Personality Work

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

There has been a growing interest in predicting academic performance by

educational psychologists since the time that the development of psychometric

instruments began from the work of Binet (1908) to Willingham (1974) and even

to this day. Individual differences such as personality traits and intelligence have

become constructs of both theoretical and practical significance. Psychologists

have been interested in the concept of individual difference, in persons of all age

groups as it relates to their growth and development, learning styles, personality

types etc. Educationists and teachers have equally noted that these individual

difference, directly or indirectly have a bearing on the learners academic

achievement in the various subjects taught in schools. For instance, psychologists,

teachers and educationists are interested in knowing why students perform

better in some school subjects than others? But according to Tomas and Furnham

(2003), academic performance has been typically associated with intelligence

rather than personality. Although there is longstanding empirical evidence

indicating that both personality and intelligence are important predictors of

academic performance, intelligence seem to be the most recognized and

appreciated factor. But both intelligence and personality have been known to be

related to learning.

But the measure of intelligence has gained such prominence over time

because educational institutions use test scores as an indicator of students’



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academic performance. This is usually because of the undue attribution of

cognition to the factor of intelligence as Test Scores are usually obtained from

teacher – made tests or nationally recognized examinations conducted by such

bodies as WAEC, NECO, NABTEB or JAMB. It has been noticed that traits other

than intelligence determine performance in specific subject areas. Students who

have been taught by the same teacher, using the same curriculum and virtually

under the same academic environment in terms of infrastructural and

instructional materials usually perform at different levels in terms of scores

obtained. While some tend to do well in particular subjects others do so poorly. A

varied list of predictors of specialty choice has been studied, including

demographic and socioeconomic factors, academic achievement, medical school

curricula, and lifestyle plans (Kassebaum & Szenas, 1994; Kassebaum, Szenas &

Schuchert, 1996).

Tharp (1992) noted that most teachers begin their teaching careers with

the idealistic notion that they can stimulate all their students to love their

subjects and to learn a lot. But after a year of teaching, their idealism fail when

they realized that some students, for reasons unknown, have great difficulty

understanding the subject matter presented in their subjects. This inability to

reach all students causes much frustration and soul searching as to the cause of

student’s failure. This problem has led educationists to careful reexamination of

other factors other than intelligence that might predict academic performance.

Hence the explosion in research into the role of personality types in academic

performance.

Stereotypical personality characteristics are frequently used to portray

members of different occupational groups. For instance, Business persons are



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considered entrepreneurial; artists- creative and spontaneous; lawyers- logical

and convincing; nurses- as a caring helper; physicians- as bright and

knowledgeable etc. Rovelzzi-Carrol & Leavitt (1984) stated that both theoretical

support and empirical documentation for stereotyping occupational groups by

personality characteristics exists.

All careers have their subject combination requirements, personality

characteristics and personal abilities which are supposed to be fully assessed

before individuals can be deemed to be qualified to go into specific careers.

Holland (1981) proposed six personality types and gave the examples of careers

that each personality type can fit into. The six personality types include: Realistic,

Investigative, Social, Artistic, Enterprising and Conventional personality types.

Holland (1981) contended that people are most productive when there is a ‘good

fit’ between their personality types and their career. Fred (1985) investigated the

relationship between personality characteristics and vocational choice using

Holland’s theory. The result from the study shows that:

a) 70% of the subjects had personality types that were congruent with their

career choice.

b) The relationship between career choice and sex membership was not

significant.

The interest or subject preference of students has been a subject of many

studies. Blustein et al (1995); Hotchkiss & Borow (1990); Mitchell & Krumboltz

(1990), noted that career development appears to be strongly influenced by social

factors like discriminations, societal attitudes, cultural expectations and

stereotyping. In Nigeria, Egwuchukwu (1997) investigated the correlates of job



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aspirations of senior secondary school students in Anambra State. The results

showed that:

A) Students aspired most to Medicine, Accounting, Law, Pharmacy and

Engineering in descending order of preference.

B) Students aspired least to Artistry, Architecture and Soldering in descending

order of preference.

C) The subjects aspired to the top five jobs mainly because of their high

economic rewards, social value and high prestige.

D) The subjects aspired least to those jobs for religious, psychosocial,

counselling and of peer influence.

Bellamy (1997) carried out a study on career aspiration, expectations and

beliefs of African-American, White and Hispanic male adolescents with Holland’s

Social personality types. The result showed that there were no differences in

career aspirations and expectations either by race or by Holland’s social

personality type. Peng (1996) investigated the impact of career education courses

on career beliefs and career decision making among business college students in

Taiwan. This study provided a partial support for the assumption that taking a

career education course influence student’s career belief and career decision

making. The results underscore the relevance of planning career education course

content that reflects how the influence of gender and college years’ status affect

career decision making.

Nworah (1997) researched on the factors that influenced career choice among

secondary school students in Onitsha zone. The aim of the study was to find out

the factors that students considered before picking careers. The study used the



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Motivation for Occupational Preference Scale (MOPS) and analysis of data

collected showed that:

- 76% of the boys preferred professional courses like Law. Medicine, and Geology.

98% of the girls preferred people-oriented courses such as Banking, Broadcasting

and Teaching.

- Students chose careers without considering the factors that influenced career

choice such as interest, intellectual ability, personality of the individual and

aptitudes.

The period during and just before going to Senior Secondary school in the

Nigerian educational system is marked by important career-selecting decisions

whose implications are quite far-reaching. The junior secondary school III (JSS III)

student is about to choose a path of study that should lead eventually to a

satisfying career (whether in the broad classification of science or arts). Students

when confronted with this crossroad, turn to friends, family, teachers and

guidance counselors. The majority tend to look outside for unprofessional counsel

that does not take into cognizance the important factors that determine

individual differences. In most cases only the factor of intelligence is considered.

As a matter of fact some of the decisions are imposed by parents who desire to

have a ‘medical doctor’, ‘lawyer’ or ‘engineer’ in the family. It is even more

annoying because the Nigerian educational system and the society of course are

still struggling to appreciate the unquantifiable input of the guidance counselor. In

some schools, the most redundant staff may be the guidance counselor where

there are available.

Personality comprise salient individual differences which influence

performance, intelligence (what a person can do) through specific abilities which



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facilitate understanding and learning, personality (how a person will do it)

through certain traits which enhance or handicap the use of these abilities.

Evidence in literature has suggested that the personality traits of students have a

significant relationship with their academic performance among several other

factors whose relationship has been established through research. According to

Tharp (1992), one possibility is that an individual’s personality type can increase a

student’s ability to succeed in one area of the study but push them toward failure

in a different academic area.

There are numerous theories that are set out to give vivid descriptions of

personality types that are identifiable among people. One of the outstanding

theories includes that of Carl. G. Jung. Carl. Jung, a Swiss Psychiatrist attempted a

classification of human beings on two behavioral categories- extraversion and

introversion. This typology is widely recognized and probably the most used in

research on personality types. Chauhan (1994) identified the characteristics of

these two types of personality as follows:

1. Introvert: A person who tends to withdraw into his/herself especially,

when faced with emotional conflicts and stress in his/her environment.

Introvert individual is shy, avoids people and enjoys to be alone etc.

2. Extrovert: In contrast to the introvert type, extrovert person’s

orientation is towards the external world. He/she deals with people

intelligently in social situations. He is conventional, outgoing, social,

friendly and free from worries and seeks the company of others etc.

According to Pallegama, Ariyashinghe and Perera, (2007) Extroverts will be

negatively and significantly associated with academic performance, particularly

with examination marks. This would be consistent with studies reporting a



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negative relation between extroverts and knowledge tests. Introverts have better

academic performance according to Pallegama, Ariyasinghe and Perera (2007).

Better academic performance by introverts has been attributed to their greater

ability to consolidate learning, lower distractibility and better study habits. This

findings are corroborated by the fact that extroverts under-perform academically

owing to their distractibility, sociability and impulsiveness. Introverts spend more

time studying and extroverts spend more time socializing.

Thus, the researcher was gingered to carry out an inquiry aimed at

discovering how different personality type of students in our secondary school

system predicts their subject interest or preference and the effect of personality

types in their academic performance in the preferred subject areas.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Students are supposed to enroll in programmes based upon perceptions of

‘good fit’ between their personality type and their perceived ability to be

successful in the programme. Most secondary school leavers in Nigeria madepoor vocational decisions because of unrealistic vocational aspirations. Students

select occupations mainly because of the salaries, position, glamour and prestige

attached to them.

Furthermore, students in secondary schools dabble into chosen of subjects

either in science or arts without adequately considering their personality types.

Many research reports indicate that similar personalities have a tendency tochoose similar career paths. Students, quite early in life are confronted with the

challenge of choosing a career path in the broad disciplines of sciences and arts.

This is a time most children are only at the teenage and prone to a lot of external

influences when it comes to decision making. Usually, their career path decisions



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are informed by reasons other than personality factors. While there seem to be

sufficient evidence to proof that personality type factors among other factors play

significant role in the determination of the level of success in the future

performance in occupations along chosen career paths, adequate personality-

based career education is never provided. In the end, we have the situation

where students struggle unsuccessfully with a course that their personality make-

ups cannot accommodate. The resultant effect is that round pegs are kept in

square holes. If such persons find their way into the University System or even

later in life employed in any establishment, there might be the tendency for them

to constitute a snag in the wheel of progress. In the University, they might be

tempted to go into all kinds of vices to ensure that they make good grades. Such

vices may include cultism and examination malpractices which are societal ills

that confront our educational system. In the workplace, such individuals might

become very inefficient and unproductive as a result of lack of interest. Such

choices on the basis of interest may be at the risk a career option that is in

congruent with the personality type of the students in question.

Therefore a survey of students’ subject preference is desired in this study

as well as their personality type preference. The study will further observe to see

the difference between the academic performances of students in relation to

their personality type and subject preferences. A prominent area of investigation

into the factors that determine individual difference is psychological or

personality characteristics because it has been realized that factors other than

intelligence determine academic performance. Research reports have shown that

there are predictable relationships among personality types, work, values and

occupational interests.



