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1. Buddhism: Discuss the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold

Path.

Siddhartha Guatamao Born to warrior casteo Clan of Shakyas (from Nepal)o Known as the Shakya muni (Sage of the Shakyas)o Married a princesso Spiritual conversion at 29

4 significant encounters in the course of a drivethrough Lumbini park

came upon an old man, sick man, a corpse,and an scetic monk

came to the realization of universal sufferingin this world and of the emptiness of all life

renounced princely life shaved hair life of an ascetic seeking the way of

deliverance

o search 6 years

sought instructionn under 2 religious masters unsatisfied, went to forest ( regime of extreme

mortification)

town of Gayao sat under a Bo tree outside the towno wont move until he attained light and

understandingo Buddha, the Enlightened One

Attained nirvana, the blowing out or extirpation ofall desire and the liberation from the cycle of

transmigration

35 years old

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o Benares 1st sermon

turning of the wheel of doctrine won 5 disciples

o disciples converts called arahats, the worthy ones

o died at 80 years old last words: all composite things are doomed to

extinction. Exert yourself in wakefulness

not about following his doctrineo Doctrine

Dharma Found in first sermon Contains 4 noble truths and 8 fold path Passed by oral tradition

Four Noble Truthso Universal fact of pain and suffering

Old age Illness Death Things we hate Separation from things we love Suffering is physical and emotional

o Origin of suffering Craving thirst causes suffering and cycle of

rebirths, the renewal of becomings

Seeking further satisfaction

Craving for gratification of senses, for existenceand annihilation

Life then is impelled by cravings and desires, andby shallow, illusory wants

One illusory goal to another and from one

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disappointment to another

2 borrowed beliefs from hinduism samsara

o belief in transmigrationo cycle of successive rebirths

karmao belief in retributiono law of universal causality, by which the

effects of good and bad deeds are

carried over to the succeeding life

o we reap what we sow it is the empty attachment and seeking for the self

that causes suffering

to liberate ourselves, we must renounce the self.We must die to the self

expatriate all cravings and greed, thereby putout the prolongations of karma

achieved by effort and discipline by individualo Cessation of suffering

Put an end to all cravings and thereby releaseourselves from the hold of desire and the empty

seeking for the self

Buddha denies the existence of human soul Human is part of this whole constant flux like

everything else

There is no self, no underlying personalidentity

What is usually considered the self is only anaggregate, a combination of 5 elements

body, feelings, impulses, perceptions and

consciousness

Metaphor: chariot made up of pieces,

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dismantled there is no chariot

Individual person then is a transitorycomposite that is bound to pass away like all

composite things

Root of all suffering is this illusion oroverweening attachment to the emtpy false

notion of the self

Moral task: to die to the self, renounce selfand all self-seeking, all desires and cravings

o Path leading to the cessation of suffering Take the way of the 8 fold path

Eightfold Patho Right view

Understand 4 noble truths Right viewpoint that pierces the illusion of vain self-

seeking

o Right resolve /aspiration Strive to observe what the right view and

understanding have shown us

Go beyond the seeking for the I and for what ismine

o Right speech Try to avoid all that desire and self-seeking in our

words

Refrain from gossip, idle talk, slander Our words must be marked by self0control,

consideration and thoughtfulnesso Right action

Practice the 5 percepts vingind on all monks andlaypeople

Thou shall not kill Thou shall not steal

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Thou shall not lie Thou shall not have illicit sexual relations Thou shall not take intoxicating or alcoholic

drinks

o Right livelihood Avoid any occupation that does violence or harm

life

Butcher, soldier Practice positive virtues like good will towards all

human beings and the forgiveness of injuries

o Right effort Strive to find our own pace and our own way in the

path toward emancipation and enlightenment

Engage only in mindful or thoughtful actiono Right concentration

Try to acquire a detached and calm attitude withregard to our emotions and passions

Try to see things as they are, free of all illusions andself-deceptions

Free ourselves from the enslaving fantasies of theimagination

o Right contemplation Quiet down all irrelevant thoughts until we come on

to the true knowledge, not by way of reason or

logic, but by intuition and by insight

At the point of the highest insight, all senseexperience ceases and the mind is finally released

At that point, there will be no more rebirth Enlightenment is attained. It is the point of nirvana

o Nirvana Ultimate goal of 8 fold path Means to extinguish

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No more karma Cessation of all desire for pleasure of things, for

life, or for self

Fullness of freedom and awareness andenlightenment

Not pure annihilation or nothingness State that is ineffable, nothing like any nature or

form in worldy existence

Transcendent stateo Ultimate joyo Heavenly bliss

Unthinkable Out of this world

o Buddhas nirvana Pari-nirvana

Ultimate nirvana Nirvana of no return

2. Confucian Ethics: Discuss the Three Main Virtues. Why does

Confucius hold that the ethical cannot be separated from the

political?

