a positive action and check-and- balance to a dominant group.

It is a healthy sign in a participatory democracy.

Minority: these decisions are not consciously organize as those of the clique, but a few

powerful personalities dominate the group, often unconsciously and later they wonder why

the others are apathetic.

Majority Vote:

In big groups this is often the most effective way to make a decision. However, one may lose

the interest or the loyalty of the minority who voted against a decision, especially if they feel

that their point of view was not heard.

Silent Consensus:

Some groups aims at unanimous decisions. These are good, if genuine, but they are rarely

achieved completely on certain issues. Unanimous agreement is some times assumed, when

some members have not felt free to disagree and kept silent.

Consensus:This as an agreement, often involving compromise or the combination of various

possibilities, after all opinions have been heard. Disagreements and minority viewpoints are

discussed fully. It takes time and care to build a climate in which all feel free to express

themselves, but this method does build unity, cooperation and commitment. It does not mean

listening to people and then doing what we were gong to do in the first place. It means

adapting to accommodate the concerns of all. It may take longer to make a decision this way,

but it will often be carried out more quickly and wholeheartedly.

Difficulties in decision-making:

Every group, to achieve its goal is constantly involved in making decisions. These decisions

may be big, little, easy, hard, right or wrong.

Decision making forms a continuing pattern of relationships among members of a group: a

pattern in which every individual member has some influence. It is amazing to note that a bit

of information may change the mood of the group, a loud objection, an expression of

approval or hostility, envy or admiration, contempt or condescension, can have an impendingdecision.


17/46

So it is little wonder that group after group has difficulty making the decisions. Some become

paralyzed when confronted with a decision: some argue over a minor point: others rush into a

vote only to reverse their decision later on or fail to carry out the plan: others appoint a

committee to save them from having to decide.

Most of the difficulties encountered by a group in making decisions center around one or

another of the following factors.

Fear of Consequences:In some groups the possible outcomes of an impending decision may bring divisions and

disagreements. Frank acknowledgement of these fears often suggests how they can be dealt

with effectively. E.g. being in a group, which is not liked by the superiors.

Conflicting Loyalties:

When one person is a member of number of groups, this frequently leads to divided loyalties

about decisions. An atmosphere in which it is possible for these conflicts to be brought outinto the open without the threat to the individual is a help in resolving them. E.g. I would like

to help this community project, but I hardly get any time to spend with my wife and children

these days.

Interpersonal Conflict:

In group of any size personal differences occur which provoke feelings of affection or dislike

among members and which interfere with sound decision making. When two different people

each trying to get things done in their own way, struggle erupts. Often another member who

is not involved in the interpersonal conflict can bring the real problem into the open.

Hidden agenda:One person may try to get the group to make certain decision, which he /she wants for

reasons which he / she will not share with the group.

Blundering Methods:

A group may be bound by rigid procedures (e.g. always addressing all remarks to the

chairperson) that there is little chance for free expression of differences. or a group may allow

itself to substitute personal opinion for adequate information. Or a group may approach the

decision making process without testing for consequences.

Inadequate Leadership:

A leader may hinder good decision making if he / she restricts the expression of opinion or

discussion on issues too soon. Leaders also may fail to provide assistance in selectingappropriate methods for decision-making or be insensitive to the factors causing difficulty in

the group.

Clash of Interest:

Sometimes different group or individuals within an organization do have opposing interest

(e.g. workers wanting higher wages and owners wanting higher profits).

Factors, which help in making good decisions:

a. Clear goalb. Clear understanding of who has responsibility for the decision.

c. Good means of stimulating and sharing idealsd. Effective leadership and structures to deal with the size of the group.


18/46

e. Effective way of testing different suggestions offered.f. Commitment of the leader to genuine group involvement in making the decision.g. Agreement on the procedures on what procedures will be most appropriate. (e.g.

consensus, majority vote, secret ballot etc )

Advantages & Disadvantages in group decision- making

Advantages Disadvantages

Greater knowledgeDiversity of ideasDiffuses the responsibilityBetter comprehensionParticipation hence acceptanceGreater number of solutionsProtects individuals from embarrassmentIntense pressure to go along with others.

