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PF3.3: Informal childcare arrangements

Definitions and methodology

This indicator presents information on the use of informal childcare arrangements through

two main measures:

i. The proportion (%) of children using informal childcare arrangements during a typical

week, by age group. Data are presented for three age groups – 0-to-2-year-olds, 3-to-5-year-

olds, and 6-to-12-year-olds – and for both all children in each age group, and by income level

and the education level of mother:

The proportion (%) of children using informal childcare arrangements during a typical

week, by age group and equivalised disposable income tertile, with ‘equivalised

disposable income’ referring to the disposable (post-tax-and-transfer) income of the

household in which the child lives – equivalised using the square root scale, to

account for the effect of family size on the household’s standard of living. The

income tertiles are calculated based on the distribution by equivalised disposable

income of children aged less than or equal to 12.

Proportion (%) of children using informal childcare arrangements during a typical

week, by age group and mother's education level, with the education level of mother

measured by whether or not the reported mother of the child has attained tertiary

education (highest level of education attained at ISCED 2011 levels 5-8). The

education level of the female household head is used if there is no mother in the

household, and then of the father (or male household head) if there is no mother or

female head in the household.

ii. Average hours of informal childcare per week among those using at least one hour of

informal childcare during a typical week, by age group, with data again presented for three

child age groups – 0-to-2-year-olds, 3-to-5-year-olds, and 6-to-12-year-olds.

Definitions of what does and does not count as ‘informal’ care differ across countries. Most of the

information presented here is based on data provided by Eurostat’s EU-SILC survey, with informal

care defined as care provided by grandparents or other relatives, friends, or neighbours for which the

provider did not receive payment. However, data for other countries (Australia, Korea and the United

States) that use slightly different definitions are presented separately in Table PF3.3.A at the end of

the document (see the notes to Table PF3.3.A and comparability and data issues for more detail).

Lastly, this indicator also presents information on the proportion (%) of children using

neither formal childcare nor informal childcare during a typical week, by age group, that is, the share

of children that are usually cared for only by their parents. For this purpose, formal care is defined as

care in centre-based services (e.g. nurseries or day care centres, pre-primary education and out-of-

school-hours centre-based services), organised family day care, and care services provided by (paid)

professional childminders (see PF3.2), and informal childcare is defined as above. Again, data are

presented for three child age groups – 0-to-2-year-olds, 3-to-5-year-olds, and 6-to-12-year-olds.

Other relevant indicators: PF3.1: Public spending on childcare and early education; PF3.2: Enrolment in day-care and pre-schools; PF3.4: Childcare support; PF4.1: Typology of childcare and early education services; PF4.2: Quality of childcare and early education services; and, PF4.3: Out-of-school-hours care.

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Key findings

The proportion of children using informal care varies widely across OECD countries (Chart

PF3.3.A). Among 0-to-2-year-olds, for example, rates of informal care vary from as high as around

55-56% in Greece and the Netherlands to below 10% in most of the Nordic countries, while for 3-to-

5-year-olds rates range from 48% in Slovenia to 0% in Denmark and among 6-to-12-year olds from

37% in the United Kingdom to 0.3% in Finland. Across all three age groups, rates of informal care are

– with the partial exception of Iceland – generally lowest in the Nordic countries. This reflects the

comprehensiveness of the formal childcare systems in these countries, and in particular the effects of

the Nordic childcare ‘guarantees’, which provide all children with a legal entitlement to a place in

formal childcare from a very young age, should their parents desire.

The use of informal care tends to be highest among 3-to-5-year-olds (Chart PF3.3.A). In many OECD

countries, informal care rates increase as children move from the 0-to-2-year-old age group to the 3-

to-5-year old age group, reflecting in large part the increase in the likelihood of employment among

mothers with a youngest child aged 3-to-5 (see LMF1.2) and the associated increase in demand for

non-parental care. Informal care rates then often fall as children move into the 6-to-12-year-old age

group, by which point they are attending compulsory school in almost all OECD countries. Still, on

average across OECD countries with available data, just under 20% of 6-to-12-year-olds continue to

use informal care, with rates above 30% in the Czech Republic, Italy, the Netherlands, Slovenia, and

the United Kingdom. The incompatibility of school hours with working hours as well as lack of out-

of-school-hours care services (PF4.3) is associated with the use of informal care for older children.