Confuciouso Born to poor family, but of noble descento From state of Sung, but moved to Shantungo Family name: Kung ; name: Chiuo Later known as kung tse, Master Kungo

Father died when he was 3o Had many menial jobs, then became a private tutoro Appointed as minister of justice or police commissioner

for the state of Lu at 50

o Resigned because ruler of the state was not willing tofollow his reform measures

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o Travelled to other states, but feudal lords were notappreciative of his advice

o Went back to Lu to devote his life to teachingo Saddened by his sons death and his most promising

disciple, Yen Hui He

o Died without seeing any effect or influence of his moraland social ideas on the community affairs of his time

o Lived during Chou dynasty Country split into warring feudal states, each one

ruled by a hereditary feudal lord who goes to war at

whim, overtax people, and impose heavy labor

o Confucious saw that to relieve the common people ofsuffering, there was a need for social and political

reforms

o Return to the source of old chinese tradition, withemphasis on moral education and obserance of

traditional rites and ceremonies

Sees himself as a reformer rather than an innovatoro Early Han dynasty

Confucian philosophers and confucian classicswere established as the official ideology of the

Chinese empire

Made the core of educational system and of thecivil service exams

Tao and Teo Confucious teaching contained in Lun Yu / Analects of

Confucious Small book with 20 chapters

o Thoughts may be viewed as a reprise of two ancientideas of chinese tradition

Tao (The Way) Similar to western notion of Logos

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Signifies nature of which all things are made Also means the standard to which all things

must conform

Common to all things, that of which all thingsare made

Kind of a transcendental principle The way, truth, and being of all things

Te (virtue) Signifies some human trait considered as a

gift from Heaven

When Tao acts upon man, it becomes Te,constituting mans attitude of mind and hischaracter

o Te as composed of Chih and Wen Only one worthwhile purpose man can have

To be a good man, a man of virtue, to be acomplete full man

2 things needed for this attainmento Chih

Basic natural stuff / substance Material substance of morality

signifies the basic inclination to do

what is right

Endowment from heaven Moral virtue or character is

in part is a gift from heaven

oWen Nurturing, formative process Original endowment is like a seed

that needs to be nurtured and

brought to fullness by man, by

way of a long process of

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education and application

Education for confuciousconsists mainly of the study

of 5 books of ancient

chinese literature, which

confucious believed to be

the repository of human

wisdom and moral insight,

especially suited to draw out

and bring into actuality the

original endownment and

potential of man. Thus, theyare called The Confucian

Classics

o Moral man is one who has 2 mainelements

Natural endowment and formativeprocess composed of the

grounding in the Confucian

Classics and the life-long effort of

self-overcoming

* Gentleman someone who has acquired 3 main virtues; man of

humaneness never worries, man of wisdom never of two minds,

man of courage never afrad

3 Main Virtueso

Humaneness (Jen) Sense of connaturality or respect, love and good

will toward fellowman

Most important moral quality Flows over to the 2 other virtues Overcoming oneself, ones self-interest, desire for

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gain

(Li) Return of the rites Other side of o overcoming our egotistic

tendencies

Rites are the traditional body rules andceremonies governing all aspects of life from

birth to death

Must be examined from time to time in viewof what is right

Method of humaneness confucious recommends Rule of theshu

o Using oneself as an analogy for arrivingat what others like and dislike

o Do not impose on others what youyourself do not desire

o Recommended the use of as a tool forputting into action the positive element,

chung, doing ones best in the love of

fellowmen

o Wisdom (Chih) Never of two minds Distinguish wrong from right Not deceived by what is false Does not mistake it for what is true and valid Possession of 2 combined elements of learning

(hsueh) and thinking (ssu)