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1.3 Purpose of the Study

The general purpose of the study was to investigate students’ personality

dimensions (introversion-extraversion) as it affects their subject preferences and

academic performances. The objectives of this study are to:-

1) Find out possible differences in the subject preferences of secondary

school students who manifest different types of personality traits.

2) Determine the difference in terms of academic performance among

secondary school students who manifest different types of personality

traits.

3) Examine the possible differences in the subject preferences of male and

female extrovert students.

4) Ascertain the difference in terms of academic performance

between male and female extrovert students.

5) Establish the possible differences in the subject preferences of male and

female introvert students.

6) Ascertain the difference in terms of academic performance

between male and female introvert students.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions were raised:

1. What are the school subject preferences of secondary school students in

Abuja Municipal Area Council who manifest different form of personality

traits?



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2. What is the difference in terms of academic performance between

introvert and extrovert secondary school students in Abuja Municipal

Area Council?

3. Is there any difference in academic performance between male and

female introvert students?

4. Are there differences between the subject preferences of male and

female extrovert students?

5. Is there any difference between the subject preferences of male and

female introvert students?

6. Are there differences between the academic performance of male and

female extrovert students?

1.5 Hypotheses

The following null hypothesis (HO) were tested:-

HO1: There is no significant difference between the subject preferences of

secondary school students who are extrovert and introverts.

HO2: There is no significant difference between the academic performances of

extrovert and introvert secondary school students.

HO3: There is no significant difference between the academic performance of

male and female extroverts.


male and female extroverts.


male and female introverts.



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HO6: There is no significant difference between subject preferences of male

and female introverts.

1.6 Basic Assumptions

The research is based on the assumptions that:

1. Subject preferences of secondary school students who are extroverts and

introvert can be investigated.

2. Possible differences in the academic performance of introvert and

extrovert secondary school students can be determined.

3. Possible differences in subject preferences of male and female extroverts

can be ascertained.

4. That possible difference in academic performance of male and female

extroverts can be established.

5. That possible difference in subject preferences of male and female

introverts can be investigated.

6. That possible difference can be established in academic performance of

male and female introverts.

1.7 Delimitation of the Study

This study will be limited to Senior Secondary Schools in the Abuja Municipal Area

Council of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. This is because of proximity of the

Federal Capital Territory to the researcher and also to help cut down the financial

implications of carrying out the research.

1.8 Significance of the Study

This research work is of strategic importance because it provides in-depth

understanding of the relationship between personality and career path choices.



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Understanding the role personality plays in a career decision making process will

aid counselors and educators to assist students in determining what is best for

them. This study will de-emphasize the current preoccupation with intelligence as

measures of ability and recommend based on research evidence that different

personalities tend to have different subject preferences.

A study of this kind and at the Senior Secondary School I level will provide

basis for personality-based guidance of students on their vocational choices. It

will also help students to appreciate their personality characteristics thus

reducing the incidence of loss of self esteem which is critical to overall

performance and efficiency later on in life. It will provide variety of information

for teachers, students, school administrators as well as school councilors. It will

reveal the impact of personality on learning so that educationists can modify

teaching styles to meet the needs of varied personality types among learning.

It will also help to reveal the personality types that agrees with the teaching

profession because the teaching profession favors certain personality traits.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

In this study, the following terms will be used to mean:

(1) Personality: This refers to unique characteristics of different students as it

relates to their orientation towards the external world or inner world of

thoughts.

(2) Personality Type: This study defines personality types as individual’s

behaviour patterns under the broad category of Extroversion and

Introversion.



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1.10 Abbreviations

The following are the meaning of the abbreviations used in this chapter:

MBTI - Myers, Briggs Type Indicator

WAEC - West African Examination Council

NECO - National Examination Council

JSS - Junior Secondary School

FCT - Federal Capital Territory

NABTEB - National Business Technical Education Board

JAMB - Joint Admission and Matriculation Board



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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0 INTRODUCTION

This study will determine how personality types such as introverts and

extroverts affect academic performance. It seeks to compare the achievement

scores of introverts and extroverts.

The review will be carried out under the following sub topics.

2.1 The Concept and Meaning of Personality

2.2 Theoretical Framework of the Study

2.3 Theories of Personality

2.4 Types of Personality

2.5 Personality Types and Academic Performance

2.6 Extroverts and Introverts in relation to their Academic Performances

2.7 Subject Preference and Personality Type

2.8 Review of Previous Studies

2.9 Summary

2.1 THE CONCEPT AND MEANING OF PERSONALITY

The meaning and definition of personality is arbitrary. The term personality

is derived from a Latin word “persona” which means the mask worn by the Greek

actors. In this respect according to Chauhan (2002) personality means the effect

and influence which the individual wearing a mask left on the audience i.e. the

individual as seen by others.



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Even today, for a layman, personality means the effect which an individual

leaves on other people. The impression one makes on others tends to sketch

one’s personality (Denga 2002). To (non psychologists) the term “personality”

may refer to the physical appearance and to some extent a person’s popularity

and his ability to express himself well. When we wish to chose a person for

political leadership or any type of leadership at all, we tend to assess him or her

on the basis of the physical characteristics primarily. We even conclude sometime

that an individual has no personality. But personality is more complex than that,

and everybody has a personality.

Personality is a core area of study for psychology. We use the term personality

frequently, but what does it actually mean? Frequent use of the term is as

follows:

1 She has a wonderful personality

2 He had no personality

3 Its just her personality

4 She has her mother's personality

5 He has a real personality

6 He is always shy

7 He is always nervous

8 Her personality matters

9 We have personality conflict etc.

According to Adams (1954), cited in Schultz and Shultz. (1994), personality is

“I” Adams suggested that we get a good idea of what personality is by listening to

what we say when we use "I". When you say I, you are, in effect, summing up

everything about yourself - your likes and dislikes, fears and virtues, strength and



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weaknesses. The word "I" is what defines you as an individual, as a person

separate from all others. Gazzaniga and Heatherton (2003) see personality as an

individual’s characteristics, emotional responses, thought and behaviours that are

relatively stable over time and across circumstances.

Guilford (1959) cited by Chauhan (2002) defines personality an individuals

personality, then is his unique pattern of traits…… A trait is any distinguishable

relatively enduring way in which one individual differs from another.

Gordon Allport in Oladele (2004) defines personality as "the dynamic

organization within the individual of those psychological systems that determine

his characteristic, behaviour and thought". To him, the terms; dynamic

organization inside the person, psychological systems, characteristic pattern and

behaviour. thoughts and feelings can be explained as follows:

Dynamic organization: Suggests on going readjustments, adaptation to

experience continual grading and upgrading, personality does not just lye there. It

has process and it is organized.

Within the Individual: Suggests internal storage of patterns, supporting the notion

that personality influences behaviour.

Psychophysical systems: Suggests that the physical is also involved in whom we

are.

Characteristic Pattern: Implies that consistency/continuity which are uniquely

identifying of an individual.

Behaviour, thought and feeling: Indicates that personality includes a wide range

of psychological experience/manifestation, that personality is displayed in many

ways.



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Personality can be approached in various ways such as a stimulus, Chauhan

(2002). This means defining personality in terms of its social stimulus value. How

an individual affects other persons with which he comes in contact. Whether he is

impressive or repulsive. He has dominating or submissive personality. Personality

from this point of view becomes identical to reputation and impression, mostly in

terms of physical appearance, clothing, conversation and etiquette.

Personality can be seen as adjustment. An individual, since birth attempts

to adjust to his environment. Behaviour of an individual can be defined as an

adjustment in the society. According to this approach, personality is an

individual's characteristics pattern of behaviour. Therefore, sum of the

individual's movements as he adapts himself to the environment is his

personality.

Personality can equally be seen in terms of summative approach. This

emphasizes the importance of sum total of different process and activities of the

individual, as for example innate disposition, habits, impulses and emotions etc.

The word "personality" refers to the integrated and dynamic organization of the

physical mental and special qualities of the individual, as that manifest itself to

other people in social intercourse (Mukherjee, 2002). The above definition of the

term personality seems to include wide range of behaviour aspect of the

individual, each of these aspects being integrated to manifest in dynamic

organization relating to interpersonal behaviour of the individual.

According to Rastogi (1983), personality emerges from the interaction

between biological organism, a social and physical world. In another way,

personality may be defined as the characteristic pattern of behaviour and modes



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of thinking that determines a person's adjustment to the environment (Hilgard,

1975).

Personality is a collection of emotional thought and behavioural pattern

unique to a person that is consistent over time. It is a dynamically organized

totality or personal traits which distinguish one person from others (Badu, 2003).

According to Yusuf (2002), a full description of an individual personality would

include many factors: Intellectual abilities, motives acquired in the process or

growing up, emotional reactions, attitudes, beliefs and moral values. It also

includes one's role in life, the totality of one's qualities or attributes, the way one

really is, ones observable traits such as politeness, initiative.

Different approaches have been made to define personality but there is

agreement on a single definition of personality. Though there is diversity in views,

all psychologists agree that personality is unique; no two individuals, even the

identical twins have a like personality. The second basic fact regarding personality

is that it is the product of its own functioning; what we do today depend on our

accumulated experiences of the past. The experiences are accumulated day after

day and shape our personality by continuous interaction with external

environment. The third common characteristics of most definitions are that they

stress the need to understand the meaning of individual difference. Personality, is

what makes, individual unique; it is only through the study of personality that the

relevant differences among individuals can be made clear (Chauhan, 2002).

Hence, personality can be described in terms of behaviour of an individual, his

interaction with other people, his thoughts and gestures, which is observed over a

very long period of title.



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interaction of certain types with specific environments predicts the behavior and

interactions that occur in those environments. The six types are: Realistic,

Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising and Conventional. Holland went on to

describe the courses such personalities would enjoy the most.