Chart PF3.3.A. Use of informal childcare by child's age, 2014

Proportion (%) of children using informal childcare arrangementsa during a typical week by age group

a) 'Informal' childcare here refers to unpaid care, usually provided by a grandparent of the child or by other relatives, friends or neighbours. It excludes any care that is paid for regardless of who is providing the paid-for care. b) Footnote by Turkey: The information in this document with reference to « Cyprus » relates to the southern part of the Island. There is no single authority representing both Turkish and Greek Cypriot people on the Island. Turkey recognizes the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). Until a lasting and equitable solution is found within the context of United Nations, Turkey shall preserve its position concerning the “Cyprus issue”; c) Footnote by all the European Union Member States of the OECD and the European Commission: The Republic of Cyprus is recognized by all members of the United Nations with the exception of Turkey. The information in this document relates to the area under the effective control of the Government of the Republic of Cyprus. Sources: for all countries, EU SILC

In many OECD countries, children across age groups are more likely to use informal care

when they come from relatively advantaged socio-economic backgrounds. For example, in many

OECD countries the use of informal care increases with household income (Chart PF3.3.B).

Differences across levels of income tend to be particularly large among children aged 0-to-2 – in

Greece, for instance, informal care rates are almost 40 percentage points higher for 0-to-2-year-olds

from high-income backgrounds than they are for 0-to-2-year-olds from low-income families – but are

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Updated: 09-10-2016 3

Chart PF3.3.B. Use of informal childcare, by child's age and equivalised disposable income

tertile, 2014

Proportion (%) of children using informal childcare arrangementsa during a typical week, by age

group and equivalised disposable income tertileb

Note: In countries marked with an *, differences in usage rates across groups are statistically significant at p<0.05 a) 'Informal' childcare here refers to unpaid care, usually provided by a grandparent of the child or by other relatives, friends or neighbours. It excludes any care that is paid for regardless of who is providing the paid-for care. b) Equivalised disposable income tertiles are calculated using the disposable (post-tax-and-transfer) income of the household in which the child lives – equivalised using the square root scale, to account for the effect of family size on the household’s standard of living – and are based on the equivalised disposable incomes of children aged less than or equal to 12. c) see note b) to Chart PF3.3.A d) see note c) to Chart PF3.3.A Sources: for all countries, EU SILC

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% Panel A. 0-to-2 year olds

1st tertile (lowest) 2nd tertile 3rd tertile (highest)

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% Panel B. 3-to-5 year olds

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Updated: 09-10-2016 4

Chart PF3.3.C. Use of informal childcare, by child's age and mother's education level, 2014

Proportion (%) of children using informal childcare arrangementsa during a typical week, by age

group and mother's education levelb

Note: In countries marked with an *, differences in usage rates across groups are statistically significant at p<0.05 a) 'Informal' childcare here refers to unpaid care, usually provided by a grandparent of the child or by other relatives, friends or neighbours. It excludes any care that is paid for regardless of who is providing the paid-for care. b) Mother's education level based on whether or not the reported mother of the child has attained tertiary education (highest level of education attained at ISCED 2011 levels 5-8). The education level of the female household head is used if there is no mother in the household, and then of the father (or male household head) if there is no mother or female head in the household. c) see note b) to Chart PF3.3.A d) see note c) to Chart PF3.3.A Sources: for all countries, EU SILC

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% Panel A. 0-to-2 year olds

Not attained tertiary education Attained tertiary education

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Updated: 09-10-2016 5

also visible among their older counterparts aged 3-to-5 and 6-to-12. Similarly, in some OECD

countries children with highly-educated mothers are more likely to use informal care than children

with less educated mothers (Chart PF3.3.C). This is particularly the case among 6-to-12-year-olds –

for this age group, just under half of all OECD countries with available data see significantly higher

informal care rates among children with mothers that have attained tertiary education than among

children with mothers than have not attained tertiary education.

Children who use informal care tend to be in informal care for between 11 and 17 hours per

week, depending on the age group, although this does of course vary from country to country (Chart

PF3.3.D). Among 0-to-2-year-olds, for example, average weekly hours range from as high as just

under 30 in Greece to below 10 in the Czech Republic. For 3-to-5-year-olds average hours range from

23 hours per week in Greece to 7 in the Netherlands, and among 6-to-12-year-olds from about 18 in

Greece to around 5-6 in the Netherlands and Switzerland. In most countries, weekly hours in informal

care tend to be longest for 0-to-2-year-olds. This is particularly the case in Portugal, where average

weekly hours for 0-to-2-year-olds are, at just over 28 hours per week, over 11 hours per week longer

than the average for 3-to-5-year-olds (17) and almost 16 hours per week longer than average hours for

6-to-12-year-olds (13).

