Personal Technology 8.1 Managing Files: Basic Concepts 8.2 Database Management Systems 8.3 Database...

Personal Technology

8.1 Managing Files: Basic Concepts8.2 Database Management Systems8.3 Database Models8.4 Data Mining8.5 Databases & The Digital Economy8.6 Using Databases to Help Make Decisions8.7 Artificial Intelligence8.8 The Ethics of Using Databases

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Managing Files: Basic Concepts

Basic Concepts: What is a database? What is a primary key? What are the benefits of database management systems? (pg 408-416)

Database Models: What are the different types of database models? How do they differ? (pg 416-424)

Data Mining: What is data mining? Why is it important? What are the steps involved in the data-mining process? Give examples of data mining applications. (pg 424-427)

E-Business & E-Commerce: What are the three types of e-commerce? (pg 429-431)

Information Systems: What are the different types of computer-based information systems? Explain each of them. (pg 435-439)

Artificial Intelligence: Explain each of the research areas in AI. Explain the three components of an expert system. What is the difference between weak AI and strong AI? What is the Turing Test? (pg 439-449)

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A DATABASE is a logically organized collection of related data designed and built for a specific purpose

Data is stored hierarchically for easier storage and retrieval

Files: collections of related records Records: collections of related fields Field: unit of data containing 1 or more characters Character: a letter number or special

character made of bits Bit: a 0 or 1

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Key Field – the field that identifies a record Often an identifying number, such as social

security number Primary keys must be unique

Keys are used to pick records out of a database Unique keys make records stand out from each other If two records had the same key, then you might not

pick the correct one Nonprimary keys are used to sort records in different

ways Foreign keys are fields that appear in two different

tables and are used to relate one table to another

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This example shows a sample database in Microsoft Access. Products is a table. ProductID is the primary key of the Product table. ProductID is also a foreign key in the Orders table

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Program files are files containing software instructions Source program files are written by the

software developer in the programming language Double-clicking on them won’t run them They have file extensions like .cpp, .jav, .bas

Executable files are program files translated so they can be executed on the computer Double-clicking on them will cause them to run They have file extensions like .exe or .com

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Data files are files that contain data such as words, numbers, pictures, or sounds These are the files that are used in databases They have extensions such as .txt .mdb, and .xls Graphics files have extensions like .tiff, .jpeg, and .png Audio files have extensions such as .mp3, .wav,

and .mid Animation/video files have extensions such

as .qt, .mpg, .avi, and .rm Data files are often compressed to save space

and transmit them faster Compression removes repetitive elements from a file

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Database Management Systems

Software written specifically to control the structure of a database and access to the data Reduced data redundancy

Redundant data is stored in multiple places, which causes problems keeping all the copies current

Improved data integrity Means the data is accurate, consistent, and up to date

Increased security Limits who can create, read, update, and delete the

data Ease of data maintenance

Offer validation checks, backup utilities, and procedures for data inserting, updating, and deletion

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Database Management Systems3 Principal Components

Data Dictionary A repository that stores the data definitions and

descriptions of the structure of the data and the database

DBMS Utilities Programs that allow you to maintain the database

by creating, editing, deleting data, records, and files

Also include automated backup and recovery Report Generator

Program for producing an on-screen or printed document form all or part of a database

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Database Management SystemsDatabase Administrator

Database Administrator (DBA) A high-paid, responsible position within an

organization Coordinates all related activities and needs for

an organization’s database Ensures the database’s

Recoverability Integrity Security Availability Reliability Performance

Discussion Question: Did you know that 93% of companies that lost their data center for 10 days or more due to a disaster filed for bankruptcy within a year?