Slow and time consumingRisky shiftPassing the buckStrong vocal minority opinion overrides majorityopinion.Group think [norm for consensus overrides theRealistic appraisal of alternative of alternativesolution; hesitation to disagree with others]

Different methods of group decision-making

Meeting Conference Committee

Meeting may be defined asany gathering, assembly orcoming together of two ormore persons for thetransaction of some lawfulbusiness of common concern

Conference means aninformal group discussionby three or more persons,with the object of carryingout open mindedexploration and usually ofachieving consensus orintegration of thinking ona subject or problem

Committee may be defined as agroup of persons, limited inmembership, by selectiveappointment, usually appointedby some superior authority andhaving joint responsibility forinquiry, deliberation, decision,action or related activities inregard to matters assigned to

themProperly convened [byformal authority] Properlyconstituted [quorum &chairmen] Proper procedure[Agenda & minutes]

DOFace to face contact

Participation

DO

Specialists in the subject matter

Just to discuss mattersWhen there is conflict ofinterestTo get majority idea

To get consensusTo generate group ideaTo explore the problem

Both to decide & actTo take joint responsibility

Meeting Practice:

A meeting may be defined as any gathering, assembly or coming together of two ormore persons for the transaction of some lawful business of common concern.

The proper functioning of any association of persons, large or small requires that the

members of the association come together from time to time discuss matters of common

concern and take decisions by common consent by the majority.

Meeting may be classified as public meeting and private or business meeting. It is a

statutory requirement for a registered community organization to conduct regular and proper

meetings to transact its business. A registered organization has to conduct executive

committee meeting, annual general body meeting and extraordinary general body meeting.


19/46

These meetings should be properly convened (i.e. by proper authority, by proper notice)

properly constituted (i.e. quorum and chairman) and follow proper procedures (meeting

procedure, agenda).

The method of meeting practice usually adopts parliamentary procedure to make decisions.

Parliamentary procedure is based on the democratic principles of majority rule, whichrequires that the minority abide by the will of the majority. In turn, the acceptance of the

majority rule by the minority is based on the willingness of the majority to permit the

minority to express its views before action is taken.

Merits and demerits of parliamentary procedure

Merits Demerits

It provides rules and regulations for theorderly conduct of the business.Decisions must be made in the fact ofconflicting interests among membersIt increases the belief in the organization

It is much too formal methodIt decreases the losing factions commitment to thedecisionsIt discourages exploration of innovativeideas in a free and open manner because peopletend to take sides early in the discussion.

Conference

The term conference means informal group discussion by three or more persons, with

the object of carrying on open minded exploration and usually of achieving consensus

or integration of thinking on a subject or problem.

Consensus is a co-operative effort to find a sound solution acceptable to everyone.

Consensus occurs after all members have had an opportunity to voice their opinions and can

then arrive at a decision that almost everyone can support. It ensures that each individuals

concerns are heard and understood and then a sincere attempt is made to take them intoconsideration in searching for a resolution. This resolution may not reflect the exact wishes

of each member, but since does not violate the deep concerns of anyone, it can be agreed

upon by all.

Characteristics:

1) It is carried out by a group.2) Conference normally involves a face-to-face meeting of the group.3) Conference implies general participation.4) Conference uses informal group discussion.5) Conference has some definite subject for discussion.6) Several groups Committees Boards, study groups, use conference method.7) Members should open-mindedly discuss the subject; they should also show interest in

reaching consensus.

8) Conference aims to create a group idea (Not majority idea), which will be better than anyone of the members ideas alone moreover which will be better than all the members

idea added together.

9) Conference method is not appropriate for large bodies.

Committee PracticeThe committee is to community organization as the interview is to casework

1. A committee may be defined as two or more people associated for some purpose towardswhich they function as an organizational entity.


20/46

2. A committee may be defined as a group of persons, limited in membership, by selectiveappointment, usually appointed by some superior authority, and having joint

responsibility for inquiry, deliberation, decision, action, Sponsorship, or related activities

in regard to matters assigned to them.

