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An introduction to Petroleum
Petroleum, along with oil and coal, is classified as a fossil fuel. Fossil fuels
are formed when sea plants and animals die, and the remains become
buried under several thousand feet of silt, sand or mud. Fossil fuels takemillions of years to form and therefore petroleum is also considered to be a
non-renewable energy source.
Petroleum is formed by hydrocarbons (a hydrocarbon is a compound made
up of carbon and hydrogen) with the addition of certain other substances,
primarily sulphur. Petroleum in its natural form when first collected is
usually named crude oil, and can be clear, green or black and may be
either thin like gasoline or thick like tar.
There are several major oil producing regions around the globe. The
Kuwait and Saudi Arabia's crude oil fields are the largest, although Middle
East oil from other countries in the region such as Iran and Iraq also make
up a significant part of world production figures.
The North Sea crude oil fields are still fairly full, and are arguably the
second most influential oil field in economic terms. Texas, once the world's
major oil region, is now almost completely dry.
In 1859 Edwin Drake sank the first known oil well, this was in Pennsylvania.
Since this time oil and petroleum production figure grew exponentially.
Originally the primary use of petroleum was as a lighting fuel, once it had
been distilled and turned into kerosene. When Edison opened the world's
first electricity generating plant in 1882 the demand for kerosene began to
drop.
However, by this time Henry Ford had shown the world that the automobile
would be the best form of transport for decades to come, and gasolinebegan to be a product in high demand.
World War I was the real catalyst for petroleum production, with more
petroleum being produced throughout the war than had ever been
produced previously. In modern times petroleum is viewed as a valuable
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commodity, traded around the world in the same way as gold and
diamonds.
Most people tend to believe that petroleum is mostly used to power internal
combustion engines in the form of gasoline or petrol. Although ourautombiles and other forms of transport do consume the highest quantity of
petroleum it is used for a vast array of applications.
In its thickest form, the almost black petroleum is named bitumen, this is
used for paving road, forming the blacktop, it is also an excellent water
repellent and is used in roofing.
Petroleum is also a major part of the chemical makeup of many plastics
and synthetics. Possibly the most startling usage of petroleum for many
people is its appearance in foodstuffs such as beer and in medications
such as aspirin.
The world has a limited supply of petroleum, and current estimations tell us
that within the next few decades mankind will have completely depleted this
valuable natural resource. Although measures have been taken to ensure
that there are cheap, renewable fuel options in place for the eventuality it is
still obvious that mankind faces a serious problem when petroleum supplies
finally run out.Another crucial point with petroleum, is the price it plays with regards to
travel costs. Most travel companies whose main line of business
concentrates on cheap travel and cheap holidays could be threatened in
the future if petroleum supplies are completed depleted.
The future is not as bleak as it may sound though, many companies are
already preparing themselves for the widespread usage of biofuels, which
experts are prediciting are less than 10 years away from main stream use.
It is interesting to note that from the wikipedia page which explains about
biofuel, is that it is a renewable source of fuel, so it would be impossible to
ever run out of biofuels.
(http://www.petroleum.co.uk/_)
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PETROL INDUSTRY : EVERYONES CONCERN
INTRODUCTION
Gasoline or petrol is a transparentpetroleum-derived liquid that is primarily used as a fuel
ininternal combustion engines. It consists mostly oforganic compoundsobtained by
thefractional distillationof petroleum, enhanced with a variety of additives. Some gasolines also
containethanolas analternative fuel. In North America the term gasolineis often shortened in
colloquial usage to gasbut some people use the term petrolwhich is the common name in Britain.
Under normal ambient conditions its material state is liquid, unlikeliquefied petroleum
gasor natural gas.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum -
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Properties
Volatility
Gasoline is morevolatilethandieseloil, Jet-A, orkerosene, not only
because of the base constituents, but also because ofadditives. Volatility is
often controlled by blending withbutane, which boils at 0.5 C. The
volatility of petrol is determined by theReid vapor pressure(RVP) test. The
desired volatility depends on the ambient temperature. In hot weather,
petrol components of highermolecular weightand thus lower volatility are
used. In cold weather, too little volatility results in cars failing to start.
