Pettijohn· Potter· Siever

Sand and Sandstone

With 258 Figures

Springer-Verlag New York· Heidelberg· Berlin 1973

F. J. PETTIJOHN, Professor of Geology, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218 /U .S.A.

PAUL EDWIN POTTER, Professor of Geology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 4S221/U.S.A.

RAYMOND SIEVER, Professor of Geology, Harvard University, . Cambridge, MA 02138/U.S.A.

All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form without written permission from Springer-Verlag.

© by Springer-Verlag Berlin' Heidelberg 1972. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 79-168605.

ISBN-13: 978-0-387-90071-1 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4615-9974-6 001: 10.1007/978-1-4615-9974-6

SAND as

grains dunes lenses crystals bodies pods laminae banks ribbons boxes bars sheets piles barriers shoestrings shadows beaches basins beds belts waves cheniers

so surely there is plenty of it!

Plenty for you, for me, for everyone to share its many sparkling facets.

Preface

This book is the outgrowth of a week-long conference on sandstone organized by the authors, first held at Banff, Alberta, in 1964 under the auspices of the Alberta Association of Petroleum Geologists and the University of Alberta, and again, in 1965, at Bloomington, Indiana, under the sponsorship of the Indiana Geological Survey and the Department of Geology, Indiana University. A 200-page syllabus was prepared for the second conference and published by the Indiana Geological Survey. Continuing interest in and demand for the syllabus prompted us to update and expand its contents. The result is this book.

We hope this work will be useful as a text or supplementary text for advanced undergraduate and graduate courses in sedimentation, sedimentary petrology, or general petrology and perhaps will be helpful to the teachers of such courses. Though we have focussed on sandstones we have necessarily included much of interest to students of all sediments. We hope also that it will be a useful reference work for the professional geologist, especially those concerned with petroleum, ground-water, and economic geology either in industry or government. Because the subject is so closely tied to surface processes it may also be of interest to geo­morphologists and engineers who deal with beaches and rivers where sand is in transit.

This work presupposes a general knowledge of the elements of mineralogy, chemistry and statistics on the part of the reader. As no investigation of sediments - especially sandstones - can be considered adequate or complete without careful microscopical analysis, we also presume, therefore, that the user of this book has the knowledge and skills needed to study sands and sandstones under the microscope.

On the other hand, some cognate fields of knowledge are less familiar to geologists and while we did not include a section on statistics or thermodynamics, we did include a section on the principles underlying fluid flow and the propulsion of granular materials. We feel that some knowledge of this subject will become increasingly important in understanding physical sedimentation and the resulting textures and structures of sands.

The book is organized in such a manner as to lead the reader from considera­tion of the component grains in a sandstone to the analysis of sandstones in the sedimentary basin as a whole. The first half is largely descriptive, a summary of what is known about sandstones beginning with the components, their composi­tion (Chapter 2) and geometrical properties (Chapter 3), progressing to the larger organization and structure (Chapter 4) to the whole rock itself (Chapters 5, 6 and 7). The second half of the book is more largely interpretative and process­oriented. It includes the processes of sand formation (Chapter 8), transportation

VII

Preface

and deposition (Chapter 9), and post-depositional alteration (Chapter 10). The book concludes with a resume of the relation of sands to their environment of deposition and to other sediments (Chapter 11) and a summary of their distribu­tion in space and time (Chapter 12). We have included a synoptic review of several better-known sedimentary basins in which an integrated approach - involving stratigraphy, sedimentary petrology, and paleocurrents - was used to unravel geologic history.

For the most part, analytical techniques are omitted. They are adequately covered in several modem texts and manuals (see references, p. 19). Excep­tionally, however, we have included a short appendix on the art of petrographical description and analysis which, like field work, is best learned perhaps from experience under the guidance of a skilled master of the subject. We felt it worth­while, however, to set down some guiding principles as these are seldom made explicit in most published works.