2.3 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Personality theory, when viewed as a theory of individual differences, is

concerned to describe and explain those mental states or processes that are both

relatively stable in, and distinctive of, an individual person. Psychologists have

developed several theories of personality to study the structure and growth of it.

Some of these theories will be briefly discussed here.

A. Psychodynamic Theories Approach-the proponents of this are:

Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Erik H. Erikson.

B. The Humanistic Theories- here we have psychologists:

Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow.

C. The Behavioural Theories-among the behaviorists:

Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner, Albert Bandura.

D. The Trait/type of Theories-we have:

William Sheldon, Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck.

A brief description of some of these theories will now be attempted.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY/APPROACH

Sigmund Freud an Austrian physician is one of the influential theories of

personality. The control premise of his theory is that unconscious forces influence

behaviour. He referred to these psychic forces as "Instincts". He proposed that



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people have life instinct that is satisfied by following a pleasure principle. The

energy that derives the pleasure principle he called "Libido".

Structure of Personality

Freud proposed an integrated model of how the mind organized, which

consists of three theoretical structures that vary at the level of consciousness. The

ID which operates on a "pleasure principles" the EGO which operates on reality

principle and SUPEREGO, which is the internalization of societal and parental

standards of conduct.

An important component of his theory was that early childhood

experiences had a major impact on the development of personality that children

went through developmental stages that corresponds to their pursuit of

satisfaction of libidinal urges (Goldstein, 1994).

Psychosexual Stages of Sigmund Freud

The Oral Stage: (0 -18months) where pleasure is sought through the mouth.

The Anal Stage: (I8months - 3 years). Libidinal energy shifts to the anal region

where toilet training leads children to focus on the anus.

The Phallic Stage: (3 - 6 years). Libidinal energies' are directed towards the

genitals where the child obtains pleasure through stimulation of the genitals

although there is no sexual intent per se.

The Latency Stage: (6 - 12 years). A brief stage in which urges become

suppressed or channeled into school work.

The Genital Stage: (12 years and above). The adolescent libidinal satisfaction

focuses on genital stimulations with others.

According to Freud, the child's personality will be interfered with if she/he

suffers any form of fixation at any of these stages, because he believed that



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personality and human behaviour are shaped by the ways infants and children

learn to control and release their libidinal energy.

THE HUMANISTIC THEORIES/APPROACHES

In contrast to the arguments of psychodynamism, the humanistic

perspective, optimistically argues that people have enormous potential for

personal growth. Major proponents of humanistic ideas on the human personality

include Carl Rogers (1961) and Abraham Maslow (1962). Their works was really

propelled by the growing dissatisfaction with the two dominant theories of that

era namely psychoanalysis and behaviorism. The humanists argued thatexperiments with rats and pigeons could not inform us about higher human goals

(Matlin, 1999).

Carl Rogers proposed that even young children need to be highly regarded

by other people. He suggested that children also need positive self-regard. He

identified two kinds of positive self-regards and their effect on the development

of the child’s personality (Rogers, 1959). There are the conditional positive regardand the unconditional positive regard which can come in the form of parenting

styles. The authoritative parents he said, is the most successful leading to self

actualization.

Abraham Maslow is best known for his theory on self-actualization which is

described as the tendency to realize our own potential. Maslow proposed that

human motives are arranged in a hierarchy, with the most basic needs at thebottom. At the top are the more highly developed needs (esteem needs and self-

actualization at the very top).



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THE TRAIT/TYPE OF THEORIES

The trait approach to personality focuses more on the theme of individual

differences. Trait, according to Wakefield (1989), is a consistent tendency to have

certain kinds of beliefs, desires, and behaviors. Theorists under this approach

often examine whether a trait remains stable across time. Two prominent

theories are the Allport’s trait theory and the Five-Factor Model.

Gordon Allport proposed three levels of traits. These are cardinal trait,

central trait ad secondary trait.

1. Cardinal trait is one that dominates and shapes a person’s behavior. For

example, someone who is obsessed with becoming wealthy or another

person whose life focus is religion.

2. Central trait is a general characteristic, found to some degree in every

person, that shapes much of our behavior For example, honesty,

cheerfulness, and shyness.

3. Secondary trait is a characteristic seen only in certain situations. This is

necessary to provide a complete picture of human complexity. Example

of secondary trait might be “uncomfortable in large crowds” and “likes

to drive sports cars.”

Allport (1937) argued that a person’s unique pattern of traits determine his

or her behavior. He stated that no two people are completely identical. In a

famous quote, he stated that ‘the same fire that melts the butter hardens

the egg.’



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THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY APPROACH

In the beginning of 1980s, many personality psychologists have agreed that

there are five basic personality traits which are referred to as the FIVE THEORY

known as the BIG FIVE (Gazzaniga 2003). They are extraversion, neuroticism

conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness to experience can be

remembered with the acronym OCEAN. The table below shows the BIG FIVE.

DIMENSION REPRESENTATIVE TRAIT

Openness to Experience Imagination vs. down to earth; variety vs.

routine; independent vs. conforming.

Conscientiousness Organized vs. disorganized; careful vs.

careless; self-discipline vs. weak-willed;

Extraversion Social vs. retiring; fun-loving vs. sober.

Agreeableness Affectionate vs. reserved;

Softhearted vs. ruthless; trusting vs.

suspicious; Helpful vs. uncooperative.

Neuroticism Worried vs. calm; Insecure vs. secure;

Self-pitying vs. self satisfied.

2.4 TYPES OF PERSONALITY

It has been the nature of persons, from ancient times, to name and classify

objects of his environment and human beings into different categories called

“Types”. The old system of typology still continues according to Chauhan (2002)

and even in modern times, psychologists have developed various typologies

which will be described. Greek physicians were the first in the fifth B. C. who

classified people into four broad categories on the basis of emotional and



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temperamental characteristics. One of Aristotle’s pupils theorized that human

body consists of four fluids. The personality of an individual is typed by the

dominance of one of them in the body.

Modern personality typing was first developed by Carl Jung in the early

1920's. In its purest form, Jungian personality typing is arguably the most complex

view of human nature ever described, and even today it is quite a task to attempt

to understand Jung's writings on personality (see the Resource Material section at

the end of this Summary for references to Jung's works).

Fortunately, in the 1950's, Myers and Briggs resurrected Jungian

personality typing, modified it somewhat by adding a fourth scale, simplified its

description, and developed a psychometric called the MBTI, the "Myers-Briggs

Type Indicator" for measuring their revised system of personality typing. The

MBTI test and associated model has become so famous that today many people

refer to personality typing as the "MBTI", but in a rigorous sense this is not true;

the MBTI is only one test instrument among several for determining personality

types, though it is by far the most widely used. Hereafter, unless qualified,

'personality typing' refers to the personality model developed by Myers and

Briggs, and adapted by others such as Keirsey and Bates, while the MBTI refers to

their test. Other types according to Chauhan (2002) are as follows:



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1. THE TEMPERAMENT TYPE

S/NO HUMOUR TEMPERAMENT CHARACTERISTICS

1 Blood Sanguine Active hopeful

2 Yellow-bile Choleric Irritability, quick to anger

3 Phlegam (Mucus) Phlegmatic Calm, temperamentally, sluggish

4 Black-bile Melancholic Depressed, slow and pessimistic

3. CONSTITUTIONAL TYPE

Ernest Kretscher, a German psychiatrist, classified human beings on the

basis of physical constitutional. He attempted to establish relationship between

personality characteristics and body build.

S/NO TYPE CHARACTERISTICS

1 Pyknic Stocky, full-chested, popular

2 Asthenic (Leptosomic) Weak, tall-sensitive and thin

3 Athletic Strong

4 Dysplastic Mixed type

3. SOMATO TYPE

Dr. Willian H. Sheldon, an American surgeon, divided all human beings into

three broad categories of physical dimensions and their corresponding

temperamental characteristics. He believes that physical structure of the body is

the determinant of personality characteristics.

S/NO PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS TEMPERAMENT1 Endomorphic (Soft, round) Viscerotonic (sociable extrovert,

affectionable) love of physical comfort

2 Mesomorphic (Muscular and

strong)

Somatotonic (energetic and muscular,

love of risk and chance)

3 Ectomorphic (thin and tall) Cerebrotonic (fearful, artistic, introvert

and restrained)



27

4. SPRANGER’S TYPE

E. Spranger, German philosopher divided human beings on the basis of

interests in the following categories:

Theoretical: Persons who are theoretical in nature, neglect, social and political

participation.

Economic: Those persons who are interested in money-hoarding.

Aesthetic: Those persons who are lovers of beauty and are busy in sensuous

gratification.

Social: Persons who are interested in social activities

Political: Dominating and desirous of power

Religious: Persons who devote themselves to religious activities and mysticism.

5. CARL G. JUNG’S PERSONALITY TYPE

Allida and Vyhmeister (2004) noted that the most prominent figure in the

development of the modern personality type concept based on mental functions

is Carl Jung (1875-1961). Jung, a Swiss Psychiatrist, in his book, Psychological

types attempted to classify human beings on two behavioural attitudes:

extraversion and introversion, and four functions, thinking, feeling, sensation and

intuition making eight types of personality in all. This study will focus only on the

work of Carl Jung.

Extraverts prefer to focus on the outer world of people and things.

Extraverts find energy in things and people. They prefer interaction with others

and are action oriented (Vincent & Ross, 2001). Myers (1980) defined extraverts

are the after thinkers; they cannot understand life until they have lived it. Their

attitude is relaxed and confident. They expect the waters to prove shallow, and



28

plunge readily into new and untried experiences. Minds outwardly directed,

interest and attention following objective happenings, primarily those of the

immediate environment. Their real world therefore is the outer world of people

and things (Myers, 1980).

