Personality 1. Structure of Personality Freud’s Theory 2. Personality Assessment.

Personality

1. Structure of Personality

Freud’s Theory

2. Personality Assessment

What is Personality? How people differ at the individual level

Personality An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking,

feeling, and acting

The Psychoanalytic Perspective

Freud’s Theory

Unconscious motivations influence personality


Psychoanalysis - Freud Theory of personality that attributes our thoughts and

actions to unconscious motives and conflicts People are motivated by unacceptable passions for sex and

aggression, so we repress those motivations from consciousness, causing conflict

Techniques used in treating psychological disorders that seek to expose and interpret unconscious conflicts


Free Association Dream Interpretation Jokes

Psychoanalytic Structure of the Mind

• The mind is divided into 3 parts:- Conscious mind contains things that occupy one’s

current attention- Preconscious mind contains things that aren’t

currently in consciousness, but can be accessed- Unconscious mostly unacceptable thoughts,

wishes, feelings and memories that are beyond

awareness

Psychoanalytic Personality Structure

• Personality is also divided into 3 structures:- Id: Governed by inborn instinctual drives, especially those related

to sex and aggression- Obeys the pleasure principle

- Superego: Motivates people to act in an ideal fashion, according to moral customs of parents and culture

- Obeys the idealistic principle- Ego: Induces people to act with reason and deliberation, and to

conform to the requirements of the outside world- Obeys the reality principle

• Id is entirely in unconscious mind• superego and ego are divided between conscious and unconscious mind


Freud’s “iceberg” idea of the mind’s structure

Abstract concepts for understanding the mind’s conflicts between pleasure-seeking and social restraint

Preconscious


Id (unconscious psychic energy) strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives operates on the pleasure principle, demanding

immediate gratification (think of an infant) Must be restrained by reality “id-dominated” people more often use tobacco,

alcohol, drugs


Superego (conscience) Internalized ideals (how we ought to behave) The conscience Idealized Self Internalized Parent At odds with the id


Ego (personality executive) the largely conscious, “executive mediator” part of

personality In charge of coping with reality by constraining our

perceptions, thoughts, judgments and memories Struggles to reconcile the id and the superego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s

desires in ways that will realistically bring long-term pleasure rather than pain

Psychoanalytic Defense Mechanisms

Some Defense Mechanisms Ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously

distorting reality• Different parts of personality are in constant conflict, especially with regard to the

id• Defense mechanisms ward off the resulting anxiety from these conflicts, often

through self-deception

• Repression • Denial• Reaction formation• Projection• Rationalization

• Displacement • Sublimation


Repression Cornerstone of psychoanalytic theory the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-

arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness Incomplete repression when urges seep out in dream

symbols and “Freudian slips”


Denial defense mechanism in which an individual faced

with anxiety denies the source of the anxiety


Reaction Formation defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously

switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites people may express feelings that are the opposite of

their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings e.g., if you are jealous of someone, you may try to become

their friend to suppress the jealousy


Projection defense mechanism by which people disguise their

own threatening impulses by attributing them to others You accuse your mate of cheating on you because you have

been fantasizing about another person


Rationalization defense mechanism that offers self-justifying

explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions “It’s okay for me not to vote, because one vote doesn’t

matter anyway” Disguises “I’d rather sleep late/hang out with my friends”, “I

haven’t bothered to find out where to vote or the issues or candidates on the ballot” etc.


Displacement defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive

impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person

as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet You’re mad at your boss, so you punch the wall/kick the

dog/yell at your friend, etc.


Sublimation defense mechanism similar to displacement, but has

positive (pro-social) consequences

Assessing the Unconscious

If personality emerges from the unconscious, how can we measure it?