We did not include many "case histories" because, unlike in law or psychiatry, we feel that the student can tum to no better source of instruction than the rocks themselves. No course on this subject can be considered adequate or complete without a well-integrated program of field and laboratory studies. The student, under the supervision of his teacher, should work out his own problems. The clinic is a better guide to practice than the case book.

References to the literature are of two kinds - actual citations in the text to specific papers and a collection of annotated references. The latter for the most part supplement rather than repeat the text citations. Both are placed at the end of the appropriate chapters. In general, our references are selective, that is, although they include some older classic papers emphasis is on the more recent ones. In many cases, such as the chapter on sedimentary structures, we did not feel the need of an in-depth review of the literature inasmuch as several specialized modem works which contain an extensive bibliography are readily available.

As is inevitable in a work of this kind, much of what is contained therein is a compilation from many sources which transcend and go beyond the immediate and direct experience of the authors. We have tried to acknowledge our debt to these sources at the appropriate places. We also wish to acknowledge the helpful criticism of those who read sections of this work when it was in manuscript form. In particular, we are indebted to Earle McBride, University of Texas, for checking our glossary of rock names applied to sandstones, to Robert L. Smith, U.S. Geological Survey, William F. Jenks, University of Cincinnati, and Richard V. Fisher, University of California at Santa Barbara, for reading the chapter on volcaniclastic sands, to Lee Suttner for criticism of Chapters 4 and 6, to Gerald V. Middleton of McMaster University, Yaron M. Sternberg of the University of Maryland and John B. Southard of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for their help with the chapter on transport and deposition, to S. V. Hrabar of the Humble Oil Company for reading all of Chapter 11 and Donald A. Holm of Williams, Arizona, and Richard Mast of the Illinois Geological Survey for reading parts of it, to D. A. Pretorius of the University of Witwatersrand and R. W. Ojakangas of the University of Minnesota at Duluth for their comments

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Preface

on portions of Chapter 12, and to Miriam Kastner for help in the X-ray and electron probe analysis of the Trivoli Sandstone. Alan S. Horowitz of Indiana University read and helpfully edited many of the chapters. We wish to thank Mrs. Susan Berson, Miss Kathleen Feinour, Miss Jean Dell'Uomo, Mrs. Debby Powell, and Miss Cynthia W orswick for the final typing of the manuscript and our publishers for their help in the preparation of the illustrations and seeing the work through the press.

To emphasize our spirit of teamwork we have listed our names in alphabetical order.

January 1, 1972 F. J. Pettijohn Paul Edwin Potter Raymond Siever

IX

Table of Contents

Chapter 1. Introduction and Source Materials . . 1 Sand and Sandstone Defined. . . 1 Relative and Absolute Abundance 4 Distribution, Past and Present 7 History of Investigation . 9 Economic Value of Sand . . 12 References . . . . . . . . 13 General Source Materials for the Study of Sand and Sand-stone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

References and Textbooks. . . . . 15 Petrographic Manuals and Lexicons 19 Periodicals and Serials 21 Bibliographies . . . . . . . 22

Part I: The Fundamental Properties of Sandstones 24

Chapter 2. Mineral and Chemical Composition. Introduction. . . . . The Detrital Minerals.

The Silica Minerals . Feldspars ..... Micas, Chlorites, and Clay Minerals Heavy Minerals . . Rock Fragments . .

The Chemical Minerals Carbonates Sulfates. . . . Sulfides .... Other Minerals. Organic Matter

Relation of Mineralogy to Texture Mineralogy and Size . . . . . Mineralogy and Resistance to Abrasion

Chemical Composition . . . . . . . . Chemical Composition as a Function of Mineral Con-stituents . . . . . . . . . . ......... . Isotopic Composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chemical Composition as a Function of Sandstone Type Chemical Classification of Sandstones.

References

25 25 29 29 33 39 42 44 47 47 49 51 52 54 55 55 56 56

57 59 60 61 63

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Chapter 3. Texture. . . . . Introduction Grain Size ..