In hot weather, excessive volatility results in what is known as"vapor lock",
where combustion fails to occur, because the liquid fuel has changed to a
gaseous state in the fuel lines, rendering the fuel pump ineffective and
starving the engine of fuel. This effect mainly applies to camshaft-driven
(engine mounted) fuel pumps which lack a fuel return line. Vehicles
withfuel injectionrequire the fuel to be pressurized within a set range.
Because the camshaft speed is nearly zero before the engine is started, an
electric pump is used. It is located in the fuel tank so the fuel may also coolthe high-pressure pump. Pressure regulation is achieved by returning
unused fuel to the tank. Therefore, vapor lock is almost never a problem in
a vehicle with fuel injection.
In the US, volatility is regulated to reduce the emission of unburned
hydrocarbons by the use of so-called reformulated gasoline that is less
prone to evaporation. In Australia, summer petrol volatility limits are set by
state governments and vary among states. Most countries simply have asummer, winter, and perhaps intermediate limit.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet-Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline_additivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reid_Vapor_Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_weighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_lockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_lockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_weighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reid_Vapor_Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline_additivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet-Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry) -
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Volatility standards may be relaxed (allowing more gasoline components
into the atmosphere) during gasoline shortages. For example, on 31
August 2005, in response toHurricane Katrina, the US permitted the sale
of non-reformulated gasoline in some urban areas, effectively permitting an
early switch from summer to winter-grade gasoline. As mandatedbyEPA administratorStephen L. Johnson, this "fuel waiver" was made
effective until 15 September 2005.
Modern automobiles are also equipped with an evaporative emissions
control system ( 'EVAP system' in automotive jargon), which collects
evaporated fuel from the fuel tank in a charcoal-filled canister while the
engine is stopped, and then releases the collected vapors to the engine for
consumption when the engine is running (usually after it has reachednormaloperating temperature). The evaporative emissions control system
also includes a sealed gas cap to prevent vapors from escaping via the fuel
filler tube.
Octane rating
Spark ignition engines are designed to burn gasoline in a controlledprocess calleddeflagration. But in some cases, the unburned mixture can
auto ignite, which results in rapid heat release and can damage the engine.
This phenomenon is often referred to asengine knockingor end-gas
knock. One way to reduce knock in spark ignition engines is to increase the
gasoline's resistance toauto ignition, which is expressed by its octane
rating.
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Octane rating is measured relative to a mixture of2,2,4-
Trimethylpentane(anisomerofoctane) and n-heptane. There are different
conventions for expressing octane ratings, so a fuel may have several
different octane ratings based on the measure used. Research octane
number (RON) for commercially-available gasoline varies by country.InFinland, Sweden, andNorway, 95 RON is the standard for regular
unleaded petrol and 98 RON is also available as a more expensive option.
In the UK, ordinary regular unleaded petrol is 91 RON (not commonly
available), premium unleaded petrol is always 95 RON, and super
unleaded is usually 97-98 RON. However, both Shell and BP produce fuel
at 102 RON for cars with high-performance engines, and the supermarket
chainTesco began in 2006 to sell super unleaded petrol rated at 99 RON.
In the US, octane ratings in unleaded fuels can vary between 86 and 87AKI (91-92 RON) for regular, through 89-90 AKI (94-95 RON) for mid-grade
(European premium), up to 90-94 AKI (95-99 RON) for premium (European
super).
The octane rating became important as the military sought higher output
foraircraft enginesin the late 1930s and the 1940s. A higher octane rating
allows a highercompression ratioorsuperchargerboost, and thus higher
temperatures and pressures, which translate to higher power output. Somescientists even predicted that a nation with a good supply of high octane
gasoline would have the advantage in air power. In 1943, theRolls Royce
Merlinaero engine produced 1,320 horsepower (984 kW) using 100 RON
fuel from a modest 27 litre displacement. Towards the end of thesecond
world war, experiments were conducted using 150 RON fuel.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2,2,4-Trimethylpentanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2,2,4-Trimethylpentanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superchargerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls_Royce_Merlinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls_Royce_Merlinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_world_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_world_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_world_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_world_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls_Royce_Merlinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls_Royce_Merlinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superchargerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2,2,4-Trimethylpentanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2,2,4-Trimethylpentane -
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Stability
Quality gasoline should be stable almost indefinitely if stored properly.