Together with learning, there must also bethought

Improve what we have learnedo Reflection on the past

o Courage (Yung) Never afraid

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Overcoming of fear in the pursuit of what is right Must be based on something other than itself,

namely what is right

Rightness (yi) then is a standard of courage Also standard for learning Also norm for rites

o What is rightness? Tien Ming

o Heavens decree Emperor ruled by heavens decree, by this virtue it

is emperors duty to rule for the good of his people

Heaven could withdraw its decree and pass it on toanother more worthy of power and position

In confucious Duty not only emperor, but everyone Universal moral imperative incumbent on

every one

Transcendental principle Tien Ming and Tao

o Confucious not clear whether heavens decree isdifferent from Tao (the way)

o Gentleman stands in awe of 3 things Heavens decree Great men Words of the sages

o Fundamental nature, ground and source of morality

Confucianismo Striving to make the Way and heavens decree concerete

and actual by way of the exercise of moral virtue and the

performance of the rites and practices of daily life

Ethical cannot be separated from political

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3. Rachels: Discuss the main claims of Cultural Relativism. Why

does Rachels hold that morality cannot be reduced to ones cultural

belief system? How can we assess the objective moral validity of

cultural practices in a world composed of various (and oftentimes

clashing) belief systems?

Main claimso Different cultures, different moral codeso So there is no objective right or wrongo Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and

opinions vary in every culture

Unsound argument Premise about peoples knowledge of

morality

Conclusion about the nature of morality Ex: world is flat

We could no longer say that customs of othersocieties are morally inferior to our own

nazis Decide whether actions are right or wrong just by

consulting the standards of society

Society not perfect, room for improvement No more UN

Idea of moral progress is called into doubt Morality cannot be reduced to ones cultural belief system Objective moral validity of cultural practices in a world

composed of various belief systemso Seemingly different on the surfaceo In actuality, just different form of expressions of common

values

Ex: honoring the dead Callatians eat them

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Greeks cremate themo Moral worth of a practice is contingent upon how it

contributes to the society in which it is practiced

Standard: human flourishingo Common values for survival

Caring of young / welfare of people Truth telling No murder

Learnings from cultural relativismo Open-mindednesso Tolerance of diversityo Mutual criticism without thinking that we are morally

superior

4. Plato: Discuss the Allegory of the Cave. How was Plato able to

show that there is a rational and objective standard for morality

beyond the world of appearances and opinion? What is the role of

anamnesis in forging a harmonious soul and society?

Allegory of the Caveo Inside the cave

Prisoners chained and held immobile Fixed necks, can only look at wall in front of them Behind the prisoners is a raised walkway/ parapet,

along which puppeteers can walk

Prisoners cannot see walkway or people, but watchtheir shadows not knowing they are shadows

There are also echoes off the wall from the noiseproduced from the walkway

Shadows and echoes are real for prisoners,instead of reflections of reality, since they are

all they have seen/heard

Prisoner who can guess the next shadow is

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applauded

So when the prisoners talk, what are they talkingabout? If an object (a book, let us say) is carried

past behind them, and it casts a shadow on the

wall, and a prisoner says I see a book, what is he

talking about?

He thinks he is talking about a book, but he is reallytalking about a shadow. But he uses the word

book. What does that refer to?

Platos point is that the prisoners would bemistaken. For they would be taking the terms in

their language to refer to the shadows that passbefore their eyes, rather than (as is correct, in

Platos view) to the real things that cast the

shadows.

If a prisoner says Thats a book he thinks that theword book refers to the very thing he is looking

at. But he would be wrong. Hes only looking at a

shadow. The real referent of the word book he

cannot see. To see it, he would have to turn his

head around.

The prisoners may learn what a book is by theirexperience with shadows of books. But they would

be mistaken if they thought that the word book

refers to something that any of them has ever seen.