Introverts focus on the inner world of ideas and impressions. Introverts find

energy in the inner world of ideas, concepts, and abstractions. They can be

sociable but need quiet to recharge their energies (Vincent & Ross, 2001). They

are the fore thinkers, and cannot live life until they understand it. Attitude is

reserved and questioning. They expect the waters to prove deep, and pause to

take soundings in the new and untried. Minds are inwardly directed, frequently

unaware of the objective environment, interest and attention being engrossed be

inner events. Their real world therefore is the inner world of ideas and

understanding (Myers, 1980). Extraversion and introversion have their own

special dynamics and both attitudes have progressive and regressive properties

(Ryckman, 1982).

Ambivert refers to those persons who could be classified as neither

extroverts nor introverts. This is an addition from modern psychologists.

6. THE SIXTEEN PERSONALITY TYPES

The two preferences for each of the four independent scales give 16 unique

combinations (2x2x2x2), each combination being designated a personality type.

The commonly accepted order for describing each combination is given as:

Energizing; Attending; Deciding; Living.



29

For each of the these 16 types, quite detailed personality profiles have been

assembled from many years of application and analysis on large populations of

normal people, as well as theoretical analysis of how the preference scales

interact with each other. It is very important to realize that these personality

profile descriptions (which could also be referred to as archetypes) are derived

from large populations, and some variation from the archetype is expected to

occur from individual to individual. One major source of variation, but not the

only one, is the possible presence of mental illness/trauma (most often low self-

image), which is not measured nor even considered by the personality typing

model. It is plausible that the observable behavior from some forms of mental

illness may be strongly influenced by innate personality type.

ENFJ

"Pedagogue". Outstanding leader of groups. Can be aggressive at "helping others

to be the best that they can be". 5% of the total population.

ENFP

"Journalist". Uncanny sense of the motivations of others. Life is an exciting drama;

emotionally warm; empathic. 5% of the total population.

ENTJ

"Field Marshall". The basic driving force and need is to lead. Tends to seek a

position of responsibility and enjoys being an executive. 5% of the total

population.



30

ENTP

"Inventor". Enthusiastic interest in everything and always sensitive to possibilities.

Non-conformist and innovative. 5% of the total population.

ESFJ

"Seller". Most sociable of all types. Nurturer of harmony. Outstanding host or

hostesses. 13% of the total population.

ESFP

"Entertainer". Radiates attractive warmth and optimism. Smooth, witty,

charming, clever. Fun to be with. Very generous. 13% of the total population.

ESTJ

"Administrator". Much in touch with the external environment. Very responsible.

Pillar of strength. 13% of the total population.

ESTP

"Promotor". Action! When present, things begin to happen. Fiercely competitive.

Entrepreneur. Often uses shock effect to get attention. Negotiator par excellence.

13% of the total population.

INFJ

"Author". Motivated and fulfilled by helping others. Complex personality. 1% of

the total population.

INFP



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"Questor". High capacity for caring. Calm and pleasant face to the world. High

sense of honor derived from internal values. 1% of the total population.

INTJ

"Scientist". Most self-confident and pragmatic of all the types. Decisions come

very easily. A builder of systems and the applier of theoretical models. 1% of the

total population.

INTP

"Architect". Greatest precision in thought and language. Can readily discerncontradictions and inconsistencies. The world exists primarily to be understood.

1% of the total population.

ISFJ

"Conservator". Desires to be of service and to minister to individual needs - very

loyal. 6% of the total population.

ISFP

"Artist". Interested in the fine arts. Expression primarily through action or art

form. The senses are keener than in other types. 5% of the total population.

ISTJ

"Trustee". Decisiveness in practical affairs. Guardian of time- honored institutions.

Dependable. 6% of the total population.



32

ISTP

"Artisan". Impulsive action. Life should be of impulse rather than of purpose.

Action is an end to itself. Fearless, craves excitement, master of tools. 5% of the

total population.

2.5 PERSONALITY TYPE AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Research results have variously supposed that conclusion that both

cognitive ability and certain personality traits consistently predict academic

performance (Dyer, 1987). A study conducted by Clark & Riley (2001) evaluated

the correlation between university students’ self -tested Jungian personality type,

as implemented through the MBTI, and their level of performance in two

beginning level chemistry classes. It was found that the INTJ (Introverted;

Intuition; Thinking; Judging) students’ class average was nine points higher than

the pooled students group’s class average and nearly 14 points higher than the

lowest group (ESFP- Extroverted; Sensing; Feeling; Percetions).

O’brien, Bernold & Akroyd (1998) found similar results in an analysis of the

academic performance (measured by course grades) of 83 undergraduate

engineering students enrolled in a Mechanical Engineering course. The

researchers concluded that the ISTJ (Introverted; Sensing; Thinking; Judging) and

the INTJ (Introverted; Intuition; Thinking; Judging) were the most predominant

personality types of students scoring in the highest percentiles.

From the above research evidence, there exist a clear link between

personality and academic performance. Understanding this relationship is

important in providing the foundation upon which a framework for predicting

academic performance can be built.



33

According to Silver, Strong and Hanson cited by Allida and Vyhmeister

(2004), the typical classroom contains many types of personalities and learning

styles. They suggest that each student comes to school with unique gifts, needs,

skills, attitudes and preferred ways of learning. Because of this, today’s classroom

teachers regardless of their student’s ages or the subjects taught, are confronted

with this diversity of student needs and potentials and must teach student equally

well “students have a right within the educational system to have their

instructional needs met and to know how to utilize appropriate strategies for

approaching teachers” (Allida and Vyhmeister, 2004).

Educators have to work towards promoting and sustaining greater diversity

within educational systems by honouring individual differences within their own

classes and by setting incremental personal goals for modifying instruction to

respond to a wide range of learner’s characteristics. Understanding and applying

personality type concepts in our educational endeavours can be significant in

addressing the learning needs of students and eventually helping them become

more successful in their chosen careers. Understanding and accepting our

personality types is important for reaching our potential and for having a fulfilling

life (Silver 1996).

Helping students find out whom they really are – what they are good at and

what they love to do – is the most important way of maintaining natural curiosity

and eagerness to learn (Kindle-Hodson, 1999). In terms of academic success

personality type plays a greater role than intelligence. Personality type according

to Davis (2006) refers to the characteristic way in which an individual approaches

life’s experiences.



34

So many researchers have done great works on personality type and

academic achievement. Felder et al (2002) conducted research on the effects of

personality type on Engineering Student performance and attitudes. Myers-Briggs

Type Indicator (MBTI) was administered to 116 students taking the introductory

chemical engineering course at North Carolina State University. The courses were

taught in a manner that emphasized active and cooperative learning and

inductive presentation of course material. Type differences in various academic

performance measures and attitudes were noted as the students progressed

through the curriculum.

In their studies, introverts, intuitor, thinkers and judgers generally

outperformed their extraverted, sensing, feeling and perceiving counterparts. In

the population studied students with different type preferences tend to respond

differently to different modes of instruction: Extraverts like working in settings

that provide for activity and group work. Introverts prefer settings that provide

opportunities for internal processing. Sensors like concrete learning experiences

and clearly defined expectations and dislike instruction heavy in abstractions like

theories and mathematical models, intuitors like instruction that emphasizes

conceptual understanding and deemphasizes memorization of facts, rote

substitution in formulas, and repetitive calculations. Thinkers like locally

organized presentations of course material and feedback related to their work;

feelers like instructors who establish a personal rapport with them and feedback

that shows appreciation of their efforts. Judgers like well-structured instruction

with clearly defined assignment goals and milestones; perceivers like to have

choice and flexibility in their assignments and dislike having to observe rigid

timelines.



35

Also SAT scores of 100 freshman Year Grades were studied. The same type

differences were observed as introverts outperformed extraverts in overall GPA in

calculus, physics and chemistry grades, but the differences was not statistically

significant.

Also a research done on the relationship between personality type and

achievement in an undergraduate physiology course using MBTI shows that more

of the higher-achievement students were introverts, T and J types whereas the

students who dropped were higher in Extroversion and P types.

A similar study conducted by Allida and Vhymeister (2003) on personality

types, preferred learning modalities and college majors of students in Luzon. The

result finding shows that there were no dimensions of personality types that

showed significant relationships to the choice of academic major. The result

revealed that student’s choice of academic major is not influenced by their

personality types. The study equally showed that despite the result, descriptive

statistics reveal that there are personality types that gravitate in a certain

academic major.

In another result, on relationship between personality type and Academic

Performance, the result revealed that there were significant relationships

between the college student personality types and their academic performance in

all of the four bi-polar dimensions of personality type. Extraverted, sensing,

thinking and judging personality types are more strongly related to academic

performance than introverted, intuitive, feeling and perceiving personality.

Furthermore, Sanchez – Marin et al cited by Furnham and Chamorro-

Premuzic (2003) found that extroverts tended to fail their courses more

frequently than introverts, no doubt because of their distractivity, sociability and



36

impulsiveness unlike introverts that have greater ability in consolidating learning

and better study habits.

Another interesting issue by Furnham (2003) is relationship between

personality type and creativity. He reported higher creativity test scores for

introverts and also positive correlations between creativity and extraversion.

Felder (2002) also noted that students who came into specific courses with strong

predictors of success were equally likely to succeed, regardless of their type.

2.6 EXTROVERTS AND INTROVERTS AND THEIR ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Extroversion (E) and Introversion (I) are used to describe where a student

focuses his or her attention in the learning process. Extroverts tend to focus their

perception and judgment on people and objects; they are energized by what is

going on in the outer world rather than the inner world of their mind. Extraverts

usually prefer to communicate more by talking than by writing and to learn by

experiencing. Thus extraverts prefer to learn through acting rather than

reflecting. Introverts become aroused to action by what goes on in their own

mind. Introverts tend to focus their attention on concepts and ideas and are more

comfortable when they are expected to spend most of their time just thinking. In

fact, introverts prefer to reflect before acting (Randall 2004).

