PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF BIODEGRADABLE...

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF

BIODEGRADABLE METALWORKING FLUIDS

FOR MACHINING PROCESS

NORFAZILLAH BINTI TALIB

UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF BIODEGRADABLE METALWORKING

FLUIDS FOR MACHINING PROCESS

NORFAZILLAH BINTI TALIB

A thesis submitted in

fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the

Doctor of Philosophy in Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

NOVEMBER 2017

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Alhamdulillah, first of all, all praises is for Allah SWT, the most gracious and the

most merciful, who has given me His guidance and blessing in finishing this thesis,

entitled “Performance Evaluation of Biodegradable Metalworking Fluids for

Machining Process”.

I would like to convey my deepest gratitude to those who have assisted and

inspired me in completing this study. I wish to express my sincere thanks to my

supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Erween Bin Abd. Rahim and my co-supervisor

Dr. Ramdziah binti Md. Nasir for their continuous support, guidance and valuable

suggestions throughout the progress of this study. I would also like to express my

appreciation to Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), Johor and the

Ministry of Education Malaysia for the financial support given through the Academic

Staff Bumiputera Training Scheme (SLAB) during the period of study.

I am grateful and indebted to the academic and laboratory staffs of UTHM

who either directly or indirectly helped or supported me in various ways during the

experimental stages. Many thanks are also extended to all Precision Machining

Research Center (PREMACH) group members, research fellows, and my precious

friends.

Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratefulness to my beloved family

for their support and understanding throughout the journey. To my parents, Hj. Talib

bin Burok and Hjh. Rasidah binti Md. Dawi, thank you for your blessings and

prayers, endless love and support, and always cheered me up during the hard times.

To the rest of my family, many thanks for your great support and prayers.

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ABSTRACT

The widely use of metalworking fluids (MWFs) petroleum-based in the industry

have a negative impact to the environment and human. Thus, various initiatives have

been undertaken to develop bio-based MWFs especially from crude jatropha oil

(CJO). However, the main drawback of CJO is that it has low thermal-oxidative

stability. Therefore, the objective of this study is to develop a new formulation of

CJO-based MWFs. The newly developed modified jatropha oils (MJOs) were

formulated using transesterification process at various molar ratios of jatropha

methyl ester to trimethylolpropane (JME:TMP) denoted by MJO1 (3.1:1), MJO3

(3.3:1) and MJO5 (3.5:1). Later, the MJOs were blended with hexagonal boron

nitride (hBN) particles at various concentrations (0.05 to 0.5wt.%). MJOs with and

without hBN particles were analysed based on the physicochemical properties,

tribology behaviour test, orthogonal cutting and turning proses. From the results,

MJO5 showed an improvement at thermal (high viscosity index) and oxidative

stability (lubricant storage). MJO5c (MJO5+0.5wt.% of hBN particles) showed the

optimum physicochemical properties. In the contrary, MJO5a (MJO5+0.05wt.% of

hBN particles) exhibited excellent tribological behaviour as reduction of friction and

wear, with high tapping torque efficiency. In the orthogonal cutting process, MJO5a

recorded the lowest machining force and temperature, thus contributed to the

formation of thinner chips, small tool-chip contact length and reduction of the

specific energy. MJO5a produced an excellent result in the machinability test by

reducing the cutting force, cutting temperature and surface roughness stimulated

longer tool life and less tool wear. In conclusion, the MJO5a has a potential impact

on the lubricant market as a sustainable MWFs for the machining processes.

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ABSTRAK

Penggunaan bendalir kerja logam (MWFs) berasaskan petroleum secara meluas di

industri telah memberikan kesan negatif kepada alam sekitar dan manusia. Justeru,

pelbagai inisiatif telah dilakukan untuk membangunkan MWFs berasas bio

terutamanya daripada minyak jatropha mentah (CJO). Namun begitu, kelemahan

utama CJO ialah mempunyai kestabilan terma-oksidatif yang rendah. Oleh itu,

objektif kajian ini adalah untuk membangunkan formulasi baharu MWFs berasaskan

CJO. Minyak yang baru dibangunkan, minyak jatropha yang dibuahsuai (MJOs)

telah diformulasi mengunakan proses transesterifikasi pada pelbagai nisbah molar

metil ester jatropha kepada trimetilolpropana (JME:TMP) yang diwakili oleh MJO1

(3.1:1), MJO3 (3.3:1) dan MJO5 (3.5:1). Kemudian, MJOs telah dicampur dengan

zarah heksagonal boron nitrida (hBN) pada pelbagai kepekatan (0.05 to 0.5wt.%).

MJOs dengan dan tanpa zarah hBN telah dianalisis pada sifat-sifat fizikokimia, ujian

kelakuan tribologi, pemotongan ortogonal dan proses pelarikan. Daripada hasil

kajian, MJO5 menunjukkan peningkatan terhadap kestabilan termal (index kelikatan

yang tinggi) dan oksidatif (penyimpanan pelincir). MJO5c (MJO5+0.5wt.% zarah

hBN) menunjukkan sifat-sifat fizikokimia yang optimum. Sebaliknya, MJO5a

(MJO5+0.05wt.% zarah hBN) mempamerkan tingkah laku tribologi yang sangat baik

dengan pengurangan terhadap geseran dan kehausan, serta kecekapan penguliran tork

yang tinggi. Di dalam proses pemotongan ortogonal, MJO5a mencatatkan daya dan

suhu pemotongan yang rendah, seterusnya menyumbang kepada pembentukan tatal

yang nipis, panjang sentuhan mata alat-tatal yang kecil dan pengurangan tenaga

spesifik. MJO5a menghasilkan keputusan yang cemerlang dalam ujian

kebolehmesinan dengan mengurangkan daya pemotongan, suhu pemotongan dan

kekasaran permukaan merangsang jangka hayat mata alat yang lebih panjang dengan

kurang kehausan. Kesimpulannya, MJO5a mempunyai potensi di pasaran minyak

pelincir sebagai MWFs yang mampan untuk proses pemesinan.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE i

DECLARATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

ABSTRACT iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

LIST OF TABLES xii

LIST OF FIGURES xv

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xxi

LIST OF APPENDICES xxvii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of study 1

1.2 Problem statement 3

1.3 Aim and objectives 6

1.4 Scopes of the research 6

1.5 Organization of thesis 8

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 9

2.1 Introduction 9

2.2 Sustainable manufacturing 9

2.3 Metalworking fluids in machining process 12

2.3.1 Flood coolant 14

2.3.2 Dry machining 15

2.3.3 Minimum quantity lubrication 16

2.3.4 Cryogenic cooling 17

2.4 Metal cutting 18

2.4.1 Orthogonal cutting mechanism 18

2.4.2 Cutting force 21

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2.4.3 Cutting temperature 22

2.4.4 Chip formation 28

2.4.5 Tool chip contact length 30

2.4.6 Specific energy 32

2.4.7 Tool wear 33

2.5 Lubricant sources 37

2.5.1 Mineral-based lubricant 37

2.5.2 Synthetic-based lubricant 38

2.5.3 Vegetable-based lubricant 40

2.5.4 Polyol ester 44

2.6 Modification methods for vegetable-based

metalworking fluids 45

2.6.1 Chemical modification 46

2.6.2 Additive reformulation 50

2.6.3 Genetic modification 53

2.7 Physicochemical properties 54

2.7.1 Viscosity and viscosity index 54

2.7.2 Density 55

2.7.3 Flash point 55

2.7.4 Acid value 55

2.7.5 Water content 56

2.7.6 Lubricant storage (oxidative stability) 56

2.8 Tribological behaviour of vegetable-based

lubricant 57

2.9 Applications of vegetables-based metalworking

fluids in machining process 61

2.9.1 Turning process 68

2.9.2 Drilling process 72

2.9.3 Grinding process 74

2.9.4 Milling process 76

2.10 Effect of additive particles in lubricant for

machining processes 77

2.11 Jatropha oil as potential bio-based metalworking

fluid 80

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2.12 Hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) as an additive in

metalworking fluid 81

2.13 Summary 85

CHAPTER 3 MODIFICATION OF CRUDE JATROPHA OIL FOR

METALWORKING FLUID APPLICATION 87

3.1 Introduction 87

3.2 Experimental procedure 85

3.3 Material preparation 89

3.4 Development of modified jatropha oils as

bio-based metalworking fluids 90

3.4.1 Esterification process of crude jatropha oil 90

3.4.2 Determination of free fatty acid (FFA) value 92

3.4.3 Transesterification process of jatropha

methyl ester 94

3.4.4 Transesterification process of modified

jatropha oils 96

3.4.5 Mixture of MJOs with hexagonal boron

nitride (hBN) additive 98

3.5 Analysis of modified jatropha oil properties 100

3.5.1 Gas chromatography (GC) analysis 102

3.5.2 Density test (ASTM 4052) 104

3.5.3 Kinematic viscosity (ASTM D445) and

viscosity index (ASTM D2270) 105

3.5.4 Flash point (ASTM D93) 107

3.5.5 Acid value test (ASTM D664) 107

3.5.6 Water content (ASTM D2709) 107

3.5.7 Lubricants storage 108

3.6 Results and discussions of the development

of modified jatropha oils 109

3.6.1 Free fatty acids reduction by esterification

process 109

3.6.2 Production of jatropha methyl ester 110

3.6.3 Production of modified jatropha oils 112

3.6.4 Gas chromatography analysis 116

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3.6.5 Mixed with additive 118

3.7 Results and discussions of the physicochemical

properties of modified jatropha oils 120

3.7.1 Density 120

3.7.2 Viscosity and viscosity index 122

3.7.3 Flash point 127

3.7.4 Acid value 128

3.7.5 Water content 130

3.7.6 Lubricant storage (Oxidative stability) 131

3.8 Summary 136

CHAPTER 4 TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF NEWLY

DEVELOP METALWORKING FLUID 137

4.1 Introduction 137


4.3 Four ball testing (ASTM D4172) 137

4.4 Tapping torque test (ASTM D5619) 143

4.5 Results and discussions of four ball test 144

4.5.1 Coefficient of friction 144

4.5.2 Friction torque 148

4.5.3 Wear scar diameter 150

4.5.4 Worn surface analysis 152

4.5.5 Surface roughness 158

4.5.6 Volume wear rate 162

4.6 Results and discussions of tapping torque test 164

4.6.1 Tapping torque and thrust force 164

4.6.2 Tapping torque efficiency 167

4.7 Summary 169

CHAPTER 5 EVALUATION OF MODIFIED JATROPHA OIL

IN ORTHOGONAL CUTTING PROCESS 170



5.3 Workpiece materials: AISI 1045 171

5.4 Cutting tool 173

5.5 Experimental test set-up 174

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5.6 Minimum quantity lubrication unit 177

5.7 Cutting force measurement 178

5.8 Cutting temperature measurement 178

5.9 Chip thickness measurement 181

5.10 Tool chip contact length measurement 181

5.11 Specific energy consumption 182

5.12 Results and discussions 183



5.12.3 Chip thickness 192

5.12.4 Tool-chip contact length 196

5.12.5 Specific energy 203

5.13 Summary 205

CHAPTER 6 PERFORMANCES OF A MODIFIED JATROPHA

OIL AS A BIO-BASED LUBRICANT

FOR GREEN MACHINING 207



6.3 Workpiece materials: AISI 1045 209

6.4 Cutting tool 209

6.5 Experiment test set-up 210

6.6 Cutting force measurement 213

6.7 Cutting temperature measurement 213

6.8 Surface roughness measurement 214

6.9 Tool wear and tool life assessment 216

6.10 Wear mechanism analysis 218

6.11 Results and discussions 219



6.11.3 Surface roughness 225

6.11.4 Tool life 228

6.11.5 Wear mechanism 231

6.12 Summary 240

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CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 242