Characteristics of a Committee:1) A group with limited membership.2) Membership is based on selection.3) Appointed by some superior authority.4) Joint responsibility.5) Working on the matters referred to it

Functions of a Committee

Functions of the committee depend upon for what purpose it is constituted. The most

common functions of committees are as follows.

1) Studying the problem. 2) Reporting information. 3) Coordinating work.

4) Distributing work. 5) Solving problem. 6) Making decisions.5) Monitoring.

Guidelines for Organizing Committees

1) A clear statement of the objectives and functions of the committee.2) There should be a written assignment or terms of reference.3) There should be appropriate selection of members.4) The committee should have competent leadership and adequate executive and clerical

service.

5) There should be appropriate arrangements for follow up after meetings of the committee.6) There should be appropriate procedures at meetings.

7) There should be adequate preparation for follow up after meetings.8) The committee should have adequate records.

Organization of a committee:

1. Chairman, 2. Members, 3. Committee Aide / Secretary.Chairman

- Official head of the committee in both internal and external relationship.- Decides when meetings should be held.- Preside the meetings of the committee. As a president, he has to keep the committee on

the track; he has to preserve an atmosphere of freedom and vitality of participation.

- Officially presents the reports to the superior authority.

Members

- The members should be reasonably well equipped for the work of the committee orshould be willing to raise their level of competence.

- The membership should be interested and willing to serve and should have sufficienttime, health and strength.

- The committee membership should adequately represent the interest that needs to berepresented.

- The members should be able to work together as a group.

Committee Aide (Staff Assistance to committee)

Committee aide is a technical resource; he supplies professional assistance to the committee,he helps the committee in the following ways:


21/46

Program Service - He helps the committee to develop its programs.

Organizational Service - Provides the necessary manpower.

Administrative Service - Planning meetings and agendas in consultation with

the chairman - making physical arrangements for

the meetings , sending notices, writing reports and

handling correspondence.

The basic task of committee aide involves working with and strengthening the position of the

chairman. He is to facilitate the work of the committee, to help or enable it to perform its

task effectively, but never to dictate or determine its course of action nor to usurp the

functions of the chairman.

Committee Procedures:

1. Agenda 2. Minutes.

2. Agenda :A Committee meeting needs a written agenda. The world Agenda literally means things

to be done. It refers to the programme of Business to the transacted at a meeting. Agenda isessential for the systematic transaction of the business of a meeting in the proper order of

impotence. It is customary for all organizations to send an agenda along with the notice of

meeting to all members. Usually routine items are placed first and controversial items later.

The business of the meeting must be conducted in the same order.

Items for agenda may be drawn from:

- Unfinished business from the last meeting.- Items previously scheduled by the committee for consideration on this date.- Matters suggested by a member of the committee.- Communications from outside the committee requiring consideration by the committee.

- Matters which the chairman, committee aide or a member of the committee feelsimportant to be discussed by the committee.

Loophole Agenda& Hidden Agenda

It means any other business with the permission of the chair. This provides an opportunity

for the members to discuss on matters, which has not been specifically included in the

agenda.

2. Minutes

Minutes may be defined as the permanent, official record of the proceedings of a meeting. It

serves as a reminder of the subjects previously dealt with and the conclusions reached. Once

approved and signed they are acceptable in a court of law as evidence of the proceedings.

The Minutes should begin by identifying the body that is meting; the date, hour and place;

name of the presiding officers, members absent. The Minutes should generally be

chronological, following the actual order of events.


22/46

PLANNING IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONMore more detailed discussion please see the project planning document

It is true to some extent that planning is a waste of time and it is also true that lack of

planning will almost certainly be a waste of time. To understand planning as a useful activity

and to use it to increase the effectiveness of our work, we need to answer certain questions.

Plan and Planning:

A plan is a set of decisions made on

actions to be taken to reach a goal. It is the

product of the process of planning.

Planning is an active process and it is

opposite of simply allowing events to

unfold. A plan can be said to exist when a

point in the planning process has been

reached.