Such storage should be in an airtight container, to prevent oxidation orwater vapors mixing, and at a stable cool temperature to reduce the chance
of the container's leaking. When gasoline is not stored correctly, gums and
solids may accumulate, resulting in "stale fuel". The presence of these
degradation products in fuel tank, lines, and carburetor or fuel injection
components, make it harder to start the engine. Upon resumption of regular
vehicle usage, the buildups should eventually be cleaned out by the flow of
fresh petrol. A fuel stabilizer can be used to extend the life of fuel that is not
or cannot be stored properly. Fuel stabilizer is commonly used for small
engines, such as lawnmower and tractor engines, to promote quicker and
more reliable starting. Users have been advised to keep gasoline
containers more than half full and properly capped to reduce air exposure,
to avoid storage at high temperatures, to run an engine for ten minutes to
circulate the stabilizer through all components prior to storage, and to run
the engine at intervals to purge stale fuel from thecarburetor.
Energy content(high and low heating value)
Energy is obtained from the combustion of gasoline by the conversion of a
hydrocarbon tocarbon dioxideandwater. The combustion of octane
follows this reaction:
2 C8H18+ 25 O2 16 CO2+ 18 H2O
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carburetorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carburetor -
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Gasoline contains about 35MJ/L (9.7 kWh/L, 132 MJ/US gal, 36.6
kWh/US gal) (higher heating value) or 13 kWh/kg. Gasoline blends differ,
and therefore actual energy content varies according to the season to
season and producer by up to 4% more or less than the average, according
to the US EPA. On average, about 19.5 US gallons (16.2 imp gal; 74 L) ofgasoline are available from a 42-US-gallon (35 imp gal; 160 L) barrel of
crude oil (about 46% by volume), varying due to quality of crude and grade
of gasoline. The remaining residue comes off as products ranging from tar
to naptha.
A high-octane-rated fuel, such asliquefied petroleum gas(LPG) has an
overall lower power output at the regularcompression ratioof an engine
run at on gasoline. However, with an enginetunedto theuse of LPG(i.e.via higher compression ratios, such as 12:1 instead of 8:1), this lower
power output can be overcome. This is because higher-octane fuels allow
for a higher compression ratio, hence a higher cylinder temperature, which
improves efficiency. Also, increased mechanical efficiency is created by a
higher compression ratio through the concomitant higher expansion ratio
on the power stroke, which is by far the greater effect. The higher
expansion ratio extracts more work from the high-pressure gas created by
the combustion process. AnAtkinson cycleengine uses the timing of thevalve events to produce the benefits of a high expansion ratio without the
disadvantages, chiefly detonation, of a high compression ratio. A high
expansion ratio is also one of the two key reasons for the efficiency of
Diesel engines, along with the elimination of pumping losses due to
throttling of the intake air flow. A high compression ratio can be viewed as a
necessary evil to have a high expansion ratio.