7.1 Conclusions 242

7.2 Contributions of the research 244

7.2 Recommendations 244

REFERENCES 246

APPENDIX A 271

APPENDIX B 272

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 273

xii

LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Biodegradability of oil-based lubricants 12

2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of MWFs 14

2.3 Examples of lubricant oils from mineral-based 38

2.4 Examples of lubricant oils from synthetic-based 39

2.5 Examples of lubricant oils from vegetable-based 40

2.6 Fatty acid structure of various vegetable oils 43

2.7 Additives in vegetable oils 51

2.8 Summary of the research in the application of vegetable-

based oils as the metalworking fluids on different

machining process 63

2.9 Summary of the effects of various additive particles in

different machining processes 78

3.1 FFA range, alcohol volume and the strength of alkali 93

3.2 Specification of JME according to ASTM D6751 96

3.3 MJOs at various ratios of JME:TMP 97

3.4 MJOs at various composition of hBN 98

3.5 Physicochemical properties of hBN particles 98

3.6 The lubricant properties according to related standards 100

3.7 The lubricant properties from previous findings 100

3.8 The lubricant properties of MQL oils in the market 101

3.9 Required properties of MJOs 102

3.10 The samples of JME at different molar ratios 111

3.11 The properties of JME at different molar ratios 111

3.12 The physicochemical properties of the reproducibility

samples of E20T6 111


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samples of MJO1 115


samples of MJO3 115


samples of MJO5 115

3.16 Compositions of product for the synthesis of JME with

TMP 118

3.17 The physicochemical properties for all samples 120

3.18 Density of lubricant’s sampling 121

3.19 Kinematic viscosity of lubricant’s sampling 125

3.20 Flash point of lubricant’s sampling 127

3.21 Acid value of lubricant’s sampling 129

3.22 Water content of lubricant’s sampling 130

4.1 Measurement conditions for surface roughness

measurement 142

4.2 Test parameter 143

4.3 Coefficient of friction of lubricant’s sampling 145

4.4 Friction torque of lubricant’s sampling 149

4.5 Wear scar diameter of lubricant’s sampling 151

4.6 Surface roughness of lubricant’s sampling 159

4.7 Volume wear rate of lubricant’s sampling 163

4.8 Tapping torque of lubricant’s sampling 165

4.9 Thrust force of lubricant’s sampling 165

4.10 Tapping torque efficiency for all lubricants 168

5.1 Elemental composition of AISI 1045 172

5.2 Mechanical properties and thermal properties of AISI 1045 172

5.3 Cutting tool geometry for orthogonal cutting 173

5.4 Machining conditions for orthogonal cutting 176

5.5 Cutting force of lubricant’s sampling at various feed rates

and cutting speeds 184

5.6 Cutting temperature of lubricant’s sampling at various

feed rates and cutting speeds 188

5.7 The average chip thickness of lubricant’s sampling

at various feed rates and cutting speeds 193

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5.8 Shear angle of lubricant’s sampling at various feed

rates and cutting speeds 193

5.9 Tool chip contact length of lubricant’s sampling at

various feed rates and cutting speeds 198

5.10 Specific energy of lubricant’s sampling at various

feed rates and cutting speeds 204

6.1 Cutting tool geometry for turning 209

6.2 Machining conditions for turning 211

6.3 Measurement conditions for surface roughness

measurement 215

6.4 Tool wears criteria 217

6.5 Cutting force of lubricant’s sampling 220

6.6 The maximum cutting temperature of lubricant’s

sampling 224

6.7 Surface roughness of lubricant’s sampling 226

6.8 Tool life and tool failure modes for different lubricant

samples 228

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LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Metalworking fluids usage 2