Projective Test a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that

provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics

People interpret unstructured or ambiguous stimuli- Idea is that you “project” true thoughts, feelings into the

interpretation, revealing your personality


Rorschach Inkblot Test the most widely used projective test a set of 10 inkblots designed by Hermann

Rorschach seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by

analyzing their interpretations of the blots


Is the Rorschach a good test of personality? Most scientists say no Subjective Not reliable (consistency of results)

Different raters may interpret a patient’s response quite differently

Not valid (do not predict accurately) Cannot identify who is suicidal and who isn’t

However, some therapists still use these tests today

Problems with Freud

• Extremely influential on Western culture, but not

accepted by many modern psychologists• Criticisms:

- Ideas are not testable, nor do they predict behavior

- His observations were not scientific- Over-reliance on case studies of disturbed individuals- Biased against women

- Freud attributed women’s reports of childhood sexual

abuse to unconscious conflicts and a weak superego

Neo-Freudians They Accept:

notions of id, ego, superego dynamics of anxiety and defense mechanisms importance of unconscious shaping of personality in childhood

In addition, they recognize: the importance of conscious motivations and social

interaction Instead of strictly sex and aggression, higher motives

also underlie motivation

TAT: Thematic Apperception Test

1. Who are these people? 2. What are they doing?3. What are they thinking &

feeling?4. What will happen?

Eysenck’s Trait Dimensions

Humanistic Perspective

Maslow (1908-70) studied self-

actualization processes of productive and healthy people (e.g., Lincoln)

Focuses on people’s unique capacity for choice, responsibility and growth


• Personality reflects where

you are in the hierarchy of

needs- if your physiological

needs are met, you

become concerned

with personal safety,

then love, and so on…- Problems arise from

failure to satisfy needs


Self-Actualization the ultimate psychological need that arises

after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved

the motivation to fulfill one’s potential

Humanistic Perspective Rogers’ Person-Centered Humanistic Approach

Unconditional Positive Regard an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

Conditions of growth People nurture our growth by being

Genuine, accepting, empathic

Self-Concept all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an

answer to the question, “Who am I?”- Positive when ideal self and actual self are similar - Problems when ideal and actual are incongruent

Personality comes from self-concept

• Also influential on western culture

• Emphasizes individuality• Optimistic view of human potential for positive growth

• Criticisms:• Too optimistic? Drives for growth and self-actualization are sometimes

expressed and sometimes not• Focus on self can lead to self-indulgence, selfishness, erosion of

moral restraints

Were the humanists right?

Contemporary Research - The Trait Perspective

Descriptive approach to personality Contrasts with the explanatory psychoanalytic

and humanistic approaches Classifies personality according to “types” Uses objective questions to identify

personality traits that determine a type profile

Contemporary Research - The Trait Perspective

Trait a characteristic pattern of behavior a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by

self-report inventories and peer reports Personality Inventory

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors

used to assess selected personality traits

The Trait Perspective

Eysenck – uses two primary personality factors to describe personality variation Stable-unstable Introverted-

extroverted

UNSTABLE

STABLE

cholericmelancholic

phlegmatic sanguineINTROVERTED EXTRAVERTED

MoodyAnxious

RigidSober

PessimisticReserved

Unsociable

Quiet

SociableOutgoing

TalkativeResponsiveEasygoing

LivelyCarefree

Leadership

PassiveCareful

Thoughtful

Peaceful

ControlledReliable

Even-temperedCalm

TouchyRestlessAggressive

ExcitableChangeable

ImpulsiveOptimistic

Active

The Trait Perspective Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

(MMPI) the most widely researched and clinically used

of all personality tests People answer groups of questions about how

they typically think, act, and feel- Responses compared to averages compiled from large

groups of prior test takers (standardized!)

originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still its most appropriate use)

now used for many other screening purposes, such as job placement – hmmm…


Empirically Derived Test a test developed by testing a pool of items

and then selecting those that discriminate between groups (e.g., suicidal and not)

such as the MMPI Have you stopped beating your wife?