The lower energy content (per liter) of LPG in comparison to gasoline isdue mainly to its lowerdensity. Energy content per kilogram is higher than
for gasoline (higherhydrogentocarbonratio, see for
exampleStandard_enthalpy_of_formation#Examples:_Inorganic_compoun
ds_.28at_25_.C2.B0C.29).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megajoulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_heating_valuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_tuninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_enthalpy_of_formation#Examples:_Inorganic_compounds_.28at_25_.C2.B0C.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_enthalpy_of_formation#Examples:_Inorganic_compounds_.28at_25_.C2.B0C.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_enthalpy_of_formation#Examples:_Inorganic_compounds_.28at_25_.C2.B0C.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_enthalpy_of_formation#Examples:_Inorganic_compounds_.28at_25_.C2.B0C.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_tuninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_heating_valuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megajoule -
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Density
Thespecific gravity(orrelative density) of gasoline ranges from 0.710.77
kg/l (719.7kg/m3
; 0.026lb/in3
;6.073 lb/US gal;7.29 lb/imp gal), higherdensities having a greater volume of aromatics. Gasoline floats on water;
water cannot generally be used to extinguish a gasoline fire, unless used in
a fine mist.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_meterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_meterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_meterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_(mass)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_inchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_inchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_inchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_liquid_gallonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_gallonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_gallonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_liquid_gallonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_inchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_(mass)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_meterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_gravity -
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Tetraethyl lead
Gasoline, when used in high-compressioninternal combustion engines, has a
tendency to auto ignite (detonate) causing damaging "engine knocking"(alsocalled "pinging" or "pinking") noise. Early research into this effect was led by
A.H. Gibson andHarry Ricardoin England andThomas Midgleyand Thomas
Boyd in the United States. The discovery thatleadadditives modified this
behavior led to the widespread adoption of their use in the 1920s, and therefore
more powerful, higher compression engines. The most popular additive
was tetra-ethyl lead. With the discovery of the extent of environmental and
health damage caused by the lead, however, and the incompatibility of lead
with catalytic convertersfound on virtually all newly sold US automobiles since1975, this practice began to wane (encouraged by many governments
introducing differential tax rates) in the 1980s.In the US, where lead had been
blended with gasoline (primarily to boost octane levels) since the early 1920s,
standards to phase out leaded gasoline were first implemented in 1973 due in
great part to studies conducted byPhilip J. Landrigan. In 1995, leaded fuel
accounted for only 0.6% of total gasoline sales and less than 2000 short
tons(1814 t) of lead per year. From 1 January 1996, the Clean Air Actbanned
the sale of leaded fuel for use in on-road vehicles. Possession and use of leadedgasoline in a regular on-road vehicle now carries a maximum $10,000 fine in the
US. However, fuel containing lead may continue to be sold for off-road uses,
including aircraft, racing cars, farm equipment, and marine engines.[6]Similar
bans in other countries have resulted in lowering levels of lead in
people's bloodstreams.
Gasolines are also treated withmetal deactivators, which are compounds that sequester
(deactivate) metal salts that otherwise accelerate the formation of gummy residues. The
metal impurities might arise from the engine itself or as contaminants in the fuel.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_(physical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_(physical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_knockinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_knockinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_knockinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Ricardohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley,_Jr.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetra-ethyl_leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetra-ethyl_leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_converterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_J._Landriganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_J._Landriganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_tonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_tonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Air_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_deactivatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_deactivatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_deactivatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_deactivatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Air_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_tonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_tonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_J._Landriganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_converterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetra-ethyl_leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley,_Jr.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Ricardohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_knockinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_(physical) -
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Detergents
Gasoline, as delivered at the pump, also contains additives to reduce internal engine carbon
buildups, improvecombustion, and to allow easier starting in cold climates. High levels of
detergent can be found inTop Tier Detergent Gasolines. These gasolines exceed the U.S.EPA's minimum requirement for detergent content. The specification for Top Tier Detergent
Gasolines was developed by four automakers: GM, Honda, Toyota and BMW. According to the
bulletin, the minimal EPA requirement is not sufficient to keep engines clean.Typical
detergents include alkyl amines and alkyl phosphates at the level of 50-100 ppm.
Ethanol
European Union
In the EU, 5% ethanol can be added within the common gasoline spec (EN 228). Discussions
are ongoing to allow 10% blending of ethanol (available in Finnish and French gas stations).
Most gasoline sold in Sweden has 5-15% ethanol added.
Brazil
In Brazil, theBrazilian National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels(ANP)
requires gasoline for automobile use to have from 18 to 25% of ethanol added to its
composition.