With regard to the relationship between extroverts and academic

performance, early studies concluded that introverts perform better than

extroverts; this was attributed to a greater ability to consolidate learning andbetter study habits Chamorro –Premuzic (2003). However, several researches have

failed to replicate these results.

Furnham and Medhurst (1995) replicated this results, but found extroverts

to be rated more positively in seminar classes than introverts. Nevertheless, in a



37

recent study, Sanchez –Marin et al (2001) found that extroverts tended to fail

their courses more frequently than introverts, no doubt because of their social

nature. A possible reason for the ambiguity of results has been given by Anthony

(2002), who argued that extroverts generally outperform introverts in primary

school, while the opposite occurs in higher levels of education. This would be a

consequence of higher education involving more analytical, formal and complex

tasks than lower education. These interaction in the classroom (e.g. with the

teacher) and introverts would therefore have an advantage over extraverts.

A study by Rolfhus and Ackerman (1999) revealed that extraversion will be

negatively and significantly associated with academic performance. This

association is usually explained in terms of differences in knowledge acquisition

time between introverts.

Chamorro – Premuzic and Furnham (2003) noted that extraversion was

only partly related to academic performance, i.e to final year project mark. It is

also noteworthy that this relation was positive rather than negative. This positive

association is perhaps best interpreted in terms of the interpersonal skills (i.e.

getting along with the supervisors during the project period).

However, the performance of extroverts and introverts sometimes,

depends on the subjects or courses concerned. For example the result of the

study by Schuir and Puble (1992) on physiology course shows that IJ students

were significantly higher achievers than EP students. The higher grades of the INJ

over ESP students indicate that the course favours the person, who can work well

alone, is interested in abstract thinking and is well organized and motivated. The

EP students had the lowest total points of any combination of two types and also

dropped out of the course in the largest numbers.



38

Also Terrance et al (1998) conducted a research on MBTI and Academic

Achievement in Engineering Education. The descriptive statistics revealed that

introversion outperformed extraction.

In Myers and McCauley (1995) study on first year law students and

performance, students preferring extraversion had a lower mean first semester

grade point average (2.499) than students preferring introversion (2.610). The

difference was not statistically significant.

Furthermore, between first semester grades and dichotomous type (EI), the

law students EI continuous scores increased as their first semester grades

increased and the correlation was statistically significant. That is, the more, the

student preferred introversion, the better the student performed.

It is not wonder that students preferring extraversion had a lower mean

FSGPA than students preferring introversion. Legal education rewards the

preferred learning style of introverts, although you might be misled if you sat in

on a typical Socratic classroom. Extraverted law students think best when talking,

learn well in groups, and may have difficulty sitting in front of a book for a long

period of time.

Also extroverts may excel more on social related courses like Theatre Arts

than introverts. Finally, Jung saw extroversion and introversion as “mutually

complementary” attitudes. The differences generated the tension that both the

individual and social need for the maintenance of life.

2.7 SUBJECT PREFERENCE AND PERSONALITY TYPE

Altogether 81% (327) of the business students preferred organizational

employment and 19% (76) preferred entrepreneurship as their career aspiration.



39

These results are in line with Hammer (1997) and Uljas (2001), and suggest that

most of the business students enter in organizational employment instead of

entrepreneurship.

In theory, occupations requiring system and order are expected to attract

judging types and occupations requiring adaptability to change are expected to

attract perceptive types (Myers et al., 1998). Brenner et al. (1991) found that

those who preferred organizational employment have a greater desire for job

clarity and they prefer jobs with a regular routine and clear cut procedures. They

further found that creativity, risk taking, and independence were more related to

self-employment. In addition, according to Reynierse (1995), preference for

judging represents bureaucracy and preference for perceiving represents

entrepreneurship. The relation between perceiving and entrepreneurship and,

correspondingly, between judging and organizational employment, seems

understandable.

Lawrence (1984) reports that individuals with different MBTI classifications

prefer different types of learning activities. For example, introverted students

prefer learning situations where they can primarily work individually and time is

provided for internal processing, while extroverted students prefer working with a

group and having discussions. Sensing students prefer tasks that call for going

step-by-step while observing facts and specifics that relate to practical interests.

On the other hand, students classified as intuitive prefer tasks that call for

imagination and quickness of insight. Thinking students prefer to study objective

material that has been logically organized by the teacher, whereas for feeling

students personal relationships and developing a rapport with the teacher are



40

more important. Finally, judging students prefer to work in a steady, orderly way

that result in closure or completion of prescribed tasks, while perceiving students

like to follow their impulses and work in a flexible, informal manner.

Whether or not personality types may have an effect on one’s choice of

college major or eventual career is still subject to debate. Previous findings

indicate that some business professions such as accounting tend to be uncreative

and unwilling to encounter new ideas without being systematically prepared for a

new change, and would prefer that everything would stay at a constant

(Omundson & Schroeder, 1996). These are characteristics of Type A personality

trait because of the reluctance of change in the work environment and wanted

tasks to stay the same scheduled pace. The population involved in business

profession shows vocational interest in business and organization, and not in

general culture, arts or entertainment (Omundson & Schroeder, 1996). Preceding

conclusions have found that type A personalities are more apt to choose business

majors such as accounting, banking, and finance (Haemmerlie, Robinson, &

Carmen 1991). Business professions such as these coincide with aggressive,

competitive, individualistic personality traits that are characteristic of the fast

pace and constant change in the business field (Haemmerlie, Robinson, & Carmen

1991). Professions in art such as art design, art historians, and art teaching will

involve more social interaction and creativity tend to be more passive and easy

going, thus showing type B personality characteristics (Schaubroick, 1995).



41

2.8 REVIEW OF PREVIOUS STUDIES

Various studies have examined the relationship of personality type to

academic achievement of secondary school students in various disciplines using

MBTI. Schuir and Puble (1986) reported by Tharp (1992) used the MBTI to

examine the achievement of 2,713 freshman college students, using grades in

course that met the general studies requirement. They found the I. N students

were best prepared, whereas the ES types were least prepared for achievement in

college. The combination of the E - I and S – N scales were most associated with

achievement that could be predicted from the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)

scores. Combinations of the E - I and J - P scales were most associated with

achievement that could not be predicted from the SAT. I - J achievement was

highest and EP was lowest, J and P types are similar in aptitude (SAT).

These relationships were also found in a later study of 906 students, and

the authors (Schuir and Puble, 1988) as reported by Tharp (1992) concluded that

the J-P scale is indicative of the personality characteristics that are most uniquely

associated with college instructors' evaluation of achievement. Thus the college

learning environment appears better suited for students who are:

a. Organized (J)

b. Interested in abstract thinking (N) and

c. Work effectively alone (I).

d. Students who prefer to live spontaneously (P.)

e. Like to work with practical applications (F)

f. Enjoy interpersonal interactions (E) and



42

The INJ students clearly have an advantage over ESP students in the college

environment as it is currently structured (Tharp, 1992). He also reports the

findings of studies that have shown that the MBTI profile is related to the

selection of a college science major McCauley (1977) as reported by Tharp (1992)

followed college freshman students for two years and found that the students

interested in science, the IN types outnumbered the ES types. T types outnumber

F types in the physical sciences, and F types outnumbered T types in the

behavioural sciences.

Tharp (1992) also reported that Howe (1978) had similar finding when the

MBTI was given to 314 high school students in summer science research programs

at the University of Florida and to 306 public high school students from the same

state. The summer research students were predominantly I types whereas the

public school students were mainly S types.

Also reported by Tharp (1992) were the findings of Melear (1990) who gave

the MBTI to 673 non major undergraduate students in an introductory Biology

course that used a structured learning environment with defined goals and

deadlines. He found the typical non major could be described as an ESFP type:

interested in working on real problems with other people rather than 'on abstract

problems in an impersonal atmosphere. The EP students in this biology course

had the lowest achievement of any personality type and Tharp (1992) asserts that

this poor performance is understandable, since the course structure favoured the

IN types who like to learn by themselves in an orderly, planned environment.

Finally, Tharp presented the findings of his own study, which was designed to

measure the relationship of personality type of achievement in a more advanced

undergraduate course (Human physiology) using a sample of 206 students. Tharp



43

(1992) after a detailed analysis and comparison of his findings with those of

previous studies, asserts that the results of his study agree in many ways (but no

all) previous research on personality types and achievement in college was

however quick to add that his study did not take into account other variables that

could influence achievement, such as student background in the science or years

of college completed suggested that these variables should be included in future

studies of personality type and achievement.

Also, O'brien, Bernold and Akroyd (1994) while reporting the results of their

findings in a study conducted to investigate patterns in psychological type among

students in a lower division Engineering course and differences in the academic

performance of those students associated with difference in psychological types,

using 83 students as a sample indicates that “no significant MBTI and academic

achievement differences were manifested in relation to the dimensions of

Extroversion - Introversion, Thinking - Feeling or Judging - Perceiving. But a

significant main effect did emerge in relation Sensing - Intuition dimension. What

this means is that students with intuitive personality types or cognitive styles,

achieved significantly higher end-of course grades than students with sensing

styles.

Hurley (2002) in a study to identify any differences between art and

business majors’ personality type, and whether or not personality type correlated

with their choice of major arrived at results which suggests that there are no

differences in levels of Type A between students who are decided art majors, and

those who are declared business majors.

Ronald et al (2008) found out in a study on personality as a prognostic

factor for specialty choice that no specialty differences were found for the



44

domains of extraversion and conscientiousness, numerous specialty variations

were identified for neuroticism, openness, and agreeableness.

Carland and Carland (1992) reported in an empirical test that

entrepreneurs, small business owners, and managers were statistically different

using the Keirsey and Bates (1984) temperaments of sensing-perceiving (SP),

sensing-judging (SJ), intuitive-feeling (NF), and intuitive-thinking (NT). They found

that entrepreneurs were more likely to display the NT temperament while the

small business owners and managers were more likely to display the SJ

temperament. The result supported the earlier studies of Carland (1982), Hoy and

Boulton (1983), and Barbato and Durlabhji (1989), that entrepreneurs tended to

be NTs and managers and small business owners SJs. Although the Carland's

discussion centered on entrepreneurs as innovative NTs, their empirical results

indicated that entrepreneurs tended to be NPs, whereas managers tended

toward SJ. Similarly, Ginn and Sexton (1990) found that fast growth entrepreneurs

showed significantly higher N, P, and NP orientations than managers.