1.2 Description of health effects on experts and workers

due to MWF’s exposure 4

1.3 The flow chart of the research scopes 7

2.1 Model-based sustainable manufacturing 11

2.2 Characteristics of sustainable machining 11

2.3 Component of metalworking fluids 13

2.4 Machining parameters 18

2.5 Three dimensional process of orthogonal cutting model 19

2.6 Two dimensional side view 19

2.7 Deformation zones in the cutting 21

2.8 Forces in metal cutting 22

2.9 Temperature measurement methods 23

2.10 Tool-workpiece thermocouple method 23

2.11 Embedded thermocouple method 24

2.12 PVD film method 24

2.13 Infrared pyrometer method 25

2.14 Infrared camera method 26

2.15 Heat generation zone 27

2.16 Distribution of temperature in the cutting zone 27

2.17 Types of chips 30

2.18 Tool-chip contact length regions 31

2.19 SEM image of the tool-chip contact length 31

2.20 Types of wear 34

2.21 Adhesion and attrition (plucking action) wear mechanisms 36

2.22 Abrasive wear mechanism 36

xvi

2.23 Applications of bio-based lubricant 37

2.24 Triglyceride structure 42

2.25 Oil modification methods 46

2.26 Various type of chemical modification process of

triglycerides 47

2.27 Two step acid-base catalysed transesterification chemical

formulation 47

2.28 Synthesis of TMP ester 48

2.29 The function of additives 51

2.30 Lubrication regime in Stribeck curve 59

2.31 Schematic of contacting interface in the presence of

oil with nanoparticles 60

2.32 Application of vegetable-based MWFs in machining process 62

2.33 Hexagonal boron nitride structure 82

2.34 SEM micrograph of hBN particles 82

2.35 3D Optical profilometer images of worn surface 84

2.36 Summary of literature review 86

3.1 Experimental flow chart 88

3.2 Synthetic ester (Unicut jinen) 89

3.3 Esterification reaction of jatropha oil with methanol 91

3.4 Set-up of esterification process 91

3.5 Separation process of esterified jatropha oil 92

3.6 Titration process set-up 93

3.7 Permanent pink colour of mixture solution from titration

process 93

3.8 Reaction of esterified jatropha oil with methanol 95

3.9 Separation process of JME 95

3.10 Separation of JME after washing process 96

3.11 Reaction of JME with TMP 97

3.12 Transesterification set-up for reaction of JME with TMP 97

3.13 SEM micrograph of hBN particles 99

3.14 EDS analysis of hBN particles 99

3.15 Gas chromatography (GC) device 103

3.16 The position of each group esters from gas

xvii

chromatography analysis 103

3.17 Density test set 105

3.18 Viscometer 106

3.19 Pensky-Martens PMA 4 106

3.20 Coulometric KF titrator 108

3.21 The FFA values of CJO and esterified jatropha oil 109

3.22 Percentage yield of JME 112

3.23 The kinematic viscosity at 40 °C for modified jatropha oils 113

3.24 Bio-based MWFs at various ratios of JME:TMP 114

3.25 Percentage yield of MJOs 114

3.26 Gas chromatogram showing the position of each

group of esters namely JME, ME, DE, and TE for MJO5 117





3.29 Bio-based MWFs at various concentrations of hBN particles 119

3.30 Density values of the lubricants at 15 °C 121

3.31 The kinematic viscosity of CJO, SE and MJOs at

various temperatures from 30 to 100 °C 123

3.32 The kinematic viscosity of all samples at various

temperatures from 30 to 100 °C 124

3.33 The kinematic viscosity values at operating temperatures

of 40 and 100 °C and the calculated viscosity index value 125

3.34 The flash point value for all samples 127

3.35 The acid value for all samples 129

3.36 The water content value for all samples 130

3.37 Effect of long-term storage on acid value 133

3.38 Effect of long-term storage on kinematic viscosity at 40 ºC 134

3.39 The percentages of changes on acid value for various

types of lubricants 135

3.40 The percentages of changes on kinematic viscosity

for various types of lubricants 135

4.1 Experimental flowchart for tribological behaviours 138

xviii

4.2 Four ball tester machine 139

4.3 Surface morphology of the steel ball material before

testing at 500x magnifications 140

4.4 EDS spectrum for new ball steel surface 140

4.5 Three stationary balls in the ball port 140

4.6` Schematic diagram of the four ball tester 141

4.7 Schematic diagram of tapping torque set-up 144

4.8 Tapping tool 144

4.9 Coefficient of friction for the sample of lubricants 146

4.10 Schematic diagram of lubrication film in MJO samples 146

4.11 Variation of friction torque for all samples 149

4.12 Variation of mean wear scar diameter for all samples 151

4.13 SEM micrographs of worn surface on the steel balls

at the magnifications of 50x and 500x 153

4.14 EDS spectra of worn surface of CJO 156

4.15 EDS spectra of worn surface of SE 156

4.16 EDS spectra of worn surface of MJO5 157

4.17 EDS spectra of worn surface of MJO5a 157

4.18 Variation of surface roughness of the worn surface for

all samples 159

4.19 AFM micrographs of worn surfaces 160

4.20 Variation of volume wear rate for all samples 163

4.21 Variation of average tapping torque and thrust force for

all samples 166

4.22 Relationships of tapping torque efficiency with

coefficient of friction for all samples 168

5.1 Experimental flowchart for orthogonal cutting process 171

5.2 AISI 1045 172

5.3 Kendex positive flat top insert, SPGN 120308 173

5.4 Modified Kennametal tool holder, CSDPN 2525M12 173

5.5 Orthogonal cutting set-up 175

5.6 Nozzle location 176

5.7 EcoSaver KEP-R MQL device 177

5.8 Mist spray pattern 177

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5.9 Cutting force data evaluation system 179

5.10 FLIR T640 thermal imager camera 179

5.11 Image capture from orthogonal cutting process 180

5.12 Data extracted from recorded video 180

5.13 Chip thickness measurement 181

5.14 Nikon MM-60 tool makers measuring microscope 182

5.15 Tool maker microscope image at rake face 182

5.16 Cutting force results 184

5.17 Cutting temperature results 188

5.18 Chip thickness results 194

5.19 Shear angle results 185

5.20 Tool chip contact length results 198

5.21 Optical images of tool chip contact length 200

5.22 SEM micrograph of tool chip contact length 201

5.23 The specific energy results 204

6.1 Flowchart of experimental work for turning process 208

6.2 The uncoated cermet tool (TNGG220408R-UM) 210

6.3 Tool holder (MTQNR2525M22N) 210

6.4 Turning process set-up 212

6.5 Nozzle location 213

6.6 Image capture from turning process 214

6.7 Arithmetical mean of the profile (Ra) 215

6.8 Mahr roughness specimen plate 216

6.9 Four different locations of roughness at machined surface 216

6.10 Tool wears region 217

6.11 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) 218

6.12 The micrograph of new cutting tool 218

6.13 Variation of cutting forces 220

6.14 Variation of maximum cutting temperatures 224

6.15 Variation of average surface roughness (Ra) 226

6.16 Tool life for different lubricant samples 228

6.17 Progression of average flank wear (VBB) 229

6.18 Flank and rake face of the cutting tool for SE lubricant 232

6.19 EDS analysis for SE lubricant 232

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6.20 Flank and rake face of the cutting tool for MJO5 lubricant 234