Australia
Legislation requires retailers to label fuels containing ethanol on the dispenser, and limits
ethanol use to 10% of petrol in Australia. Such petrol is commonly calledE10by major
brands, and its price per litre is less than that of regular unleaded petrol.
United States
In most states, ethanol is added by law to a minimum level which is currently 5.9%. Most
fuel pumps display a sticker stating the fuel may contain up to 10% ethanol, an intentional
disparity which allows the minimum level to be raised over time without requiring
modification of the literature/labeling. Until late 2010, fuels retailers were only authorized
to sell fuel containing up to 10 percent ethanol (E10), and most vehicle warranties (except
for flexible fuel vehicles) authorize fuels that contain no more than 10 percent ethanol.In
parts of the United States,ethanolis sometimes added to gasoline without an indication that
it is a component.
India
Thegovernment of Indiain October 2007 decided to make 5% ethanol blending (with
petrol) mandatory. Discussions are ongoing to increase the blending of ethanol to 10%.
Fuel dyes
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In Australia, petrol tends to be dyed a light shade of purple.
In India petrol is dyed red.
In South Africa, unleaded fuel is dyed green and lead-replacement fuel is dyed red.
In the United States, the most commonly used aircraft gasoline,avgas(aviation gas, known
as 100LL for 100 octane, low lead) is dyed blue. In the United States, 80, 100, and 145
(although rare) octane avgas sometimes are dyed red, green, and purple respectively. Red
dye has also been used for identifying untaxed (off highway use) agricultural diesel.
Oxygenate blending
Oxygenateblending addsoxygen-bearing compounds such asMTBE,ETBEandethanol.
The presence of these oxygenates reduces the amount ofcarbon monoxideand unburned
fuel in the exhaust gas. In many areas throughout the US, oxygenate blending is mandated by
EPA regulations to reduce smog and other airborne pollutants. For example, in Southern
California, fuel must contain 2% oxygen by weight, resulting in a mixture of 5.6% ethanol in
gasoline. The resulting fuel is often known as reformulated gasoline (RFG) or oxygenated
gasoline, or in the case of California,California reformulated gasoline. The federal
requirement that RFG contain oxygen was dropped on 6 May 2006 because the industry had
developedVOC-controlled RFG that did not need additional oxygen.
MTBE use is being phased out in some states due to issues with contamination of ground
water. In some places, such as California, it is already banned. Ethanol and, to a lesser extent,
the ethanol-derived ETBE are common replacements. Since most ethanol is derived from
biomass, such as corn, sugar cane or grain, it is referred to as bioethanol. A common ethanol-
gasoline mix of 10% ethanol mixed with gasoline is calledgasoholor E10, and an ethanol-
gasoline mix of 85% ethanol mixed with gasoline is calledE85. The most extensive use of
ethanol takes place inBrazil, where the ethanol is derived fromsugarcane. In 2004, over 3.4
billion US gallons (2.8 billion imp gal/13 million m) of ethanol was produced in the United
States for fuel use, mostly fromcorn, and E85 is slowly becoming available in much of the
United States, though many of the relatively few stations vending E85 are not open to thegeneral public. The use ofbioethanol, either directly or indirectly by conversion of such
ethanol to bio-ETBE, is encouraged by the European UnionDirective on the Promotion of
the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport. Since producing bioethanol
from fermented sugars and starches involvesdistillation, though, ordinary people in much
of Europe cannot legally ferment and distill their own bioethanol at present (unlike in the
US, where getting aBATFdistillation permit has been easy since the 1973 oil crisis).
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Safety
Environmental considerations
Combustion of one US gallon of gasoline produces about 19.4 pounds (8.8 kg) of carbondioxide (converts to 2.33 g/litre), agreenhouse gas.
The main concern with gasoline on the environment, aside from the complications of its
extraction and refining, is the potential effect on theclimate. Unburnt gasoline
andevaporation from the tank, when in theatmosphere, react insunlightto
producephotochemical smog. Addition of ethanol increases the volatility of gasoline,
potentially worsening the problem.