Plan (appoint in the planning process) is coherent set of operations designed to meet a given

goal. It is determined with sufficient clarity that may be acted upon.

A plan can be a very formal document, or it can simply be the clear understanding of the

actions you are going to undertake.

Both plan and planning is a never-ending activity. Your plan will be shaped and reshaped by

new forces and new information you discover as you proceed with your action. Planning

involves vision, discovery, decision-making and action. It is a purposeful way of looking at

the future with the intent to shape it.

SOME MORE EXPLANATIONS:

1. Planning is a new name for an old activity. Planning means thinking about tomorrow. For

some, planning means foresight; for others, it is a complete reconstitution of our social

system.

2. Planning is not fortune telling; Planning is the design of the desired future and of effective

ways of bringing it about.

3. Planning is clearly a decision making process; but not all decision making is planning

(Decision making is defined as the selection of a preferred course of action from two or more

alternative). Planning is anticipatory decision-making.

4. Planning denotes triumph of reason over superstition; of understanding over ignorance; oforganized initiative over fatalistic helplessness. -- P.R. Dubashi.

5. Planning is a process by which an individual or organization decides in advance on some

future course of action.

6. Planning is an orderly arrangement of the future. Absence of planning means absence of

preparation and therefore the path of failure -- P.R. Dubashi.

7. Planning is determining in advance what is to be done? How it is to be done? Whom it is to

be done? And who is to do it? It encompassed setting objectives as well as making day-to-

day decisions on how these objectives can best be achieved. Hence planning involves the

determination of both ends and means Robinson.

8. The planning process is concerned with current decisions about allocating resources in

order to achieve future objectives.9. Planning is a series of actions that results in decisions to allocate resources in order to

What is a plan?What is planning?Why should we plan at all?What benefits does it provide?How much planning we need or dont need?How does one plan?What are some useful planning models?What are some basic obstacles to planning?How do we confront them?


23/46

achieve future objectives.

10. Planning aims at the optimum use of resources and the rational integration of community

life.

11.Planning is basically a methodology, a set of procedures applicable to a variety of

activities aimed to achieving goals by the systematic application of resources in programmed

quantities and in time sequences designed to alter the projected trends and redirect themtowards established objectives.

Why should we plan? Basic reasons for planning:

Planning is a way of solving the problems by making the very best use of resources.

Planning will guide ones actions to be effective (in accomplishing the objectives/ purpose)

and efficient (done with a least time and effort) in achieving the goals.

In trying to solve one problem we end up creating another, even larger one. Bad but

unintended consequences are often the legacy of good intentions coupled with little

forethought. But a good plan produces thoughtful action and minimizes the likelihood that

our efforts will simply generate new problems.

Good planning involves identifying both the promise and the difficulties that exist in any

situation. Good planning goes beyond problems; good planning enables one to create

opportunities.

PLANNING IMPLIES:

1. A problem / need which is recognized2. A planner or planners (group) concerned about the problem3. A process involving analysis, evaluation and decision making4. An intention of future action.

Levels of planning

A plan should proceed from the broad to the specific. Any plan needs to include:

Ones sense of ultimate desired conditionE.g. Every pregnant woman in Madurai district receives adequate prenatal care.

A specific target that represents significant movement toward that condition.E.g. to establish multiservice prenatal care clinic by a specific date

The major activities one need to accomplishE.g. activities include selection of the clinic site, determination of the range of services,

securing funding, or establishing community support.

The specific steps to get things done.

E.g. what should be done over the next one to three months? For example one may decidethat one first need to build community support and that will lead to involvement of people

who can help to determine the range of services, which will set the stage for fund raising

activities.

* The immediate concern in this plan is to gain the community support. to achieve that the

following steps are necessary.

* Contacting the health department for statistics you can use to describe the problem.

* Identifying other individuals and organizations who have an interest the issue.

* Contacting a particular news reporter to do a story on the issue.