Chart PF3.3.D. Average hours of informal childcare by child's age, 2014

Average hours of informal childcare per week among those using at least one hour of informal

childcarea during a typical week, by age group

a) See note a) to Chart PF3.3.A b) See note b) to Chart PF3.3.A c) See note c) to Chart PF3.3.A Sources: for all countries, EU SILC

Chart PF3.3.C shows the proportion of children not using childcare arrangements (formal or

informal) during a typical week. The proportions are highest for very young children (0-to-2-year-

olds) and for older children going to primary school (6-to-12-year-olds). For the youngest, full-time

parental care is the most likely solution, while for older children it is likely that most attend primary

school and use no other form of care arrangement. Rates are very low among 3-to-5-year-olds, in

large part because in many OECD countries a large majority of children in this age group attend pre-

primary education (see PF3.2).

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Hours per week

0-2 year olds 3-5 years olds 6-12 year olds

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Chart PF3.3.E. Children who do not use formal or informal childcare by child's age,

2014

Proportion (%) of children using neither formal childcare nor informal childcarea during a typical

week, by age group

a) 'Formal' childcare refers to centre-based services (e.g. nurseries or day care centres, pre-primary education and out-of-school-hours centre-based services), organised family day care, and care services provided by (paid) professional childminders. Primary education is not included. 'Informal' childcare refers to unpaid care, usually provided by a grandparent of the child or by other relatives, friends or neighbours. b) See note b) to Chart PF3.3.A c) See note c) to Chart PF3.3.A Sources: for all countries, EU SILC

Comparability and data issues

The figures presented above come from EU-SILC, which gathers information on childcare

according to the following groups: day-care centres (organised by a structure), “professional” child-

minders (a person for whom looking after the child represents a job of work or paid activity), informal

care (unpaid care by grandparents, other relatives, friends and neighbours) and pre-school for children

aged 2-to-6 (or who still have not started compulsory school). Note that under this definition a

grandparent who receives payment for child-minding is classified as a professional child-minder. The

question asked to identify informal providers is: “During a usual week how many hours is <child>

cared for by grandparents, other members of the household (excluding parents/ guardians or partners)

other relatives, friends or neighbours where there is no payment for child-minding?”

Data for other countries (e.g. Australia, Korea and the United States) are available but

differences in the methods used when collecting data make direct comparisons challenging. The main

issues involved include discrepancies in the type of provider (e.g., relative versus non-relative) and

whether the provider can or cannot receive payment (paid or unpaid). For example, some data are

available for Australia from the Childhood Education and Care Survey (June 2014). This source

defines informal care as paid or unpaid care provided by grandparents, other relatives, a non-resident

parent, or other person (friends, neighbours, nannies or babysitters). It is possible to remove from the

data children cared for by non-resident parents to increase comparability with EU-SILC, but the fact

that the survey does not differentiate between paid and unpaid informal care means full and direct

comparisons are difficult. Similarly, for the United States some data are available from the U.S.

Census Bureau’s Survey of Income and Program Participation. Here, childcare providers are

classified into two broad groups: relatives (mothers, fathers, grandparents, and siblings and other

relatives) and non-relatives, with the latter including both organised care facilities and other any

provider so long as they are not a relative of the child. Again, no distinction is made between paid and

unpaid care regardless of whether the provider is a relative or non-relative. Lastly, for Korea some

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information is available from the National Childcare Survey 2009. In this source, informal childcare

includes – similar to EU-SILC – care provided by grandparents, other relatives, friends and

neighbours, but again does not differentiate between care that is paid for and care that is unpaid.

Table PF3.3.A presents data on informal childcare use in Australia, Korea and the United

States, alongside but separate from the information from EU-SILC. Data for Australia include

children cared for by grandparents or other relatives (paid or unpaid) only, for the United States

children cared for by grandparents or siblings or other relatives (paid or unpaid) only, and for Korea

children cared for by grandparents, other relatives, friends or neighbours, paid or unpaid.

Generally, based on the definitions above, informal childcare use in these countries is fairly

similar to many European countries (Table PF3.3.A). For example, in Australia just over 30% of 0-to-

2-year-olds use informal care, while in Korea the figure is 28% and in the United States it is just

under 36%. By comparison, the OECD-19 average rate for 0-to-2-year-olds is 31%. Similarly, for 6-

12 year olds, the rate in Australia is 26% and in the United States 27%, while the OECE-19 average is

a little under 24%. Because data for these countries include both paid and unpaid care it is expected

that informal childcare usage rates should, all else equal, be a little higher than those based on EU-

SILC. Nonetheless, the information presented in Table PF3.3.A suggests that informal childcare use

in these countries is not wildly different to informal childcare use in many European countries.