Furthermore, Routamaa, Vesalainen, and Pihlajaniemi (1996) found more ENs

than ISs among internationally oriented entrepreneurs.

Garden (1997) studied MBTI profiles and career paths of software workers

and found support for the notion that S-N and J-P dichotomies are relevant to the

choice of starting one's own company, with both Ns and Ps significantly choosing

this route relative to Ss and Js. In contrast, Es, Ss, Ts, and Js chose a managerial

career path more often than Is, Ns, Fs, and Ps did.



45

2.9 SUMMARY

In this chapter on the review of related literature, the concept of personality as

seen by different psychologists was examined. Selected personality theories were

reviewed. The previous findings on MBTI were also reviewed. Previous studies on

personality type, subject preference and academic achievement were also

reviewed.



46

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

3.1 Introduction

This chapter states and discusses the research design, population, sample

size and sampling techniques, instrumentation, data collection and statistical

procedure that will be used to analyze the data. The discussion also includes the

psychometric properties- validation and reliability of the instrument for gathering

the required data.

3.2 Research Design

The design for this study is a descriptive survey design in which a structured

questionnaire was used to collect the required information. Nworgu (1991) said

that the survey research is better with studies that strive to improve the lot of a

given population. This of course is the focus of this research and the researcher

went out to gather information that is already on ground without manipulating

the data in any way.

Questionnaires were used to obtain the responses of the subjects for the

purpose of analysis.

3.3 Population of the Study

The total population for this study is 14,189 students of Senior Secondary

Schools. This comprises the number of students in 57 Senior Secondary Schools in

Abuja Municipal Area Council of the FCT. The source is from FCT Secondary

Education Board (2009).



47

The diverse attributes of the population of Abuja, where people of different

ethnic backgrounds, socioeconomic status, professions and level of education are

represented, ensured that this research covered a wide spectrum.

3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Procedures

The sample for this study was 375 using Krejcie and Morgan (1970) which

specified the appropriate sample size for specific populations. This sample was

randomly assigned to the 17 schools in the Abuja Municipal Area Council of the

FCT to give opportunity to every member of the population to be selected

without the researcher’s influence.

3.5 Instrumentation

Three different instruments were used for this study.

a. Student Personality Questionnaire (SPQ)

b. Junior School Certificate Examination Results (JSCER)

c. School Subject Preference Indicator (SSPI)

The first instrument titled, The Students’ Personality Questionnaire (SPQ)

was adapted from the Adolescent Personality Identification Scale by Abubakar

2007) which is used in identifying personality type dimensions of adolescents. The

original instrument has 18 items and was modified in the current research from

five-point scale to a four-point scale by removing the NOT SURE option.

The SPQ is a 30-item instrument structured along a four-point likert scale.

Responses were scored using 4,3,2,1 for positive items and 1,2,3,4 for negative

items. The responses were set out as strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly

disagree.



48

The second instrument is the Junior Secondary School Certificate

Examinations results. It is student’s academic reports for English Language,

Mathematics, Integrated Science and Social Studies.

The School Subject Preference Indicator is a 20-item indicator designed to

elicit information on student’s subject preferences. Questions were structured

along a four-point likert scale. The responses were set out as very much, much,

little, very little were scored using 4,3,2,1 respectively.

3.5.1 Validity and Reliability of the Instruments

The Students Personality Questionnaire, (SPQ) was adjudged reliable after

subjecting the instrument to the scrutiny of experts in the field for face and

content validation.

The instrument was further subjected to pilot study as a result of the

modifications stated above. The pilot study was conducted in one of the

secondary school that falls in the population of the study. This school did not

participate in the main study. The proposed questionnaire was administered on

20 randomly selected students. The split-half method was used to determine the

reliability of the instrument. A reliability coefficient of 0.74 was obtained which

was corrected using the Spearman’-Brown formula to obtain a value of r=0.82.

The implication of this result is that the instrument has good internal consistency.

The second instrument, the Junior School Certificate Examination is a

standardized test as far as content coverage, syllabus and grading system is

concerned. It is therefore judged as reliable.



49

Pilot study for the School Subject Indicator yielded a reliability coefficient of

0.78. Experts also made valuable suggestions and comments which were adopted

to make the instrument valid in terms of face validity.

3.6 Method of Data Analysis

The t-test was used in the analysis of data that were collected. The t-test is

used because the study seeks to establish differences between the variables

under investigation. Null hypothesis was accepted whenever the P values

obtained are less than the table values at 0.05 level of significance.



50

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, the results from the analysis of data obtained from the study

are presented and analyzed according to gender and personality type using

frequency counts, percentages mean ratings and t-test statistic.

4.2 Demographic Data

Under this section, the following tables 4.1 – 4.4 indicate the respondents’

demographical data in terms of gender and personality type.

Table 4.1: Distribution of Respondents by Gender

Gender Respondents Percentage

Male 195 48.0

Female 180 42.0

Total 375 100

As indicated in table 4.1, the number of respondents who were male was

one hundred and ninety five which represented 48% of the sample whereas their

female counterparts were one hundred and eighty representing 42%. There was

no missing case in this variable. The result of this analysis indicated that the

number of male respondents was more than that of their female counterparts.

The reason could have been as a result of odds against girl-child education

especially in the rural areas of the Federal Capital Territory.



51

Table 4.2: Distribution of Respondents by Personality Type

Personality Type Respondents Percentage

Extrovert 200 53.3

Introvert 175 46.7

Total 375 100

As indicated in table 4.2, an overwhelming majority of the respondents

were extroverts which represented 53.3% of the sample whereas the introverts

constituted 46.7%. There was no missing case in this variable. The result of this

analysis indicated that respondents of extravert dimension were in the majority.

The reason could have been as a result of increasing awareness on the essence of

boldness and sociability among the youths of modern times.

Table 4.3: Distribution of Respondents by Gender and Personality Types

Personality Gender No. of respondents Percentages

Extrovert

Male 120 32.0

Female 80 21.3

Introvert

Male 75 20.0

Female 100 26.7

Total 375 100

Table 4.3 indicates that one hundred and twenty respondents representing 32%

were male extroverts while eighty respondents (21.3%) of the sample were



52

female extroverts. Again, seventy five respondents representing 20% were male

introverts while one hundred respondents representing 26.7%. From the analysis,

the male extroverts were found to be in the majority. Reasons for this

overwhelming majority may not be farfetched. In Nigeria, like other African

Countries majority of the active population were the youths who manifest inter-

personal relation more than any other trait. The bulk of such youth are usually

found in secondary schools.

4.3. Research Questions

The questions that sought to establish students’ subject preferences and

academic performances are hereby presented using frequencies, means and

standard deviation on table 3.

4.3.1. Research Question One

How do school subject preferences and academic performance of extroverts and

introverts differ? To answer this research question, frequency count, standarddeviations and means were used for the set analysis set out on table 3



53

Table 4.4: Descriptive Statistics of Respondents’ Subject Preferences and

Academic Performance

Personality Types

-

Mean ( x )

Standard

Deviation (SD)

Subject

Preference

Academic

Performance

Subject

Preference

Academic

Performance

Extroverts 3.42 18.00 4.20 0.70

Introverts 2.86 14.00 5.00 0.80

Results on table 4.4 indicated that the extroverts had the highest mean

score of 18.00 in academic performance and 3.42 in subject preference with

standard deviation of 4.20 and 0.70 respectively. On the other hand, the

introverts recorded mean scores of 2.86 in subject preference and 14.00 in

academic performance with standard deviations of 0.80 and 5.00 respectively.

4.3.2: Research Question Two

What are the differences in terms of academic performance and subject

preference between male and female extroverts? To answer this research

question, frequency count, standard deviations and means were used for the set

analysis set out on table 4.4.



54

Table 4.5: Descriptive Statistics of Students’ Subject Preferences and Academic

Performance in terms of Gender and Personality Types

Personality

Types

Male Female

Subject Pref. Academic

Performance

Subject Pref. Academic

Performance

N

-

X SD N

-

X SD N

-

X SD N

-

X SD

Extroverts 120 3.64 1.20 120 18.20 3.00 80 3.20 1.40 80 17.80 2.60

Introverts 75 3.02 1.02 75 14.50 2.20 100 2.70 1.50 100 13.50 2.00

Results on table 4.5 indicated that male extroverts recorded a mean score

of 3.64 for subject preference and 18.20 for academic performance with standard

deviations of 1.20 and 3.00 respectively. On their own parts, the female

extroverts recorded a mean score of 3.20 for subject preference and 17.80 for

academic performance with standard deviations of 1.40 and 2.60 respectively.

4.3.3: Research Question Three

What are the differences in terms of academic performance and subject

preference between male and female introverts? To answer this research

question, frequency count, standard deviations and means were used for the set

analysis set out on table 4.5.



55

Table 4.5 shows that male introverts recorded a mean score of 3.02 for subject

preference and 14.50 for academic performance with standard deviations of 1.02

and 2.20 respectively. On their own parts, the female introverts recorded a mean

score of 2.70 for subject preference and 13.50 for academic performance with

standard deviations of 1.50 and 2.00 respectively.

Again, it could be observed that subject preference and performance scores

were generally low on the learning outcomes in respect of the entire introvert

group. With these results from the descriptive analysis, the apparent differences

in the dependent variables of students have been tentatively established. To

further buttress this claim a more in depth statistics was employed to test each

hypothesis as shown below.