Meaning of Size Techniques .. Statistical Measures Mapping Dispersal Patterns

Shape and Roundness Surface Texture ..... Textural Maturity . . . . Environmental Recognition Control of Physical Properties Fabric ........ .

Grain to Grain Relations Orientation . . . . .

Porosity and Permeability References Cited ....

Chapter 4. Sedimentary Structures and Bedding Introduction. . . . . . . . . Current and Deformational Structures

Bedding ........... . Contemporaneously Deformed Bedding

Biogenic Structures. . . . . . . . . . . Chemical Structures . . . . . . . . . . Obtaining Maximum Value from Sedimentary Structures Directional Structures: Use and Interpretation References . . . . . Annotated References

General Classification . . . Crossbedding, Ripplemark, and Sand Waves. Hieroglyphs and Sole Marks. . Biogenic Sedimentary Structures Directional Structures . . . .

Part II: The Petrography of Sandstones. . . . . . .

Chapter 5.

XII

Petrographic Classification and Glossary Introduction. . . . . . . . . Nomenclature and Classification .. Defining Parameters . . . . . . . Major Trends in Sandstone Classification Making a Choice. . . . . . . . . . . Glossary of Rock Names Applied to Sands and Sandstones References

68 68 68 68 69 75 77 81 85 85 86 88 89 89 90 93 97

102 102 104 104 122 127 131 133 134 140 143 143 143 144 145 146 147

148

149 149 149 151 153 155 161 172

Table of Contents

Chapter 6. Petrography of Common Sands and Sandstones 175 Introduction. . . . . . . . 175 Feldspathic Sands and Arkose 177

Definitions . . . . . . . 177 General Description . . . 178 Varieties and Types of Arkose 181 Field Occurrence and Examples 182 Significance and Origin . . . . 184

Lithic Arenites and Related Rocks 186 Definitions and Nomenclature 186 General Description . . . . . 187 Special Types . . . . . . . . 190 Field Occurrence and Examples 191 Origin and Significance . . . . 194

Graywackes and Related Rocks: The Wackes 197 Definitions and History of Term . 197 General Description . . . . . . 198 Varieties and Types of Graywacke 201 Field Occurrence and Examples 203 The Matrix Problem . . . 206 The Problem ofNa20 . . . . 211 Significance of Graywackes . . 212

Quartz Arenites (Orthoquartzites) 214 Definitions and Nomenclature 214 General Description . . . . . 214 Varieties . . . . . . . . . . 217 Field Occurrence and Examples 218 Distribution in Space and Time 221 Significance and Origin of Quartz Arenites 223

Hybrid Sands -and Sandstones 227 Introduction. . . . . 227 Greensands . . . . . . . 228 Phosphatic Sandstones . . 231 Calcarenaceous Sandstones 232 Tuffaceous Sandstones . . 234

Relative Abundance of Sandstones and the "Average" Sandstone. . . . . . 235 Sandstone Petrogenesis 237

The Question . 237 The Hypotheses 237 The Evidence . 238 The Verdict . . 243

Annotated Bibliography of Comprehensive Petrographic Analyses of Sandstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Annotated References on Petrography of Modern Sands 245 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

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Chapter 7. The Volcaniclastics. 261 261 261 268 270 271 274 277 281 282 283 287 288 290

Introduction. . Some Characteristic Petrographic Features. Classification . . Pyroclastic Sands. ..

Ash Flows Ash Falls ...

Volcaniclastics of Erosional Origin Distinguishing among the Volcaniclastic Sands. Provenance . . . . . . . . . . Selected Petrographic Descriptions Glossary ..... . References . . . . . Annotated References.

Part III: Processes that Form Sand and Sandstone 293

Chapter 8. Production and Provenance of Sand Introduction. . . . . . . How Sand is Formed ... The Problem of Provenance

Definitions and Concepts Evidence from Detrital Components Mineralogy and Physical Geography Other Evidence Bearing on Provenance Reading Provenance History .... Evaluation and Summary . . . . . .