24/46

STEPS IN PLANNING

1. Analysis of existing conditions (Diagnosis)What are the problems?

What are the needs?2. What do we want to achieve in a particular period? (Objectives and target setting)

This week, this month, this year

3. What are the possible ways of achieving this objective?Brainstorm proposals

4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each proposal?How much time, money and personal effort will be needed for each proposal?

5. Which proposal do we accept?This may include several suggestions

6. Who will do what, when and where?7. At what point do we need to evaluate?

Who should be involved in evaluation?

PARTS OF PLANNINGEndsMeansResourcesImplementationControl

Objectives; Desired State of futurePolicies, Programs, ProjectsInvestments to be made: Man, Material, MoneyProcess of carrying out the plan activitiesPreventing or correcting errors

Obstacles in planning:

An unpredictable future.

Lack of skill

Lack of interest

Thirst for action- dont want to take time to plan

Planning to avoid action

Defining the problem in terms of solution.

Planning to produce a predetermined approach

Groupthink

POSSIBLE AREAS FOR PLANNING IN COMMUNITY ORGANISATION:

1. Specific projects, services, activities, program.2. A course of action i.e. deciding legislative strategy

3. Organization reorganization, budget preparation4. A time schedule fund raising, establishment of new agency.5. Formulation of work plan; procedures; standards etc.


25/46

Categories of projectsBased on levels Based on time Based on the purpose

Centralized Normal Experimental

Decentralized Crash Pilot

Partially decentralized Disaster Production / Service.

Project Planning and Management

(Project Planning / Project Formulation / Project Implementation / Preparation of Project

Proposal).

One Of the most important administrative developments in the developed as well as in

developing countries has been the initiation and growth of a large number of new programsprojects in every field like agriculture irrigation industry community development social

welfare etc.. The principle aims and objectives of all these programs have been to bring about

overall changes in the existing socio-economic structure in the country providing thereby

dignified way of life to a citizen as a unit and socio-economic up liftment of the society.

So most of the administrators are directly concerned with the program / project

administration than other activities. The capability of administrative system to formulate and

implement, relevant and in able programs effectively constitutes a crucial element in the

process of development. Development requires planning and planning includes a lot of

programs / projects. Plan requires projects and projects require a lot of planning.

As in the case of all definitions, the term program / project has a variety meaning. Programs / Projects are tools to achieve the plan goals.

E.g. Plan goal Removal of poverty.

Plan tool IRDP, JRY, TRYSEM etc.

A project is an investment of resources in a package of interrelated time found

activities. Thus a project becomes a time found task. A Project should have definite

beginning and an end. A project can be defined as a scientifically evolved work plan devised to achieve specific

objectives within a specific period of time.

Social welfare programs is a plan of related activities interested to be carried into effect

over a period of time, to achieve one or more social welfare objectives. The helping the

community in such a manner that with the passage of time, they may be able to carry outthe activities for their own betterment and thus generate self-reliance.

Characteristics of a project:1. Each and every project should have a package of interrelated activities.

Eg. IRDP

Identification of the poor

Knowing their choice

Arranging bank assets

Follow up / advisory activities

Evaluation2. Each activity is time found

3. Each and every project should have a set of objectives to be achieved.E.g. IRDP-Eradication poverty by distributing income-generating assets.

E.I.P-Improving the environment in slums through providing basic amenities like

drinking water, drainage, street lights, toilets and community centers etc.


26/46

4. Each and every project should be operated with constraints.E.g. Eradication of poverty within a democratic framework, within a time frame, within a

limited resource within the present bureaucratic setup.5. Each and every project should specify the (clientele) target group.

E.g. IRDP Rural poor, SEPUP Urban poor.

6. Each and every project should have well defined time sequence of investments.7. Each and every project should have an in built arrangement to evaluate the program.

Project Life Cycle Phases:

All projects have to pass through certain phases. The attention that a particular project

receives is again not uniformly distributed throughout its life span, but it varies from phase to

phase. At a particular appropriate attention has to be paid.

Following are the general phases of a project.1. Conception phase2. Definition phase3. Planning and organizing people4. Implementation phase5. Project clean up phaseThe above phases wont follow a sequence rather they overlap; sometimes this

overlapping is done deliberately in the interest of compressing the overall project schedule.