Likewise, we may acquire concepts by ourperceptual experience of physical objects. But wewould be mistaken if we thought that the concepts

that we grasp were on the same level as the things

we perceive.

o Release from the cave A prisoner freed

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Show him things that cast the shadows Not recognize them Shadows more real than actual thing

Look at the fire Struck blind Look back at shadow, which he can see

clearly

Dragged out of the cave Blinded by sunlight Eventually be used to the light

o See things more clearlyo Return to the cave

Remember his fellow prisoners and pity them Bad at guessing shadows, no longer accustomed

to the dark

Fellow prisoners will think that his eyes has beencorrupted, and that it is not worth to go up

Afraid of anything but what they already know Kill the freed man if they have a chance

Problem of greek thinkerso Multiplicity and unity of thingso Things are different and constantly change, yet they also

have similarities

o Belief in Logos or Reason as an all-encompassinggoverning principle of all reality

Ex: kosmos

One ordered universe Platos theory of ideas or forms

o Human knowledge Possible only with a stable form and structure

amidst the ever changing world

Aside from the changing sensible world we are in,

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there must be some other world where resides the

permanent forms, which are the proper object sof

human knowledge

Fact of human knowledge is proof of existence ofanother world, the world of permanent and

immutable forms, aside from this changing sensible

world we are familiar with

o World of ideal forms Source and foundation of material world Material world only exhibits gradients of

imperfection

More or less good / beautiful Never the good / beautiful in itself Pale copies of the ideal world, participation In

and of the ideal world

Ground and exemplar of all things in sensible world The Good

Ascending order of fundamental ideas All things subsumed under Movement and

Stillness Being and Non Being The

Good

All are imitations of the Good Idea of ideas Source of all ideas and hings The absolute Everything is a participation of the Good

oHow does man manage to take hold of these ideal formswhile he remains rooted in the sensible world? / without

going to the sensible world

Man composed of body and soul Body

o Composed of 4 traditional elements fire,

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water, earth, air

Soulo 3 distinct faculties, 3 levels of

knowledge and of desire

sensation (aesthesis) cloudy images of ideal forms sensuous desire (epithumia)

endless frustation in seeking

satisfaction in ever changing

material world

opinion (doxa) for practical matters

hypothetical sciences and

governance of communal

life

spirit desire (thumos)spontaneous tendency

otoward everything beautiful

and good

mind (nous) immortal part of the soul,

with the capacity for truth

and wisdom

will desire (boule) soulstendency toward the good

explained thru myth

man was purely soul residing in spiritualworld with all ideal form

due to some fall of man because ofcommission of evil deed by ancestors, soul

was exiled to material world and imprisoned

in the body

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exiled, forget about the world of ideas Theory of Reminiscence

o since material world is a copy of idealworld, it serves as a constant reminder

of ideal forms

o when man comes upon an object, hismemory is joggled and reminded of

original dog/flower

o encounters in this world as recollectionof sould of original forms/ideas

o Fall of Man Tendency toward a life of sense and physical

pleasure, and tendency to go back to the Good

Tendency of soul to go back to the good is amanifestation of souls connaturality with the Good

and mans original pre-existence in the world of

forms and ideas

Moral task: Go back to the Good where he originally

came from

o Man must then die into himself,restraining his passions, gaining control

of himself, thereby liberating the soul

from the hold of the body and world of

material world

o Life in material world like spiritualvoyage to return to the Good Spiritual voyage leads man on a

gradually ascending path in life

Starts from eroso Desire for physical

beauty

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o Coincides withsensation (aesthesis)

Search for spiritual beautyo Spiritual offsprings

Poetic works,hypothetical

sciences, social

and legal

institutions

o Corresponds toopinion (doxa)

Union with the Goodo Soul joins with the

Good by way of souls

highest faculty, nous

or mind

o Mystical,transcendent, beyon

comprehension

o Only expressed interms of Goods

external

manifestations

Truth,proportion,

beauty

oLiberated from almutation and

tribulation and thus

attains immortality,

which has been the

goal in pursuit of all

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that desiring for

physical and spiritual

procreation by eros

and thumos

o Philosopher-king Those who attain wisdom and union with the Good

even while they are still living in this world

Best people to lead the polis/community since theyhave found the true end and purpose of life

Function Maintenance of basic moral virtues within the

communal lifeo Temperence

Rein in human desire for sensepleasures

o Courage Overcome fear in defense of city-

state

o Justice Keep everyone in proper place Maintain unity and order

o Wisdom Familiarization and contemplation

of the Good

Purpose of politics is essentially moral Political responsibility of leading the

community in a life of moral virtue andwisdom one the way to the Good

o Those who are at the end of their life but still mired inphysical desires and pleasures

Led to judgement Reincarnated either as animal or man, depending

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upon their misdeeds of past life

Reincarnated until they are able to purifythemselves of material desires

5. Aristotle: For Aristotle, eudaimonia is the ultimate goal (telos)

of all human activities. One can only be truly happy through being

virtuous (arte) and being virtuous involves the proper combination

of practical wisdom (phronesis) and habituation (ethismos) in ones

pursuit of the golden mean (mesotes) in every situation.