6.21 EDS analysis for MJO5 lubricant 234



6.24 Flank and rake face of the cutting tool for MJO5a lubricant 237

6.25 EDS analysis for MJO5a lubricant 237



xxi

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

% - Percent, efficiency

µ - Micro

µ - Coefficient of friction

µm - Micrometer

a - Radius of wear scar diameter

ADDC - Antimony dialkyldithiocarbamate

Al - Aluminium

Al2O3 - Aluminium oxide

AOCS - American Oil Chemist’s Society

ASTM - American Society for Testing and Material

AW - Anti-wear

B - Boron

BHA - Butylated hydroxyl anisole

BHT - Butylated hydroxyl toluene

BSTFA - N,O-Bis(trimethylsilyl)tri-fluoroacetamide

BUE - Built-up-edge

C - Carbon

C3H8O - 2-propanol

CAN - Canola oil

CC - Coconut oil

CH4O - Methanol

CJO - Crude jatropha oil

cm - Centimeter

CNT - Carbon nanotube

Co - Cobalt

COF - Coefficient of friction

xxii

cP - Centipoise

CPO - Crude palm oil

Cr - Chromium

cSt - Centistoke

CTAB - Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide

Cu - Copper

CVD - Chemical vapour deposition

d - Depth of cut

DAQ - Data-acquisition

DBDS - Dibenzyldisulfide

DBP - Dibutyl 3.5-di-t-butyl-hydroxy

DE - Diester

DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid

DTC - Dithiocarbamates

DTP - Zincdithiophosphates

E - Elastic modulus

EDS - X-ray spectrometer

EHD - Elastohydrodynamic

EJME - Epoxidized jatropha methyl ester

EJO - Esterified jatropha oil

EJRO - Epoxidized jatropha raw oil

emf - Electro motive force

EP - Extreme pressure

EPME - Epoxidized pongam methyl ester

EPRO - Epoxidized pongam raw oil

F - Friction force

FAME - Fatty acid methyl ester

Fc - Cutting force

Fe - Iron

FESEM - Field emission scanning microscope

FFA - Free fatty acid

Fn - Normal force to friction

fr - Feed rate

Fs - Shear force

xxiii

Ft - Thrust force

g - Gram

GC - Gas chromatography

G-ratio - Grinding ratio

H - Hydrogen

h - Hour

H2SO4 - Sulfuric acid

H3PO4 - Ortho-phosphoric acid

hBN - Hexagonal boron nitride

HOSBO - High oleic soybean oil

J - Joule

JME - Jatropha methyl ester

k - Volume wear rate

KOH - Potassium hydroxide

l - Litre

L - Evaluation length

Lc - Total contact length

λc - Cut-off length

LCA - Life cycle analysis

LN - Liquid nitrogen

Ls - Sliding length

m - Meter

Mbar - Megabar

ME - Monoester

mg - Milligram

min - Minute

MJO1 - Modified jatropha oil (3.1:1)

MJO1a - Modified jatropha oil (3.1:1) with 0.05wt.% of hBN particles

MJO1b - Modified jatropha oil (3.1:1) with 0.1wt.% of hBN particles

MJO1c - Modified jatropha oil (3.1:1) with 0.5wt.% of hBN particles





xxiv





MJOs - Modified jatropha oil

Ml - Millilitre

mm - Millimeter

Mn - Manganese

MoS2 - Molybdenum disulphide

MPa - Megapascal

MQL - Minimum quantity lubrication

MQLPO - MQL palm oil

MQLSE - MQL synthetic ester

MWF - Metalworking fluid

MWSD - Mean wear scar diameter

N - Newton, nitride, normality (strength of alkali)

N - Normal force to friction

NaOCH3- Sodium methoxide

NaOH - Sodium hydroxide

nm - Nanometer

NPG - Neopenthylglycol

npi - Nanoparticle inclusions

O - Oxygen

Ø - Shear angle

Ø - Diameter

º - Degree of angle

ºC - Degree celsius

OL - Ordinary lubricant

P - Phosphorous

PAO - Polyalphaolefins

PCR - Poly-merase chain reaction

PE - Pentaerythritol

PG - Propyl gallate

POME - Palm oil methyl ester

xxv

PVD - Physically vapour deposited

r - Distance from the centre of the contact surface, r =3.67mm

R - Radius of the ball, resultant force

- Density

ra - Chip thickness ratio

Ra - Surface roughness value

RBD - Refined, bleached and deodorised

rev - Revolution

rpm - Revolution per minute

RR - Roundup Ready

rtip - Maximum stylus tip radius

s - Second

S - Sulphur

SBO - Soybean oil

SCCO2 - Supercritical carbon dioxide

SE - Synthetic ester

SEM - Scanning electron machine

Si - Silicon

SS - Sesame oil

T - Friction torque

t - Sliding time, thickness of cutting tool

TAN - Total acid number

TBHQ - Mon-tert-butyl-hydroquinone

tc - Deformed chip thickness

TE - Triester

Ti - Titanium

TiO2 - Titanium dioxide

TMP - Trimethylolpropane

TMPE - Synthetic lubricant

TMPTO - Trimethylolpropanetrioleate

to - Undeformed chip thickness

- Poisson ratio

U - Specific energy

UFA - Unsaturated fatty acids

xxvi

v - Kinematic viscosity

V - Vanadium

VBB - Average flank wear

VB B max - Maximum flank wear

VBN - Maximum notch wear

Vc - Cutting speed

VI - Viscosity index

vol. - Volume

vol.% - Percentage based on volume of oil

W - Applied load

W - Tungsten

w - Width of cut

W1 - Weight pycnometer with sample

WC - Tungsten carbide

Wo - Weight of dried pycnometer

WSD - Wear scar diameter

wt. - Weight

wt.% - Percentage based on weight of oil

xGnPs - Exfoliated graphite nano-platelet

ZDDP - Zinc dialkyldithiophosphates

α - Rake angle

β - Beta, clearance or relief angle

xxvii

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Example calculation in two step acid-base 271

catalysed transesterification process

B Example calculation to develop modified jatropha oil 272

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

Sustainability has become an important element to be considered in manufacturing

industry. Sustainability is commonly divided into three main pillars which are social,

environment and economic. There are six factors that significantly affect the

sustainable manufacturing; energy consumption, manufacturing cost, environmental

effect, operational safety, personal health and waste reduction (Jawahir et al., 2013).