There are others who would encourage natural growth.

Conception phase:

Phase in which the project idea germinates. This phase is also known as Identification of the

problem, identifying the performance gap.

It we avoid or truncate this phase, the project will have innate defects and may eventually

become a liability for the investors.How to implement the project is not the botheration of this phase. It we start thinking about

the implementation during this phase, it will unnecessary delay this phase.

Definition Phase:

The definition phase of the project will develop the idea generated during the conception

phase and produce a document describing the project in sufficient details covering all aspects

necessary for the customer or investors to make up their minds on the project idea.

Planning and organizing phase:

This phase can effectively start only after definition phase, nut in practice it start much

earlier, almost immediately after the conception phase. This phase overlaps so much with the

definition and also with implementation phases. That is why no formal recognition is given

to this by most organizations.

Implementation phase:

Period of hectic activity for the project. It is during this period, something starts growing in

the field and people for the first time can see the project.

Project clean up phase:

Completion and handing over the project.

The curve in this diagram shows that effort to build up a project is very slow, but effort to

withdraw is very sharp. It can also be seen that time taken for the formative and clean up

stage & implementation stage. While this pattern is true for all the projects, the percentage of


27/46

effort in different phases would not be the same for all projects. However for the same class

projects the curve may be more or less the same. A life cycle curve can thus represent a class

of projects.

Project Life Cycle Phases IIProject Planning:

Planning in the context of projects is a means of organizing the work, deciding who does

what, when, how and for whom, determining the resources required, allocating responsibility

communicating among all those involved in a project, coordinating activities and people

involved, controlling progress, estimating term of completion and handling unexpected

events and changes. Planning is also a basis for the authority of a project manager, for the

budgeting and financial control of a project manager, for the self analysis and learning, means

of orienting people to look ahead of a project, and above all, a way of initiating and

maintaining a sense of urgency i.e. time consciousness.

Project Formulation:

Project formulation means developing our ideas in a good shape so as to present it to

decision-makers to take correct investment decisions. Thus, project formulation refers to a

series of steps to be taken to convert an idea or aspiration into a feasible plan of action.Project FormulationProject Appraisal

This is called pro project evaluation or pre investment evaluation. In appraisal we have to

answer several question. Whether the project is politically acceptable? Socially acceptable?

Economically viable? Technically feasible? Managerially capable? Environmentally stable?

Project Implementation / Management:

It means actual running and management of the day to day affairs of the project and

monitoring the project.


28/46

STEPS IN PROGRAMME / PROJECT PLANNING / DEVELOPMENT

Hage & Aiken1. PROGRAMME INITIATION2. PROGRAMME CONTACT3. PROGRAMME

IMPLEMENTATION4. PROGRAMME EVALUATION

MURRAY G. ROSS1. DEFINITION OF THE

PROBLEM2. STUDY OF NATURE,

MEANING & IMPLICATIONSOF THE PROBLEM

3. DECISIONS REGARDINGULTIMATE SOLUTIONS

4. ACTION ON THE SOLUTIONAGREED UPON

IDENTIFICATION /OBJECTIVE SETTING

FORMULATION OF THEPROJECT

IMPLEMENTATION /MANAGEMENT

MONITORING

EVALUATION

Delhecg & Van de ven1. PROBLEM EXPLORATION2. KNOWLEDGE EXPLORATION3. PRIORITY DEVELOPMENT

4. PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT5. PROGRAMME EVALUATION

O.P. DHAMMA1. SURVEYING THE EXISTING

CONDITIONS2. CONSTITUTING A

PROGRAMME BUILDINGCOMMITTEE

3. SETTING UP OBJECTIVES4. PLANNING FOR ACTION

EVALUATIONEXPLANATIONS:

1.1Evaluation means finding out the value of something.1.2Evaluation simply refers to the procedures of fact finding.1.3To evaluate is to make judgments, to conduct an evaluation is to provide findings that can

be used to make correct judgment.