The chief risks of such leaks come not from vehicles, but from gasoline delivery truckaccidents and leaks from storage tanks. Because of this risk, most (underground) storage
tanks now have extensive measures in place to detect and prevent any such leaks, such as
monitoring systems (Veeder-Root, Franklin Fueling).
Toxicity
Thematerial safety data sheetfor unleaded gasoline shows at least 15 hazardous chemicals
occurring in various amounts, includingbenzene(up to 5% by volume),toluene(up to 35%
by volume),naphthalene(up to 1% by volume),trimethylbenzene(up to 7% byvolume),methyl tert-butyl ether(MTBE) (up to 18% by volume, in some states) and about
ten others.[17]Hydrocarbons in gasoline generally exhibit low acute toxicities, withLD50of
700 2700 mg/kg for simple aromatic compounds.[18]Benzene and many antiknocking
additives arecarcinogenic.
Inhalation
Huffedgasoline is a common intoxicant that has become epidemic in some poorer
communities and indigenous groups in Australia, Canada, New Zealand,and some PacificIslands.[19]In response,Opalfuel has been developed by theBPKwinanaRefinery in
Australia, and contains only 5%aromatics(unlike the usual 25%) which weakens the
effects of inhalation.[20]
Flammability
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Uncontrolled burning of gasoline produces large quantities ofsoot.
Like other alkanes, gasoline burns in a limited range of its vapor phase and, coupled with its
volatility, this makes leaks highly dangerous when sources of ignition are present. Gasoline
has a lower explosion limit of 1.4% by volume and an upper explosion limit of 7.6%. If the
concentration is below 1.4% the air-gasoline mixture is too lean and will not ignite. If the
concentration is above 7.6% the mixture is too rich and also will not ignite. However,
gasoline vapor rapidly mixes and spreads with air, making unconstrained gasoline quickly
flammable. Many accidents involve gasoline being used in an attempt to light bonfires; the
gasoline readily vaporizes after being poured and mixes with the surrounding air.
Usage and pricing
Main articles:Gasoline usage and pricing,Global warming, andPeak oil
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UK petrol prices
The US accounts for about 44% of the worlds gasoline consumption.[21]In 2003 The US
consumed 476.474 gigalitres (1.258711011 US gal; 1.048101011 imp gal),[22]which equates
to 1.3gigalitresof gasoline each day (about 360 million US or 300 million imperialgallons).The US used about 510 billion litres (138 billion US gal/115 billion imp gal) of gasoline in
2006, of which 5.6% was mid-grade and 9.5% was premium grade.[23]
Western countries have among the highest usage rates per person.[citation needed]
Europe
Unlike the US, countries in Europe impose substantialtaxeson fuels such as gasoline. The
price of gasoline in Europe is typically more than twice that in the US. In Italy, due to theamendments imposed by Monti's Government in December 2011, the price of gasoline has
passed, in the period of two weeks, from 1.50 /l (7.48 US$/gal) to 1.75 /l (8.72 US$/gal);
on March, 17th, in a Gasoline Station located nearAncona, has reached the psychological
threshold of 2 /l: the price was 2.001/l (this means 9.97 US$/gal) This chart needs to be
compared to the USA national average price of gasoline of 0.71 /l .
Pump price (in Euro/liter) 2004 to 2012 lead-free 95 Octane gasoline in selected European
countries. To convert prices for Euro/liter to US$/gal, multiply by 4.985 (19 March 2012 US$1.317 =1.00 Euro).
Countr
y
Dec
.
200
4
May
200
5
July
200
7
Apri
l
200
8
Jan
200
9
Mar
201
0
Feb
201
1
Jan
201
2
Feb
201
2
Mar
201
2
May
201
2
Germany 1.19 1.18 1.37 1.43 1.09 1.35 1.50
France 1.05 1.15 1.31 1.38 1.07 1.35 1.53
Italy 1.10 1.23 1.35 1.39 1.10 1.34 1.46 1.75 1.78 1.88 1.82
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Pump price (in Euro/liter) 2004 to 2012 lead-free 95 Octane gasoline in selected European
countries. To convert prices for Euro/liter to US$/gal, multiply by 4.985 (19 March 2012 US$1.317 =
1.00 Euro).
Countr
y
Dec
.