It has enlightened the manufacturers in machining industries to shift their trend

towards other potential alternative solutions that can replace the petroleum-based

lubricant. Petroleum-based lubricants possess poor biodegradability, need high

processing cost of recycling processes and cause environmental pollution and health

problems. Recently, petroleum prices are fluctuating due to the decrease in total rate

of crude oil output.

This scenario triggers an interest in finding alternatives to petroleum-based

lubricant. The vegetable oils such as the soybean oil, sunflower oil and canola oil are

promising natural sources to be developed as lubricants for industrial applications. It

was estimated that only 0.1% lubricants in the market are made from vegetable oils

(Erhan et al., 2006). From the recent research by Lawal et al. (2012), it seems that

vegetable oil was the suitable replacements of the petroleum-based lubricant. These

oils indeed could offer significant environmental benefits with respect to resource

renewability, biodegradability, as well as providing satisfactory performance in a

wide array of applications. However, the usage of vegetable oil as lubricant also

faced some problems such as low thermal and oxidation stability that caused the oil

to become thick and sticky (Abdalla and Patel, 2006; Akbar et al., 2009; Arbain and

2

Salimon, 2011a). The aforementioned problems result in restraints for vegetable oil

to be used as an industrial lubricant. Therefore, the modification of vegetable oil is

crucially important in order to improve the crude oil efficiency. There are three types

of modification that have been identified by Shashidhara & Jayaram (2010) which

include reformulation of additives, chemical modification and genetic modification

of oil seed.

In the machining process, metalworking fluids (MWFs) is used for machining

purposes, stamping processes and manufacturing of automotive components as

shown in Figure 1.1. The absence of MWFs will result in acceleration of tool wear,

residual stress, dimensional error and poor surface finish (Skerlos et al., 2008). The

utilization of MWFs is more than 100 million gallons annually and the current

worldwide consumption is approximately 640 million gallons (Marksberry &

Jawahir, 2008). However, the usage of vegetable oil as MWF is still not widespread

due to its limitation as mentioned earlier. Previous researchers have identified that

MWFs made of rapeseed, palm, coconut and sunflower oils provided greater

lubricating properties and showed comparable performance with currently used

petroleum-based lubricant with regards to cutting force, cutting temperature, surface

finish, tool wear and tribological behaviour (Belluco and Chiffre, 2004; Jayadas et

al., 2007; Kuram et al., 2013c; Rahim and Sasahara, 2011a).

Figure 1.1: Metalworking fluids usage (Marksberry and Jawahir, 2008)

3

Rahim and Sasahara (2011b) proved that vegetable oil outperformed

synthetic ester (SE) in terms of force, temperature, energy and power. They exposed

that the properties of palm oil based on viscosity and viscosity index have influenced

the machining performances. Research finding by Kuram et al. (2013a) also pointed

out that the viscosity value affected the MWFs efficiency. Besides, MWFs made of

vegetable oils offers good boundary lubrication with low coefficient of friction

(COF) (Jayadas et al., 2007). In addition, Sales et al. (2006) highlighted that MWFs

formed a thin film between cutting tool and workpiece surface that influenced

reduction in friction and heat generation.

Hence, the development of new modification of vegetable oil is crucially

needed to be applied as MWF. From the modification process, the oil’s properties

can be enhanced and related to the machining performances outcomes. In this study,

modified jatropha oils (MJOs) were selected to be used as sustainable MWFs for the

machining process. In order to explore the reliability of these newly developed

MWFs, the properties of MJOs on tribological behaviour and the machining

performances were evaluated.

1.2 Problem statement

MWFs are used to reduce the generation of heat and friction at the tool-workpiece

interfaces during the machining process. The conventional MWFs which consist of

the combination of petroleum-based lubricant and additives are toxic to the

environment and difficult to be disposed after the consumption (Erhan et al., 2006).

The petroleum-based lubricant exhibited poor biodegradability and required high

processing cost for recycling process. The widespread use of MWFs caused

significant health and environmental hazards through their life cycle. As MWFs are

complex in their composition, they may cause irritation or allergy to the skin, lungs,

eyes, nose and throat. Moreover MWFs lead to more severe conditions such as

dermatitis, acne, asthma, and a variety of cancers. Nicol & Hurrell (2008) reported

that all occupational diseases of workers are due to skin contact with MWFs as

shown Figure 1.2.

To overcome these problems, various alternatives to petroleum-based

lubricant have currently been explored by researchers which include the

4

developments of synthetics oils, vegetable based-oil and solid lubricants (Lawal,

2013; Nguyen et al., 2012; Suhane, 2012). The growing demand for biodegradable

materials opened an opportunity for using vegetable oil as a replacement to

petroleum-based oils. This condition is due to the increasing awareness on

sustainable elements in machining process that identified majority of the lubricant oil

consists of non-sustainable elements (Pusavec et al., 2010).

Therefore, MWFs made of vegetables oil are favourable as sustainable

alternative to the conventional MWF. MWFs from vegetables oil served as an anti-

wear and anti-friction medium due to strong interactions with the lubricant at the

contact surfaces (Quinchia et al., 2014). Previous researchers indicated that vegetable

oil exhibited higher lubricity, lower volatility as well as higher viscosity index and

flash point when compared to mineral and synthetic oils (Lovell et al., 2006). MWFs

from edible vegetable oils such as soybean, canola and sunflower oil have been

widely studied by previous researches (Clarens et al., 2004; Erhan and Asadauskas,

2000; Kuram et al., 2010). Hence, aforementioned oils are planted in the four

seasons countries such as United State and European. They are readily biodegradable

and less costly than synthetic base-stocks. They also showed a considerably

acceptable performance as lubricants and have been commercialized. However, the

feedstock used from edible vegetable oils for biolubricant production may compete

with the feedstock used for the food production thus contributes in high rising cost of

Figure 1.2: Description of health effects on experts and workers due to MWF’s

exposure (Nicol and Hurrell, 2008)