Aristotleo Most prominent student of Plato

Ethicso Not science (episteme) dealing with absolute truths but

art (techne) of living ones life well

o Characterized by comparative method Comparing different opinions regarding the good

and bad, and coming up with a set a set of rules on

how to live ones life

Goal (telos)o Inquired about mans end and goalso Men seeks many end

All men seek happiness but in different kinds Pleasure, wealth, power

o Aristotles query not what man seeks at the moment, butwhat his true end is

Ultimate end

End beyond which there would be no other Ergon (purpose of man)

o In search of ergon, asked what is mano Man composed of body and soul

Soul Animates and commands the body

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2 main partso rational

independent of the body further divided into

speculative intellect(theoretike dianoia)

practical intellect (praktikondianoetikon)

o irrational Vegetable part

characterized by nutrition,growth, reproduction

Desiring part Sense desires and

covetousness (epithumia)

Spontaneous impulses(thumos)

o Partly subject toreason

Desires and wishes(boulesis)

o Completely underdictates of reason

Fundamental activity of soul is logoso Different from Platos soul oriented

towards the Good

oLogos All-encompassing governing

principle over all reality

o Rational man = capacity for self-governing immanent activity

Act of intellection and act of virtue

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Self-initiated and self-motivated acts which ead

towards the end

Unlike animals whose activitiesare transitive, initiated from

without and terminating in some

end or external to the individual

Body Subordinate to soul

o Fulfillment of reason Mean 2 things

Higher levelo Act of contemplationo Activity of speculative reason

Lower levelo Life of moral virtue within the context of

the polis, which would be the proper

activity of the practical reason

Speculative intellecto Capable of most fundamental principle (nous)o Capable of science (episteme)o Demonstration, conclusion from first fundamental

principles

o Philosophia / sophia Highest capability Possession of most fundamental principles and

their derivations Maximum degree

Contemplation of most sublime thingsincluding the eternal heavenly bodies and

God

o God for Aristotle

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Not God of Abraham Most perfect being Pure act with no further potency Pure reason Pure thought that knows no one

but himself since if he were to

think of anything outside himself,

he would be in potency of that

external entity

Ultimate final cause of all things Towards whom all other beings

would tend In this sense, for aristotle, he

would be First Motor / Prime

Mover

o Contemplation Theoretical intellect is involved in dialogue with

itself, thereby approximating eternal activity of

aristotles god, pure intellect intellecting itself

As approximation of gods own proper activity,theoretical intellects act of contemplation would

constiture mans end and happiness

Capacity of man for contemplation indicatesomething other than his soul-body?

Something divine or immortalo Nous /mind

Immortality of man?

Reflection of Pure act reintegratedback to God in mans death?

Practical Reasono Life of moral virtue with poliso Virtue

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Action under reason Reason control over desires, following the

rule of mesotes, neither deficient nor

excessive

Habitual state acquired by constant repetition(ethismos)

After repeated practice becomes habit forindividual

Right intention Action is done for own sake, not for some

motive outsude the action itself

o Ex: friendship Goal: human relationship

Pronesiso Practical wisdomo Master virtueo Partly knowledge (theoretical reason), partly action

(practical reason)

o Knowledge Insight regarding the truth

o Practical reason Command ones desires Deciding properly when to act and selecting the

appropriate means as demanded by the situation in

view of the intended goal

o Different moral virtues as particular aspects of onemaster virtue, phronesis

Moral virtue as socialo Temperance

Hard work of workers of economic organizationsproviding for communitys self-sufficiency

Courage

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Virtue of military to defend community fromexternal threat and guarantee survival

o Friendship Virtue of community members reciprocally bearing

good will and love toward one another

o Education Assuring continuance of community

o Virtues of in charge of polis to assure overall governance,system of reward and punishment, distribution of goods,

harmony and peace

Wisdom (phronesis) Justice (to dikaion) Equitableness (epieikeia) Common sense (gnome)

o Ergon of man not simply moral virtues but the polis Polis

Concrete life of moral virtues Passed down from generation to generation Assuring continuance of human existence Shared communal life, the shared rational

activity immanent in every individual and has

the good of every individual as its proper end