200
4
May
200
5
July
200
7
Apri
l
200
8
Jan
200
9
Mar
201
0
Feb
201
1
Jan
201
2
Feb
201
2
Mar
201
2
May
201
2
Netherland
s1.26 1.33 1.51 1.56 1.25 1.54 1.66 1.72
Poland 0.80 0.92 1.15 1.23 0.82 1.12 1.26
Switzerlan
d0.92 0.98 1.06 1.14 0.88 1.12 1.29 1.40 1.47
Hungary 1.00 1.01 1.13 1.13 0.86 1.22 1.32
United States
From 1998 to 2004, the price of gasoline fluctuated between $1 and $2 USDperU.S. gallon. After 2004,
the price increased until the average gas price reached a high of $4.11 per U.S. gallon in mid-2008, but
receded to approximately $2.60 per U.S. gallon by September 2009. More recently, the U.S. experienced
an upswing in gas prices through 2011,[25]and by 1 March 2012, the national average was $3.74 per
gal.[26]
Unlike most consumer goods, the prices of which are listed before tax, in the United States, gasoline
prices are posted with taxes included. Taxes are added by federal, state and local governments. As of
2009, the federal tax is 18.4 per gallon for gasoline and 24.4 per gallon for diesel (excludingred
diesel).[27]Among states, the highest gasoline tax rates, including the federal taxes as of 2005, are New
York (62.9/gal), Hawaii (60.1/gal), and California (60/gal).[25]However, many states' taxes are a
percentage and thus vary in amount depending on the cost of the gasoline.
About 9% of all gasoline sold in the US in May 2009 was premium grade, according to the Energy
Information Administration.Consumer Reportsmagazine says, If [your owners manual] says to use
regular fuel, do sotheres no advantage to a higher grade.[28]The Associated Press said premium
gaswhich is a higher octane and costs several cents a gallon more than regular unleaded should be
used only if the manufacturer says it is required.[29]
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History
The first automotive combustion engines, so-called Otto engines, were developed in the last quarter of
the 19th century in Germany. The fuel was a relatively volatile hydrocarbon obtained from coal gas. With
a boiling point near 85 C (octanes boil about 40 C higher), it was well suited for early carburetors
(evaporators). The development of a "spray nozzle" carburetors enabled the use of less volatile fuels.Further improvements in engine efficiency were attempted at higher compression ratios, but early
attempts were blocked by knocking (premature explosion of fuel). In the 1920s, antiknock compounds
were introduced by Migley and Boyd, specifically tetraethyl lead (TEL). This innovation started a cycle of
improvements in fuel efficiency that coincided with the large-scale development of oil refining to provide
more products in the boiling range of gasolines. In the 1950s oil refineries started to focus on high octane
fuels, and then detergents were added to gasoline to clean the jets and carburetors. The 1970s witnessed
greater attention to the environmental consequences of burning gasoline. These considerations led to the
phasing out of TEL and its replacement by other antiknock compounds. Subsequently, low-sulfur gasoline
was introduced, in part to preserve the catalysts in modern exhaust systems.