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Database Models

Hierarchical database

Network database

Relational database

Object-oriented database

Multidimensional database

Fields or records are arranged in a family tree, with child records subordinate to parent or higher-level records

Like a hierarchical database, but each child record can have more than one parent record

Relates, or connects, data in different files through the use of a key, or common data element

Uses objects (software written in small, reusable chunks) as elements within database files

Models data as facts, dimensions, or numerical measures for use in the interactive analysis of large amounts of data

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Database Models

Hierarchical Databases Fields or records are arranged in related groups resembling a

family tree with child (low-level) records subordinate to parent (high-level) records

Root record is the parent record at the top of the database, and data is accessed through the hierarchy

Oldest and simplest; used in mainframes

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Database Models

Network Database Similar to a hierarchical database, but each child record can

have more than one parent record Used principally with mainframe computers Requires the database structure to be defined in advance

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Database Models

Relational Database Relates or connects data in different files through

the use of a key, or common data element Examples are Oracle, Informix, Sybase Data exists independently of how it is physically

stored Users don’t need to know data structure to use

the database Uses SQL (structured query language) to create,

modify, maintain, and query the data Query by Example uses sample records or forms

to allow users to define the qualifications for choosing records

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Database Models

Object-oriented Databases Use “objects”, software written in small,

manageable chunks, as elements within data files An object consists of

Data in any form, including audio, graphics, and video Instructions on the action to be taken with the data

Examples include FastObjects, GemStone, Objectivity DB, Jasmine Object Database, and KE Express

Types include Web database Hypermedia database

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Database Models

Multidimensional Database Models data as facts, dimensions, or

numerical answers for use in the interactive analysis of large amounts of data for decision-making purposes

Allows users to ask questions in colloquial English

Use OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) software to provide answers to complex database queries

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Data Mining

Is the computer-assisted process of sifting through and analyzing vast amounts of data to extract hidden patterns and meaning and to discover new knowledge

Data is fed into a Data Warehouse through the following steps Identify and connect to data sources Perform data fusion and data cleansing Obtain both data and meta-data (data about the

data) Transport data and meta-data to the Data Warehouse

Data Warehouse is a special database that shows detailed and summary data from multiple sources

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Data Mining

Methods for searching for patterns in the data and interpreting the results Regression analysis

Develops a formula to fit patterns in the data that has been extracted

Formula is applied to other data sets to predict future trends

Classification analysis A statistical pattern recognition process that

is applied to data sets with more than just numerical data

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Data Mining

Applications include A phone company identifying customers

with large bills, who were really small businesses trying to pay the cheaper residential rate

A coach in the Gymnastics Federation used it to discover what long-term factors contributed to athletes’ performance

Retail stores use it to predict future purchase patterns to help them choose which products to stock for the future

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Databases & The Digital Economy

E-Commerce The buying and selling of products and

services through computer networks Examples of some e-tailers (electronic

retailers): www.amazon.com sells books and music

online www.sees.com sells candy online www.ebay.com connects buyers with sellers

online using online auctions

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Innovative e-tailer technologies make online shopping easier One-click option

Allows you to click on an item and immediately go to the check-out process

360-degree images Allow you to see all sides of an item

Order tracking Bar codes are assigned to items being shipped

that allow customers to check shipping progress via the internet

Shop bots Are programs that help users search for a

particular product of service

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Types of E-Commerce Business-to-business (B2B)

A business sells to other businesses using the internet or a private network to cut transaction costs and increase efficiencies

Business-to-consumer (B2C) A business sells goods or services to consumers

Consumer-to-consumer (C2C) Consumers sell goods or services directly to

other consumers with the help of a third party, such as eBay.

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Using Databases to Help Make Decisions

What are the qualities of good information? Correct and verifiable Complete yet concise Cost effective Current Accessible

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Most organizations have 6 departments to which information must flow Research and development Production (or operations) Marketing and sales Accounting and finance Human resources (personnel) Information systems (IS)

Information flows horizontally between departments

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Besides the 6 departments, many organizations also have 3 levels of management Strategic-level management

Top managers concerned with strategic or long-term planning and decisions

Tactical-level management Middle level managers who make decisions to implement

the strategic goals set for the organization Operational-level management

Low-level supervisors make daily operational decisions Information flows vertically between management

levels

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Decentralized Organizations – a new structure Employees increasingly telecommute – some

staff have no desk or office at work Employees communicate with each other more

via email than in person Companies use Groupware CSCW (computer-

supported cooperative work) systems to enable cooperative work by groups of people

The management structure is flattened as employees are given more authority to make day-to-day decisions

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6 computer-based information systems Office information systems Transaction processing systems Management information systems Decision support systems Executive support systems Expert systems

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Transaction Processing System (TPS) Transactions are recorded events of

routine business activities such as bills, orders, and inventory

TPS systems keep track of the transactions needed to conduct a business

TPS systems are used by operational managers to track business activities

Transactions database provides the basis for management information systems and decision support systemsHas anyone seen the movie “Office Space”? In that movie, the hero’s

boss is nagging him about formatting the TPS report correctly. Now you know what TPS means!