4.4 Testing of Hypothesis

In this section, six hypotheses were generated and tested at 0.05 level of

significance as follows;

4.4.1: Null Hypothesis One (Ho1)


secondary school students who are extrovert and introverts. The above

hypothesis was tested using t-test statistical technique. Results were

presented in table 4.6



56

Table 4.6 t-tests Result In Respect of Introvert and Extroverts’ Responses on

Subject Preferences

Personality

Type

Number

(N)

Mean

-

(X)

Standard

deviation

(SD)

Df

t-

value

t-

crit.

Sig.

(Two-

tailed)

Decision

Extroverts 200 3.42 0.70

373 10.00 2.50 0.0000 RejectedIntroverts 175 2.86 0.80

Result on table 4.6 showed that there was significant difference between the

responses of extraverts and introverts on subject preferences. As a result, the first

hypothesis was rejected. In other words, the personality type of the respondents

did affect students’ subject preferences.

4.4.2: Null Hypothesis Two (Ho2)

HO2: There is no significant difference between the academic performances of

extrovert and introvert secondary school students. The above hypothesis was

tested using t-test statistical technique. Results were presented in table 4.11.



57

Table 4.7: t-test Result In Respect of Mean Performances of Extrovert and

Introverts

Personality

Type

Number

(N)

Mean

-

(X)

Standard

deviation

(SD)

Df

t-

Value

t-

crit.

Sig.

(Two-

tailed)

Decision

Extrovert 200 18.00 4.20

373 12.00 2.50 0.0000 RejectedIntrovert 175 14.00 5.00

Table 4.11 shows the result of analysis for hypothesis two. It indicated that

there was significant difference as regards the performances of extroverts and

introverts. The hypothesis was therefore rejected in the light of present result.

However, a closer examination of their mean scores revealed that the extroverts

performed higher than the introverts.

4.4.3: Null Hypothesis Three (Ho3)


male and female extroverts. The above hypothesis was tested using t-test

statistical technique. Results were presented in table 4.12.



58

Table 4.8. t-test Result In Respect of Mean Performance of Male And Female

Extroverts

Gender Number

(N)

Mean

-

(X)

Standard

deviation

(SD)

Df

t-

Value

t-crit. Sig.

(Two-

tailed)

Decision

Male 120 18.20 3.00

198 1.42

2.50

0.6213 AcceptedFemale 80 17.80 2.66

Results on table 4.12 revealed that there was no significant difference

between the mean performance of male and female extroverts. Hence the third

hypothesis becomes acceptable. It does appear therefore that the respondents’

gender do not influence their performance.

4.4.4: Null Hypothesis Four (Ho4)

HO4: There is no significant difference between the subject preferences of male

and female extroverts. The above hypothesis was tested using t-test statistical

technique. Results were presented in table 4.13.



59

Table 4.9: t-test Result In Respect of Male And Female Extroverts’ Responses on

Subject Preferences.

Gender Number

(N)

Mean

-

(X)

Standard

deviation

(SD)

Df t-

Value

t-crit. Sig.

(Two-

tailed

Decision

Male 120 3.64 1.20

198 3.37 2.50 0.0000 RejectedFemale 80 3.20 1.40

Results on table 4.13 showed that there was significant difference between in

the subject preferences of male and female extroverts. In the light of this result,

the fourth hypothesis was rejected. In other words, the subject preference of

male and female extroverts were not the same.

4.4.5: Null Hypothesis Five (Ho5)


male and female introverts. The above hypothesis was tested using t-test

statistical technique. Results were presented in table 4.14.



60

Table 4.10. t-Test Result In Respect of Mean Performance of Male And Female

Introverts

Gender Number

(N)

Mean

-

(X)

Standard

deviation

(SD)

Df

t-

Value

t-crit. Sig.

(Two-

tailed)

Decision

Male 75 14.50 2.20

173 3.00 2.50 0.0000 RejectedFemale 100 13.50 2.00

The t-test value for all items was obtained as shown in table 4.14. Result

displayed on the table showed that there was significant difference between the

mean performances of male and female introverts. The null hypothesis was

therefore rejected based on these results. It then implies that the mean

performances of male and female introverts differed significantly.

4.4.6: Null Hypothesis Six (Ho6)

HO6: There is no significant difference between subject preferences of male

and female introverts. The above hypothesis was tested using t-test statistical

technique. Results were presented in table 4.15.



61

Table 4.11: t-Test Result In Respect of Male And Female Introverts’ Responses

on Subject Preferences

Gender Number

(N)

Mean

-

(X)

Standard

deviation

(SD)

Df t-

Value

t-crit. Sig.

(Two-

tailed

Decision

Male 75 3.02 1.02

173 2.68 2.50 0.0003 RejectedFemale 100 2.70 1.50

Results of the analysis shown on table 4.15 indicated that there was

significant difference in the subject preferences of male and female introverts. It

then implies that the subject preferences of the introverts did differ as a result of

gender.

4.3 Discussion

This study has made significant findings with regards to the variables under

study. In the first hypothesis, which sets out to test the significance of difference

between subject preferences between students showing extroverted and

introverted traits, it was found that there was significant difference between the

two groups. This is a clear indication that the personality type of students of FCT

secondary school tend to affect their subject preference. Lots of work has been

done in an attempt to show the pervasive nature of introversion - extroversion in

the individuals' life. Holland (1981) holds the view that the choice of a career is an

-expression of personality. Odeleye (1985) went further to say that extroverts



62

significantly choose more person-oriented activities than introverts while

introverts choose more task-oriented activities than extroverts.

Tharp (1992) followed college freshman students for two years and found that

the students interested in science, the IN types outnumbered the ES types. T

types outnumber F types in the physical sciences, and F types outnumbered T

types in the behavioural sciences. Tharp (1992) also reported that Howe (1978)

had similar finding when the MBTI was given to 314 high school students in

summer science research programs at the University of Florida and to 306 public

high school students from the same state. The summer research students were

predominantly I types whereas the public school students were mainly S types.

Hurley (2002) in a study to identify any differences between art and

business majors’ personality type, and whether or not personality type correlated

with their choice of major arrived at results which suggests that there are no

differences in levels of Type A between students who are decided art majors, and

those who are declared business majors.

Carland and Carland (1992) reported in an empirical test that

entrepreneurs, small business owners, and managers were statistically different

using the Keirsey and Bates (1984) temperaments of sensing-perceiving (SP),

sensing-judging (SJ), intuitive-feeling (NF), and intuitive-thinking (NT). They found

that entrepreneurs were more likely to display the NT temperament while the

small business owners and managers were more likely to display the SJ

temperament. The result supported the earlier studies of Carland (1982), Hoy and

Boulton (1983), and Barbato and Durlabhji (1989), that entrepreneurs tended to

be NTs and managers and small business owners SJs. Although the Carland's



63

discussion centered on entrepreneurs as innovative NTs, their empirical results

indicated that entrepreneurs tended to be NPs, whereas managers tended

toward SJ. Similarly, Ginn and Sexton (1990) found that fast growth entrepreneurs

showed significantly higher N, P, and NP orientations than managers.

Furthermore, Routamaa, Vesalainen, and Pihlajaniemi (1996) found more ENs

than ISs among internationally oriented entrepreneurs.

Garden (1997) studied MBTI profiles and career paths of software workers

and found support for the notion that S-N and J-P dichotomies are relevant to the

choice of starting one's own company, with both Ns and Ps significantly choosing

this route relative to Ss and Js. In contrast, Es, Ss, Ts, and Js chose a managerial

career path more often than Is, Ns, Fs, and Ps did.

Kanekar and Mukerjee (1972) found in India that Forty students in the Arts

(including Social Sciences) were less intelligent, more extroverted and more

neurotic in the Eysenck personality inventory than a similar number of Science

students.

Entwistle (1972) found out in America among adults that as far as academic

performance is concerned the introvert is superior. He concluded that though this

might appear to be an over-generalisation but it remains a powerful prediction at

least relatively. In Great Britain, also among adults, he discovered that the stable

introverts is superior in the Arts than the mildly neurotic introvert in the Sciences.

Interestingly enough, Howe (1977) has found almost similar results in Uganda and

Ghana, cultures very different from the West. Cattel (1973) found similar results

among University students in India, Japan and Chinese students.



64

However different findings have been reported by Ronald et al (2008) who

found out in a study on personality as a prognostic factor for specialty choice that

no specialty differences were found for the domains of extraversion and

conscientiousness, numerous specialty variations were identified for neuroticism,

openness, and agreeableness.

The second hypothesis also found that there was significant difference

between the academic performances of students due to personality type

difference. It has nearly become conventional to argue that personality type is a

significant indicator of learning as so say this study.

Various studies have examined the relationship of personality type to

academic achievement of secondary school students in various disciplines using

MBTI. Schuir and Puble (1986) reported by Tharp (1992) used the MBTI to

examine the achievement of 2,713 freshman college students, using grades in

course that met the general studies requirement. They found the I. N students

were best prepared, whereas the ES types were least prepared for achievement in

college. The combination of the E - I and S – N scales were most associated with

achievement that could be predicted from the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)

scores. Combinations of the E - I and J - P scales were most associated with

achievement that could not be predicted from the SAT. I - J achievement was

highest and EP was lowest, J and P types are similar in aptitude (SAT).

These relationships were also found in a later study of 906 students, and

the authors (Schuir and Puble, 1988) as reported by Tharp (1992) concluded that

the J-P scale is indicative of the personality characteristics that are most uniquely

associated with college instructors' evaluation of achievement.



65

Also reported by Tharp (1992) were the findings of Melear (1990) who gave

the MBTI to 673 non major undergraduate students in an introductory Biology

course that used a structured learning environment with defined goals and

deadlines. Tharp (1992) after a detailed analysis and comparison of his findings

with those of previous studies, asserts that the results of his study agree in many

ways with previous research on personality types and achievement in college.