Mineral Associations and Petrologic Provinces Definitions and Concepts . . . Mapping Mineral Associations .

Examples of Provenance Studies Modern Sands. . . Ancient Sandstones

References

294 294 294 297 297 298 305 306 307 309 311 311 314 317 317 319 323

Chapter 9. Transport, Deposition, and Deformation of Sand. 327 Introduction. . . . . . . . 327 Fluid Flow and Entrainment. 329

Aspects of Fluid Flow 329 Settling Velocity . . . . . 334 Entrainment of Single Grains 340 Engineering Bed Load Formulas and Their Relevance 343

Bed Forms in Alluvial Channels 344 Beaches and Shelves 354 Wind. . . . . . 362 Turbidity Currents . 365

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Fabric ...... . Soft Sand Deformation Glossary ..... . Annotated References. References

Chapter 10. Diagenesis Introduction.

Definitions Aspects of Diagenesis . The Evidence of Diagenesis

Textural . . . . Mineralogical . . . Physical Properties . Chemical Properties Summary ...

Physical Changes. Chemical Changes

Precipitation. . Dissolution . . Recrystallization . Incongruent Dissolution or Alteration. Pore Water Reactions. . . . . ..

Sequence of Mineral Transformations. Age of Diagenetic Minerals

Major Diagenetic Effects . Carbonate Cementation. . Silica Cementation . . . . Alteration of Volcaniclastics . Common Accessory Diagenetic Minerals Cementation in Relation to Depth of Burial

Conclusion References

Part IV: Broader Aspects of Sand Deposition

. Chapter 11. Sand Bodies and Environment Introduction. . . . . . Tools of the Trade . . .

Nomenclature and Geometry Representation. . . . . . . Stratigraphic Models . . . . Associated Lithologies, Vertical Sequence, and Memory

Sand Deposition and Sand Body Characteristics in Major Environments . . . . . .

Concept of Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . .

369 370 374 376 378

383 383 384 388 389 389 391 392 392 393 394 395 397 401 406 408 411 414 418 419 420 424 428 429 432 433 434

438

439 439 439 440 442 444 446

449 449

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Alluvial Environment. . 453 Deltaic Environment . . 466 Estuaries and Tidal Flats 474 Beaches and Barriers 480 The Marine Shelf. . 489 Turbidite Basins . . 499 Eolian Environment 507

Problems of Sand-Body Prediction 516 Extension Problem . . . . . . 517 Location Problem . . . . . . 520

Sand Bodies as Permeable Conduits: A Sedimentological View. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523

Flow Systems and Their Geologic Controls 524 Case Histories . 531

References Cited. . . . . . . . . . . . . 534

Chapter 12. Sandstones, Sedimentary Basins, and Continental Evolution 544 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544 Continental Structure and Sand Accumulation 545

Geosynclines . . . . . . . . . . . 546 Cratons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547

Sand Deposition and Basin Architecture. . . 550 Examples of Basin Development and Sand Accumulation 552

The Coronation Geosyncline. . . . 552 Central Appalachian Geosyncline. . 556 Mesozoic Geosyncline of California. 562 Witwatersrand Basin of South Africa 564 Illinois Basin and Adjacent Areas. . 568

Sandstone in the History of the Earth . 572 Sandstone Composition in Relation to Age 573 Sandstones in Relation to Evolutionary Changes in Earth History. . . . . . . . . . . . . 577

Conclusions and a Look at the Future. 580 References . . . . . . . . 581

Appendix: Petrographic Analysis of Sandstones . 584 Introduction. . . . . . . . . 584 Rock Description and Analysis. 584 A Comprehensive Petrographic Analysis: The Trivoli Sandstone of Southern Illinois . 592 References. 600

Author Index 601 Subject Index 611

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