5

food (Gashaw and Teshita, 2014; Shamsuddin et al., 2015; Umaru and Aberuagba,

2012). Yet, the used of non-edible jatropha oil is preferable to substitute the

petroleum base oil. Jatropha oil has extensively been studied for the usage as biofuel

(Chhetri et al., 2008; Kombe et al., 2012; Okullo et al., 2012) and bio-lubricants

such as for hydraulic fluids and engine oil (Resul et al., 2012; Imran et al., 2013;

Zulkifli et al., 2014). Jatropha oil is a clean and renewable source of lubricant that

cannot be used for the nutritional purposes. A main drawback found in crude

jatropha oil (CJO) is that it has poor thermal-oxidative stability due to unsaturation in

molecule that leads to oxidation reaction (Arbain and Salimon, 2011b). Therefore, it

is crucially needed to chemically modify the CJO to improve the oil’s property. In

addition, the use of jatropha oil as MWF is still not widespread and because of issue,

further research relate to the development of bio-based MWFs is needed in

investigating the potential properties of jatropha oil as MWF.

Moreover, MWF-based oils can be strengthened by the addition of various

functions of additives. Previous studies used sulphur and phosphorous compounds as

additives in vegetable oil lubricant (Belluco and Chiffre, 2004; Minami et al., 2007;

Waara et al., 2001; Yan et al., 2012; Zeng et al., 2007). Eventhough, these

compound influenced the machining performances by reducing friction and wear,

there were poisonous to environment (Ji et al., 2012; Johnson and Hils, 2013).

Therefore, boron and nitrite compounds have been found in numerous industrial

applications because they are safe to be handled, non-toxic, no limitations on its

operational uses, good thermal stability and high thermal conductivity (Reeves et al.,

2013; Wan et al., 2015). The presence of boron and nitride compound in lubricant

also enhanced the lubrication and tribological behaviours (Abdullah et al., 2013;

Nguyen et al., 2012). However, there is limited study that discussed the effects of the

boron and nitride compounds in tribological behaviours and machining

performances.

An appropriate MWF’s properties significantly affect the machining

performances. Therefore, new formulations of bio-based MWFs made of non-edible

jatropha oil and boron and nitride compounds are desirable in order to develop

sustainable MWF with enhanced lubrication and tribological behaviour. In

discovering a suitability of bio-based MWF, the effects of lubrication properties and

additives concentrations are needed to be studied.

6

1.3 Aim and objectives

The aim of this research was to study the performance of newly formulation of MJOs

as bio-based MWFs. The main focus was emphasized on preparing the bio-based

MJOs, analysing the properties of MJOs, examining the tribological behaviours and

evaluating the machining performances. The specific objectives of this study are:

i. To study the application of vegetable-based oils as MWFs in machining

process. (Related to Chapter 2)

ii. To develop a new formulation of MJO-based MWFs and to analyse the

physicochemical properties at various molar ratios (jatropha methyl ester and

trimethylolpropane) and addition with various concentrations of additive.

(Related to Chapter 3)

iii. To examine the tribological behaviour of newly developed MJOs through

four ball and tapping torque tests. (Related to Chapter 4)

iv. To evaluate the performances of newly developed MJOs in the orthogonal

cutting process under minimum quantity lubrication method in terms of

cutting force, cutting temperature, chip thickness, tool-chip contact length

and specific energy. (Related to Chapter 5)

v. To justify the machinability criteria of the newly developed MJOs under

minimum quantity lubrication method in terms of tool life, tools wear

mechanism, cutting force, cutting temperature and surface roughness through

turning process. (Related to Chapter 6)

1.4 Scopes of the research

Figure 1.3 demonstrates the flow chart of the current research scopes. This study

involved a development of newly formulation of bio-based MWFs denoted as MJOs

by chemical modification and mixed with additive. Two step acid-based catalysed

transesterification process was carried out to develop jatropha methyl ester (JME).

Then, the desired JME which achieved the required properties according to ASTM

D6751 was reacted with trimethylolpropane by varying the molar ratio by

transesterification to develop MJOs. The entire products were compared with

commercial SE and CJO. Physicochemical properties include density, viscosity, flash

7

Figure 1.3: The flow chart of the research scopes

point, water content and acid value were analysed. The tribological behaviours of the

products were examined through four ball test and tapping torque test. Both

physicochemical test and tribology test were performed according to ASTM standard

testing procedure. The evaluation of machining performances were carried out by

using orthogonal cutting process at three level of feed rates (0.08, 0.1 and 0.12

mm/rev) and three level of cutting speeds (350, 450 and 550 m/min) in terms of

cutting force, cutting temperature, chip thickness, tool chip contact length and

specific energy. Finally, the machinability test was conducted by turning process at

8

constant machining parameter to investigate the tool life, tool wear, cutting force,

cutting temperature and surface roughness.

1.5 Organization of thesis

The inscription of this thesis is divided into seven chapters. Chapter 1 provides a

brief introduction to the research topic, including the problems and related issues.

Based on this, aim and objectives were developed. Chapter 2 presents a review of the

literature in creating the aims study by considering constrains and limitations of

current researches. Topics reviewed include types, sources and application methods

of MWFs, modification of vegetable oils, MWFs properties and application of

vegetable oils in the machining process. Chapter 3 presents the whole experiment

procedure on the developing of the MJOs, including the material preparation,

chemical modification process and physicochemical testing. The effect on the

various molar ratios and various additives concentrations are briefly discussed.