Etymology and terminology"Gasoline" is cited (under the spelling "gasolene") from 1863 in the Oxford English Dictionary. It was
never a trademark, although it may have been derived from older trademarks such as "Cazeline" and
"Gazeline".[30]
Variant spellings of "petrol" have been used to refer to rawpetroleumsince the 16th century.[30]"Petrol"
was first used as the name of a refined petroleum product around 1870 by British wholesalerCarless,
Capel& Leonard, who marketed it as a solvent.[31]
When the product later found a new use as a motor
fuel,Frederick Simms, an associate ofGottlieb Daimler, suggested to Carless that they register the trade
mark "Petrol",[32]but by this time the word was already in general use, possibly inspired by the
French ptrole,[30]and the registration was not allowed. Carless registered a number of alternative names
for the product, while their competitors used the term "motor spirit" until the 1930s.[33][34]
In many countries, gasoline has a colloquial name derived from that of the chemical benzene(e.g.,
German Benzin, Dutch Benzine, Italian benzina, Chile bencina, Thai ). Argentina, Uruguay and
Paraguay use the colloquial name naftaderived from that of the chemicalnaphtha.[35]
The terms "mogas", short for motor gasoline, or "autogas", short for automobile gasoline, are used to
distinguishautomobilefuel from aviation gasoline, or"avgas".[36][37][38]InBritish English,gasolinecan refer
to a different petroleum derivative historically used inlamps, but this usage is relatively uncommon.
(WIKIPEDIA)
INDIAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Indian Petroleum Industry started its journey during the fiscal year 1890 in
the north-eastern provinces of India especially in the place called Digboi.
The production of petroleum along with the exploration of new sites was
primarily restricted to north-eastern India up to the 1970s. But the scenario
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changed drastically with the discovery of Bombay High. Indian Petroleum
Industry was entirely state sponsored and was under the management
control of all the industries involved in it were entirely with the government.
After the inception of the Liberalization-Privation-Globalization (L-P-G)policy in the month of July, 1991, the government had started allowing the
Indian Petroleum Industry to go into private as well as government-private
joint ventures. The deregulation process in the Indian Petroleum Industry
got a boost in the year 1997 when it was decided that the process of
liberalization and deregulation would be accelerated in this industry and all
the regulations would go away from the month of April in the year 2002.
Along with globalisation, the rate of growth of the economy along with the
rate of growth of energy consumption increased at the rate of six percent
on an yearly basis especially between the period 1991 and 2001. The
demand for petroleum products increased at an annual rate of 5.5% during
1990-91 and 2000-01 which is more than that of the production rate of
crude oil processing (revolving around 5.1 %). But Indian Petroleum
Industry stumbled a bit in the year 201 when the Indian economy observed
a slow down in its economic rate along with the overall industrial output.
Impediments related to infrastructure also came up as serious problems in
the path of Indian Petroleum Industry.
www.economywatch.com ... Petroleum
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India enjoys 3% of the international capacity share. To move ahead in
making its presence felt strongly in the global market, Indian petroleum
firms are planning to raise their distillation capacity from the existing 149
mtpa to 243 mtpa by FY 2011-12.
Indian petroleum retail market
Expansion of Indian petroleum retail market is triggered by the growth in
automobile sales that resulted in major foreign investments. The growth is
estimated to sustain and the market is likely to expand further by 20 million
every year till 2030, placing India at the world map in terms of being the
biggest automobile market.
Accordingly, the petroleum dealers Bharat Petroleum Corporation,
Hindustan Petroleum Corporation and Indian Oil Corporation in
collaboration with each other are looking forward to add 2,262 petrol pumps
in India by 2010.
Investments in India Petroleum Industry
In 2010 the state-owned oil firms are expected to splurge US$ 11.34billion on developing supplies and constructing new shipping networks for
petroleum and natural gas.
Indian Oil Corporation is looking forward to establish a petroleum
plant in the state of West Bengal by bringing in investments worth US$
596.63 million.
ONGC will bring in US$ 694 million for raising services at its oil fields
in Assam and adjoining states to enhance the petroleum output. In addition
it will also splurge US$ 5.65 billion on capital expenses in the next two
years.
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GAIL (India) Limited and OVL, the international associate of leading
oil and gas player ONGC, are expected to bring in investments worth US$
250 million.
Future of India Petroleum Industry
As per the latest CII-KPMG analysis, the energy industry of India will help
tin the expansion of the petroleum sector by bringing in investments worth
US$ 120 billion-US$ 150 billion in the next 3-5 years. By 2012, the
prospects in India Petroleum Industry are estimated to accomplish US$ 35
billion to US$ 40.(http://business.mapsofindia.com/india-petroleum-industry/)