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Management Information Systems (MIS) Computer-based information system that

uses data recorded by a TPS as input to programs that produce routine reports as output

Features Inputs are processed transaction data. Outputs

are summarized structured reports Designed for tactical managers Draws from all departments Produces several kinds or reports: summary,

exception, periodic, and demand

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Decision Support Systems (DSS) Computer information system that provides a

flexible tool for analysis and helps management focus on the future

Features Inputs are external data and internal data such as

summarized reports and processed transaction data. Outputs are demand reports

Mainly for tactical managers Produces analytic models

Developed to support the types of decisions faced by managers in specific industries

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Executive Support Systems An easy-to-use DSS made especially for

strategic managers to support strategic decision-making

Might allow executives to call up predefined reports

Includes capability to browse through summarized information on all aspects of the organization and drill down for detailed data

Allows executives to perform “what-if” scenarios

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Artificial Intelligence

Expert System One of the most useful applications of Artificial

Intelligence (AI) AI is a group of related technologies used to

develop software and machines that emulate human qualities such as learning, reasoning, communicating, seeing, and hearing

Areas include Expert systems Natural language processing Intelligent agents Virtual reality and simulation devices Pattern recognition Fuzzy logic Robotics

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Three components of an expert system Knowledge base

An expert system’s database of knowledge about a particular subject

Inference engine The software that controls the search of the

expert system’s knowledge base and produces conclusions

User interface The display screen the user used to interact

with the expert system

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Natural language processing Allows users to interact with a system using normal

English The study of ways for computers to recognize and

understand human language Intelligent agents

A form of software with built-in intelligence that monitors work patterns, asks questions, and performs work tasks on your behalf

Pattern recognition Involves a camera and software that identify

recurring patterns in its vision and maps the pattern against patterns stored in a database

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Fuzzy logic A method of dealing with imprecise data and

uncertainty, with problems that have many answers rather than one

Has been applied in running elevators to determine optimum times for elevators to wait

Virtual reality A computer-generated artificial reality that

projects a person into a sensation of 3-D space Often used with simulators to represent the

behavior of physical or abstract systems

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Robotics The development and study of machines

that can perform work that is normally done by people

Commonly found in manufacturing plants and also in situations where people would be in danger Nuclear plants Assembly lines, especially paint lines Checking for land mines Fighting oil-well fires

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Weak vs. Strong A.I. Weak A.I. claims computers can be programmed to

simulate human cognition Strong A.I. claims that computers can think on a level

that is equal to or better than humans, and can also achieve consciousness Cyc approach to strong A.I.

A database in Austin, TX that holds 1.4 million basic truths Plan is that Cyc will automatically make human-like

assumptions Hope is that Cyc will learn on its own

Cog approach to strong A.I. MIT project that is a humanoid robot Tries to identify and search for patterns instead of following

rules and facts

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Test for Human Intelligence In 1950, Allen Turing predicted computers would

be able to mimic human thinking The Turing test determines whether the machine is

human Judge is in another location and doesn’t see the

computer If the computer can fool the judge, it is said to be

intelligent Ethics in A.I.

Prof. William Wallace from R.P.I. says that computer software is subtly shaped by the ethical judgments of its creators

For example, H.M.O. software used by health insurers steers doctors to cheaper procedures – but are they better?

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The Ethics of Using Databases

Identity Theft concerns A crime in which thieves hijack your

identity and use your good credit rating to get cash, take out loans, order credit cards, and buy things in your name

Privacy concerns Name migration: getting endless junk

mail and telemarketing calls Résumé rustling and online snooping Government prying and spyingDiscussion Question: Has any one had their identity stolen? How long did

it take you to get it straightened out?

Personal Technology 8.1 Managing Files: Basic Concepts 8.2 Database Management Systems 8.3 Database...

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