The Trait Perspective MMPI Example

MMPI test profiles

Higher T scores indicate problems

Group differences are evident


The “Big Five” Personality FactorsTrait Dimension DescriptionEmotional Stability Calm versus anxious

Secure versus insecure Self-satisfied versus self-pitying

Extraversion Sociable versus retiring Fun-loving versus sober Affectionate versus reserved

Openness Imaginative versus practical Preference for variety versus

preference for routine Independent versus conforming

Extraversion Soft-hearted versus ruthless Trusting versus suspicious Helpful versus uncooperative

Conscientiousness Organized versus disorganized Careful versus careless Disciplined versus impulsive

The Big FiveThe best (so far) index of personalityBig 5 traits are stable*, 50% heritable, culturally generalizableOutcomes are reasonably valid and reliable

Views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons and their social context

Experience, plus how people interpret experience,

determine personality growth and development

Emphasizes learned behaviors over innate nature

Social-Cognitive Perspective


Reciprocal Determinism the interacting influences between

personality and environmental factors Beliefs, behavior, and environment

interact to shape what you learn from experience


Personal Control our sense of controlling our environments

rather than feeling helpless

External Locus of Control the perception that chance or outside forces

beyond one’s personal control determine one’s fate


Internal Locus of Control the perception that one controls one’s own

fate

Learned Helplessness the hopelessness and passive resignation an

animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Dog experiments


Learned Helplessness

Uncontrollablebad events

Perceivedlack of control

Generalizedhelpless behavior


Positive Psychology the scientific study of optimal human

functioning aims to discover and promote conditions that

enable individuals and communities to thrive

• Idea that some personality traits are learned is

widely accepted, as is the role of cognitive

factors in learning- Example: Expectations and beliefs

• Criticisms:- Over-emphasizes how a person responds in

particular situations rather than on traits of

person as a whole- Under-emphasizes biological, genetic

factors in development

Is the social-cognitive approach right?

Exploring the Self

Spotlight Effect overestimating others noticing and evaluating

our appearance, performance, and blunders

Self Esteem one’s feelings of high or low self-worth

Self-Serving Bias readiness to perceive oneself favorably

Exploring the Self

Individualism giving priority to one’s own goals over group

goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

Collectivism giving priority to the goals of one’s group

(often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly

Exploring the Self

Morality Defined by individuals Defined by social networks (self-based) (duty-based)

Attributing Behavior reflects one’s personality Behavior reflects socialbehaviors and attitudes and roles

Value Contrasts Between Individualism and CollectivismConcept Individualism Collectivism

Self Independent Interdependent (identity from individual traits) identity from belonging)

Life task Discover and express one’s Maintain connections, fit in uniqueness

What matters Me--personal achievement and We-group goals and solidarity; fulfillment; rights and liberties social responsibilities and

relationships

Coping method Change reality Accommodate to reality

Relationships Many, often temporary or casual; Few, close and enduring;confrontation acceptable harmony valued

• Do people really behave consistently across

situations, or is behavior just determined by the

situation?- Evidence suggests there’s more consistency in

behavior within the same kind of situation, less

across situations- Self-monitoring is one determinant of consistency

- High self-monitors tend to adjust behavior to

situation• Most psychologists believe that personality and

situation interact

The Person-Situation Debate

• Are identical twins highly similar in personality, even

when raised apart?- And: Are identicals more similar than fraternals?- MMPI scores indicate yes, irrespective of raising

environment• At least some traits are genetically determined

- However: How they are expressed may depend

on environment

What about genetic factors?

Why personality traits develop:- Psychodynamic, humanistic, and social-cognitive

approaches offer very different views of human nature,

how personality develops- Varied emphasis on biological urges, optimistic

view of growth potential, role of environment• Are personality characteristics expressed in a way that is

independent of the environment?- People are not always consistent in how they behave

across situations; personality and situation may interact- Genetics contribute to personality, as suggested by

studies of identical and fraternal twins

Personality Summary

Personality 1. Structure of Personality Freud’s Theory 2. Personality Assessment.

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