1.4Evaluation consists of assessments whether or nor certain activities, treatments andinterventions are in conformity with generally accepted professional standards.

1.5Any information obtained by any means on either the conduct or the outcome ofinterventions, treatment, or of social change projects is considered to be evaluation.

1.6Evaluation is designated to provide systematic, reliable and valid information on theconduct, impact and effectiveness of the projects.

STAGES IN EVALUATION:

PROGRAMME PLANNING STAGE: Pre investment evaluation or Formative evaluation or ExAnte evaluation or Pre Project Evaluation or Exploratory evaluation or Need assessment.

PROGRAMME MONITORING STAGE:Monitoring evaluation or concurrent evaluationPROGRAMME/COMPLETION STAGE:Impact evaluation or ex-post evaluation or finalevaluation.

GENERALLY EVALUATION PROCESS CONSISTS OF TWO STAGES

1. Monitoring activities and tasks (concurrent)2. Assessing the achievement of the objective (final)

BENEFITS OF EVALUATION:

1. To make decisions about the best use of resources2. To make changes in objectives or activities3. To provide feed back to key people, particularly project administrators and funders.

PURPOSE OF EVALUATION:

1. From an Accountability perspective, the purpose of evaluation is to make the bestpossible use of funds by the program managers who are accountable for the worth of their

programs.

2. From a Knowledge perspective, the purpose of evaluation is to establish new knowledge


29/46

about social problems and the effectiveness of policies and programs designed to alleviate

them.

GUIDELINES FOR PREPARING

PROJECT PROPOSALE

1. Details regarding the applicantA)Name, address, legal status & Standing.B) Persons responsible for the implementation of the ProjectC) Project Manager

2. Details regarding the project Area, objectives and method of implementation.

A) Information regarding the locationB) Description of the situation which is to be changed by the planned projectC) Information regarding the aims and objectivesD) Information regarding the planned measuredE) Integration of the project

F) Implementation3. Personnel required for the project4. Cost estimate of the project (Budget)

Salary, employee welfare, travel Consultation Non- Recurring (Capital costs)

Recurring (Operating costs)5. Evaluation.

Techniques useful for Planning.Force Field Analysis.Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)Delphi technique.Nominal Group technique.

Force Field Analysis

This technique is useful in identifying the current obstacles and current resources. As we plan

and proceed towards our work, a number of contending forces operate in our arena of our

action. Some of these forces drive us towards our goal, while some drive us away from our

goal. A state of tension exists, producing a dynamic situation as forces act upon one another

and maintain a relative balance. This balance represents the current state of affairs.

D

EFEAT

Helping Forces Present

Situation

Hindering Forces

GOAL

Brainstorm all the forces. These forces may be tangible items such as people or meeting

rooms or intangibles like apathy or personal connections or skills. One can move towards the

goal ether by increasing the helping forces, or by weakening the hindering forces. Sometimes

the more pressure comes from the helping forces; the more resistance develops in the

hindering forces. In such cases it is often best to start by reducing the hindering forces.


30/46

ORGANIZATION

Meaning & Definitions:

Organ: A part of the body fitted to carry out a natural or vital activity-- an instrument or

means by which anything is done. Organization derived from the term organ, is a means

to achieve certain purpose through group effort.

Organization means orderly arrangement of the group effort to provide unity of action in

the pursuit of a common purpose-- Dunham

Organization is the planned co-ordination of the activities of two or more people in order

to achieve some common and explicit goal through division of labor and a hierarchy of

authority.--Robinson

Organization is the process of identifying and grouping the work to be performed,

defining and delegating responsibility and authority and establishing relationships for the

purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in accomplishing

objectives.--Louis A. Allen.

Knowledge of organization can help community organizers in many ways:

1. How to organize:A. When we organize the people, we must understand their level of awareness.

Naive Level of Awareness People aware about the problem. eg.poverty

Critical Level of Awareness- People know about the laws of the problem e.g. Land is

available but it lie waste & dry.