Table PF3.3.A. Use of informal childcare by age group, 2014a

Proportion (%) of children using informal childcare arrangementsb during a typical week and mean

average hours of informal childcare per week among those using at least one hour of informal

childcareb during a typical week, by age group

Proportion (%) using informal childcare Average hours of informal childcare per

week:

0-to-2 3-to-5 6-to-12 0-to-2 3-to-5 6-to-12

Austria 31.54 43.99 29.94 10.17 8.20 8.61

Belgium 19.36 21.79 17.03 18.15 8.77 8.32

Czech Republic 36.88 48.02 32.35 8.73 10.69 9.99

Denmark 0.00 0.00 0.74 - - -

Estonia 24.81 29.92 15.40 10.71 12.07 13.44

Finland 2.22 0.78 0.27 - - -

France 17.36 19.26 12.17 16.33 10.07 10.35

Greece 55.45 39.98 26.09 29.44 22.50 18.00

Hungary 23.63 33.70 25.88 12.63 9.34 9.70

Iceland 20.75 22.71 20.10 10.92 8.24 8.96

Ireland 16.36 14.16 10.62 21.84 14.40 10.74

Italy 36.27 38.79 31.47 19.72 13.83 11.94

Latvia 11.50 14.14 14.54 - - -

Luxembourg 24.47 28.25 15.00 14.01 11.64 9.49

Netherlands 56.11 47.97 31.86 11.56 7.15 4.78

Norway 5.17 3.38 4.56 - - -

Poland 30.62 31.53 25.00 26.32 22.16 14.01

Portugal 35.14 33.67 29.02 28.32 16.89 12.56

Slovak Republic 25.94 35.32 23.64 13.61 12.95 11.03

Slovenia 41.40 48.41 33.47 14.82 9.68 8.17

Spain 15.37 7.43 4.64 26.86 12.92 16.18

Sweden 0.27 0.42 1.70 - - -

Switzerland 36.25 42.92 28.78 11.03 9.70 6.32

United Kingdom 33.84 39.12 36.92 15.67 13.56 15.50

OECD-19 average 30.61 33.00 23.65 16.89 12.36 10.95

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Bulgaria 15.97 20.25 9.61 - - -

Croatia 25.59 30.36 20.10 25.90 19.50 18.20

Cyprus (c,d) 44.66 48.50 33.08 30.11 17.24 12.95

Lithuania 18.18 21.91 18.67 - - -

Malta 26.95 30.73 15.71 15.26 17.00 8.93

Romania 41.49 58.63 36.02 - - -

EU average 31.09 33.54 23.47 18.51 13.53 11.64

Eurozone average 31.41 32.55 21.94 18.73 13.02 11.03

Australia (e) 30.83 29.28 25.58 .. .. ..

Korea (f) 27.70 23.60 14.80 .. .. ..

United States (g) 35.98 29.14 27.49 .. .. ..

a) Data for Australia refer to 2014, for Korea to 2009, and for the United States to 2011 b) 'Informal' childcare here generally refers to unpaid care provided by a grandparent of the child or by other relatives, friends or neighbours. For most countries it excludes any care that is paid for regardless of whoever is providing the paid-for care. Exact definitions do, however, differ across countries. c) See note b) to Chart PF3.3.A d) See note c) to Chart PF3.3.A e) For Australia, data refer to children cared for by grandparents or other relatives (paid or unpaid) only f) For Korea, data refer to children cared for by grandparents, other relatives, friends or neighbours, paid or unpaid g) For the United States, the age groups are 0-2, 3-4 and 5-11. Data cover children living with their mother only, and refer to children cared for by grandparents or siblings or other relatives (paid or unpaid) only. Sources: For Australia, Australian Childhood Education and Care Survey for European countries, EU SILC for Korea, National Childcare Survey 2009 for the United States, Laughlin, L. (2013). "Who's minding the kids? Child care arrangements: Spring 2011". Current Population Reports, P70-135. Washington, DC: US Census Bureau

Sources and further reading: OECD Babies and Bosses (various issues); Early Childhood and Education in Europe: Tackling Social and Cultural Inequalities (2009); OECD, Education at a Glance 2016; OECD Starting Strong (various issues); OECD (2011) Doing Better for Families. OECD (2012) Closing the Gender Gap.