Also, O'brien, Bernold and Akroyd (1994) while reporting the results of their

findings in a study conducted to investigate patterns in psychological type among

students in a lower division Engineering course and differences in the academic

performance of those students associated with difference in psychological types,

using 83 students as a sample indicates that “no significant MBTI and academic

achievement differences were manifested in relation to the dimensions of

Extroversion - Introversion, Thinking - Feeling or Judging - Perceiving. But a

significant main effect did emerge in relation Sensing - Intuition dimension. What

this means is that students with intuitive personality types or cognitive styles,

achieved significantly higher end-of course grades than students with sensing

styles.

The findings of Durosaro (1993) who investigated the relationship between

students academic performance and the introversion-extroversion dimension of

their personality revealed that there was no significant correlations between the

two variables. The researcher therefore could not conclude that one personality

dimension was superior to the other in terms of academic performance. The

findings were rather interesting because it disagrees with some of the previous

research findings on the relationship between introversion - extroversion and

academic performance Eysenck (1967), Kotosh (1976) and Leith (1973) among



66

others have all argued that there are significant indications of difference in

academic achievement between introverts and extroverts.

On the gender-related hypotheses it has been found in all cases except one

that there was significant difference between male and female subject

preferences as well as academic performances whether amongst introverts or

extroverts. While it is often perceived that people select a job on the basis of

experiences or exposures to the world of work it is possible to relate people’s

preferences of subjects (which become a determining factor for their careers) to

their personality type. Studies have shown that gender plays an important role in

career choices. Male and female career choices are normally different because of

the difference in their self-concepts. Studies (Adams and Walkerdine, 1986; Best,

1983; and Spender, 1982) showed that girls tended to opt for a very narrow range

of stereotypically feminine occupations.

Furthermore, there is a gender-role stereotyping in expressing vocational

interest among gender whereby male preferred realistic and investigative

occupations and female on the other hand preferred social type of occupations

(Betz and Hackett, 1981). Similar Tomlinson and Evans (1991) found that male

students scored significantly higher than female students on the realistic and

investigative scales of the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory. On the other hand,

female students prefer social, artistic, and conventional types of occupations. The

findings of the study suggested that the career interest patterns of university

students vary across gender.

The finding of this study is quite consistent with that of Tomlinson and

Evans (1991). They found that male college students scored significantly higher

than female college students on Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory. Another



67

researcher, Van Burren et al. (1993) also found that more males than female

students preferred realistic and investigative occupations.

Many researchers for example, Bem (1981) and Betz (1994), tend to suggest

that the development of gender difference in vocational interests as well as

vocational choices is a result of multitudes of factors, some which are internally

related, and some are environmentally related. No doubt, personality type is one

of those internally related factors. However one cannot rule out the influence of

other factors such as self-concepts, self-efficacy, personality and even the

environment which could also influence the career interest pattern where

students grew-up. For instance, the perceptions of many students that subjects

such as mathematics and physics are difficult could affect one’s career interest.

On academic performance, a study by Rahim (1995) showed that CGPA of

female and male student did not differ significantly. Studies on the academic

performance at the secondary level also showed that their academic performance

did not differ significantly (Rahim, 1995, 2000). This is different from the findings

of this study where significant difference in academic performance is recorded

between male and female students due to personality type.

Many researchers have provided reports that there are no longer

distinguishing differences in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skill

achievements of students in respect of gender (Abayomi and Mji, 2004;

Bilesanmi-Awoderu, 2006; David and Stanley, 2002; Din et al., 2004; Freedman,

2002; Sungur and Tekkaya, 2003). This may be explained on the basis of the

contemporary drive to make women compete favourable in a world largely

dominated by men. Girls are being encouraged and sensitized into developing

positive attitudes towards science.



68

Other researchers have reported differently on this issue. For example, in

one study carried out by (Eriba and Sesugh, 2006; Onekutu and Onekutu, 2002),

they found that boys outperformed girls in science and mathematics

achievements. Some other research studies reported that males are becoming

the disadvantaged gender in schools, and that fewer males are interested in

science (Alkhateeb, 2001; Bleuer and Waltz, 2002; Omoniyi, 2006; Weaver-

Hightower, 2003).



69

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

In this chapter, a summary of the findings of this thesis is presented;

implications of the findings, recommendations for further research as well as

limitation of the findings of this research are stated. Finally, suggestions for

further research were raised.

5.2 Summary

Extroversion refers to people and objects in the outside world; impulsive

social tendencies. Introversion refers to inner directedness and a preference for

abstract ideas than concrete objects; controlled and responsible behavior. In

recent years, studies have shown that introversion -extroversion have assumed

the status of being one of the mostly used variables as far as the concept of

personality is concerned. Morris (1979) observed that introverted and

extroverted tendencies appear earlier in childhood and evidence more stability

through developmental years than most personality characteristics. In other

words, researchers as well as practitioners have begun to reckon with the need to

consider the individual's personality before assigning him on a job or function was

emphasized.

This study has found reason to arrive at the same conclusion that

personality type affects subject preference as well as academic performances of

students in the FCT. It is a departure from other factors like social and



70

interpersonal relationship, and mental disorders which have often been related to

introversion-extroversion dimensions of personality.

5.3 Recommendations

As a result of the findings of this study, the following recommendations have

become necessary:

The relevance of subject preference as highlighted in this study makes it

relevant to encourage teachers and parents not to see a particular

personality type like introverted students as being academically inferior to

their extroverted counterparts.

The defining characteristics of ones personality should not be negatively

construed to the end that the individual is embarrassed by the reaction of

teachers and parents. It should also be noted that loud, carefree or

extroverted students are equally intelligent as their introverted, quiet and

reserved counterparts.

Given the increase interest that competitive universities are showing in

standardised tests for the selection of their students, it is believed that

personality inventories should not be neglected in any academic selection

process, for individual differences in personality are probably of

educational relevance in higher learning programmes.



71

5.4 Suggestions for Further Research

Research into personality type students need to take into account some other

variables such as:

3.1 Student background in the science or arts and personality type

preferences.

3.2 Personality type of Juvenile Delinquent and academic performances.

3.3 Typology of personality among teacher education students and

implication for the teaching profession.

3.4 Longitudinal study of personality type and subject preferences

among secondary school students

5.5 Limitations of the Findings

One should bear in mind that the relation between personality traits and

psychometric intelligence is rather modest (Zeidner & Matthews, 2000). It is thus

likely that the prediction of academic performance (and maybe performance in

general) will be improved with the inclusion of sound personality inventories,

which does not, to any extent, imply that personality inventories should replace

ability tests.

This study is also limited to adolescents who are better in a research where

self-report is required. It is believed that they are likely to provide the truthful

information.



72

5.6 Conclusion

This research work has provided in-depth understanding of the relationship

between personality and career path choices. Understanding the role personality

plays in a career decision making process will aid counselors and educators to

assist students in determining what is best for them.

This study will de-emphasize the current preoccupation with intelligence as

measures of ability and recommend based on research evidence that different

personalities tend to have different subject preferences.

The study also provides basis for personality-based guidance of students on

their vocational choices. It will also help students to appreciate their personality

characteristics thus reducing the incidence of loss of self esteem which is critical

to overall performance and efficiency later on in life.



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APPENDIX 1

To whom it may Concern,

Thank you for volunteering to complete this questionnaire. All responses will be

kept anonymous and confidential.

The purpose of this research is to determine personality type of students, subject

preference and Academic performance.

You are kindly requested to give your honest opinion about each item.

Thank you.

Yours,

Ezemaduka Tochukwu

University of Abuja



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APPENDIX II

STUDENT PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE (SPQ)

SECTION A

Please supply the information required below.

(a) Name___________________________________________________

(b) Name of School ____________________________________________

(c) Sex: Male Female

SECTION B

Rate the following statement according to how they apply to you. Be sure that you

are honest about yourself and give realistic rating to the statement you have

chosen. The options include Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (DA) and

Strongly Disagree (SD).

ITEM SA A DA SD

1. I prefer to be active at all times

2. I like making friends with lots of people

3. The phrase ‘calm and cool’ will best describe me

4. I like talking about my achievements

5. I am always in high spirits

6. I prefer to be always heard in a group of friends

7. I always say my mind

8. I am a naturally quiet person

9. I don’t get angry easily

10. I withdraw to myself often for no reason



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11. I hate crowds and public outings

12. I like attending parties

13. I act quickly without thinking

14. I love being noticed by my friends

15. I am happier when alone and withdrawn from others

16. I always make more contributions when discussing

with my friends

17. I act before I think

18. I love to think carefully before I act

19. I enjoy working behind the scenes

20. I am an easy going person

21. I like to be alone

22. I like to tell others what to do

23. I am highly inquisitive

24. I like working alone

25. I am like quiet places

26. I am not sociable

27. When I buy food and drugs, I usually look out for the

expiry dates

28. I like studying many days before examination

29. I will always rush my drink

30. I like to leave things till the last minute



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APPENDIX III

SCHOOL SUBJECT PREFERENCE INDICATOR (SSPI)

(a) Name_____________________________________________________

(b) Name of School ____________________________________________

(c) Sex: Male Female

Think about each of the following activities and rate them according to your level

of interest.

S/NO INTEREST VERY

MUCH

MUCH LITTLE VE

LIT1 Collect plants, rocks and weeds

2 Discover what causes the different colors of the

rainbow

3 Discuss current affairs

4 Discuss issues like workers’ strikes and

corruption in government

5 Find out about business matters like imports,

exports or shares

6 Find out how the planets were discovered

7 Find why the moon looks different at different

times

8 Learn how fire extinguishers put out fire

9 Listen daily to the Radio or TV for news

10 Listen to teachings on how sounds are heard

from a radio

11 Listen to the speech of the President



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12 Pay a visit to the court to watch proceedings

13 Read about lives of great politicians

14 Read about Nigerian independence history

15 Read about other countries

16 Study animals

17 Study how the weather is predicted

18 Study the duties of each branch of government

19 Study the systems of the body

20 Watch how spiders build their webs

Personality Work

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