Organizational level of awareness: People aware about neither a good leader not a good

idea is enough to organize the people. When we organize the people, we must remember

how people in respect organization are used to working and their organization in the past

E.g. Small farmers may not adjust easily in a large co-op farm where work in organized onexpertise co-op form where work is organized based on expertise. Factory worker who is

accustomed to division of work may not adjust in a small organization where division of

work is not followed.

B. The build organization in such a way to facilitate peoples participation:

Choosing right persons for the right job

Providing substantial representation

C. To develop the organization / sustain the interest of the members:

Selecting volunteers or indigenous non-professional aides, coordinators, contact person

etc Leadership training

Socialization Motivation and satisfaction of members

C. To understand the organization structure:

To learn the organizational robes, understanding who is who, what is what, why is why of

its informal activity

1. Identifying human resources-to get information and advice, co-operation or help2. Understanding the power structure.


31/46

METHODS OF COMMUNICATION & PUBLIC RELATIONS

1. Public Relations mean the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish and

maintain mutual understanding between an organization and its public.2. Public relations include the whole area of relations with the public and with groups andindividuals outside the agency.

3. Public relations is simply the attempt of an organization or Agency to enhance itsprestige, position or product in the community at large.

Public Relations is not Propaganda (1.propaganda is an instrument of politics,2. a power for

social control:3.its function is to attract followers and to keep them inline) Not advertising

(advertising is any paid form of non personal presentation and promotion of goods, service

or ideas by an identified sponsor); Not publicity gimmicks (any form of socially significant

news about an institution, a service, or a person published in a space or radio that is not paid

for by the sponsor); It is not polished receptionists and telephone answering service. It isa genuine attempt to improve mutual understanding between an organization and all with

whom it comes into contact, both within and outside the organization.

A community organization relates it self to the geographic community in three distinct ways.

1. Public relations2. Community services: eg. Maintaining parks, giving awards / scholarships; running free

clinics;

3. Community participation: eg. Sending representatives to Corporations Eco-Developmentprogram; sending representatives for peace rally.

Need / Purpose / Objectives of Public Relations:1. To bridge the distance between organization and its Sub System.

A community Organization consists of several sub systems.

Agency family Boards, Committees and Staff.---Volunteers --- Clients / Consumers

Co-operating Organizations and Individuals. ---Supporters, Contributors, Members.

Key persons.---Special Public Professions, Veterans.---General Public

Organization has to bridge the spatial, temporal gaps between the sub-systems2. To enlist the support of the people for financial support.3. To promote an understanding of the aims, services and methods of social welfare

agencies.4. Defense: To overcome the criticism & opposition.

Methods of Public Relations:

Press relations-Issuing press releasesArranging press meeting Writing letters to the editor.

E.g. Consumer Protection Council.

Printing Message: Printing pamphlets, notices Publishing house journals etc. Using

photographs as an aid in printing message. News letters.

Conducting Exhibitions & Trade Fairs

Using Audio Visual media (Radio, film and TV)

Hospitality services.

Advertising


32/46

EDUCATION

Education is implicit in much of the community organization works irrespective of its

orientation. If a community organizer oriented to process goal (i.e.) working with the people

to develop their organizational and inter-personal relationship, so as to facilitate communityeffort, he has to entirely depend upon the variety of educational methods.

Explanation:

Education generally defined as progressive or desirable changes in a person as a result

of teaching, study and experience. Education consists of two elements i.e., teaching and

learning.

Teaching is defined as the art of assisting another to learn. It includes the providing of

information (instruction) and of appropriate situations, constructions or activities

(experiences) designed to facilitate learning.

Learning is defined as changing ones way of acting, as a result of practice or of otherintervening relevant experience. Such changes in conduct assume changes in the

responding person.

Education in C.D.Education, as it is used in C.D., includes the attempt to help people obtain knowledge, and

understanding and develop their capacities, powers, faculties and sense of values.

The purpose of education is to produce changes.

The Changes sought are of five kinds.

Changes in things known, or knowledge. Adult education.Ch

Phases_and_Methods_of_Community_Organization_1

Documents

Transcript of Phases_and_Methods_of_Community_Organization_1