Chapter 4 presents the experiment procedures and analysis method to examine the

tribological behaviour of the newly developed MJOs through four ball test and

tapping torque test. Chapter 5 presents the evaluation of machining performances

through the orthogonal cutting process of the newly developed MJOs by considering

cutting force, cutting temperature, chip thickness, tool-chip contact length and

specific energy consumption. Further, Chapter 6 discusses the investigation on

machinability criteria of the newly developed MJOs through turning process

regarding to the tool life, tool wear, cutting force, cutting temperature and surface

roughness. Finally, conclusions and recommendations are presented in Chapter 7.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter consists of reviews on literature related to the development and

application of bio-based oils as metalworking fluids for machining process. The

reviews can be organized into eleven main sections; i.e. sustainable manufacturing,

metalworking fluids in machining process, metal cutting, lubricant sources,

modification method for vegetable-based metalworking fluids, physicochemical

properties, tribological behaviour, applications of vegetables-based metalworking

fluids in machining process, effect of additive particles in metalworking fluids for

machining processes, jatropha oil as potential bio-based metalworking fluid and

hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) as an additive in metalworking fluid.

2.2 Sustainable manufacturing

Sustainability provides an understanding regarding the basic theories and

applications of sustainability science about product life cycle engineering with the

implementation of sustainable in social, economy and environment aspects (Jawahir

et al., 2013). Sustainable manufacturing can be expressed as providing goods and

services for costumer satisfying while accelerating economic growth and

decelerating the environmental damage. The sustainability is aiming a quality level

of product, process and system that allows preserving, keeping and maintaining

something (Molamohamadi and Ismail, 2013). Sustainable manufacturing delivers

product and process that affect the quality of human life and contribute to the world

economy.

10

There are six elements which contribute in the sustainability of product

include environmental effect, social impact (in terms of health, safety and ethics),

functionality, resource utilization and economy, manufacturability and product’s

recyclability and remanufacturability (Jawahir et al., 2013). In addition, Jawahir et

al. (2013) also revealed that there are six elements affect the sustainability in

manufacturing process; i.e. energy consumption, manufacturing cost, environmental

impact, operational safety, personal health and reduction of waste material. Both

sustainability elements in product and process were implemented in the blueprint for

model-based sustainable manufacturing as shown in Figure 2.1. The concept of “6R”

(reduce, reuse, recycle, recover, redesign and remanufacture) was introduced in

sustainable manufacturing as the innovation based transformation from an open-loop,

single life-cycle paradigm to a closed-loop, multiple life-cycle paradigm (Jawahir

and Jayal, 2011). The implementation of sustainability principles in machining

process encourages the industry to save money and improve the environmental and

social performance. In this way, Jawahir and Jayal (2011) defined that sustainable

machining techniques use less quantity of metalworking fluid, liquid nitrogen,

vegetable oil or compressed air as a cooling-lubrication medium. The lubricants used

in sustainable machining methods are totally biodegradable and eco-friendly. Chetan

et al. (2015) defined the various characteristics of sustainable machining techniques

which increased awareness of the sustainability issues in machining as shown in

Figure 2.2.

Skerlos et al. (2008) initiated that metalworking fluid (MWF) systems are

excellent candidate to implement sustainable machining since simultaneous

improvements of economic, environmental and health dimensions are possible and

critically necessary. They suggested the development of gas-based minimum

quantity lubrication (MQL) systems such as the development supercritical carbon

dioxide (SCCO2) MWF. On the other hand, Kuram et al. (2013b) have suggested

three methods that contributes to the sustainable machining were dry cutting, MQL

and implement of vegetable oil. Further, Lawal et al. (2013) identified another

alternative to the conventional lubricant to be applied in the machining process. They

initiated the conventional lubricant that was normally produced from the petroleum-

based oil can be replaced using high-pressure coolant technique, cryogenic cooling,

solid lubricant and air or gas or vapour coolant.

11

Figure 2.1: Model-based sustainable manufacturing (Jawahir and Jayal, 2011)

Figure 2.2: Characteristics of sustainable machining

The implementation of MWF in the machining process increases the quality

and productivity of the products. However, the conventional cooling method by

delivering with a huge amount of coolant (flood cooling technique) required a high

machining cost (Pusavec et al., 2010). Berchmans & Hirata (2008) recognized that

inexpensive feedstock such as non-edible oils, animal fat and waste cooking oil could

reduce the machining cost. Therefore, this study focused on the implementation of

vegetable oil and green solid lubricant would be applied for MQL methods in

machining process.

12

2.3 Metalworking fluid in machining process

An increasing awareness with regards to sustainable aspect in the manufacturing

industry leads to the consideration for renewable and biodegradable-based oils.

Biodegradability shows the ability of MWF to be decomposed by microorganisms

(Anand and Chhibber, 2006). Table 2.1 displays the biodegradability of some base

lubricants. This property ensures the environmentally friendly of vegetable-based oil

and modified vegetable-based oil, thus enhances the commercial value. Abdalla et al.

(2007) indicated a huge total of 320,000 tons of MWF had to be disposed every year,

which acquires a high recycling cost. The complex formulation of MWFs generated

fungi and bacteria which cause irritation or allergy upon skin contact (Bakalova et

al., 2007). Furthermore, a long exposure to MWF causes serious health problems,

such as lung infection, eye irritation and cancer (Nicol and Hurrell, 2008).

In addition, previous study indicated that 85% of the global lubricant

consumption are petroleum-based oil (Pop et al., 2008). Further, Lukoil (2013)

reported that, a global demand for liquid hydrocarbon would grow annually by 1.2%,

and the quantity would reach 105 million barrels oil per day in 2025. The high

demand of petroleum-based oils in the industry led to the research and development

of environmentally friendly lubricants. Therefore, the bio-based MWF from

vegetable oil has become crucial to be explored and developed as it is a safe and

environmentally friendly type of oil. In addition, several methods have been

developed for controlling the temperature and to reduce the friction in the cutting

zone in order to increase the machining efficiency such as flood coolant, dry

machining, minimum quantity lubrication method (MQL) and cryogenic coolant.

During the machining process, MWFs penetrated into the cutting zone to

provide sufficient lubrication and cooling effect. They reduced the friction between

the tool-chip interfaces and adsorbed the heat generated associated with the reduction

Table 2.1: Biodegradability of oil-based lubricants (Anand and Chhibber, 2006)

Types of lubricants Biodegradability (%), CEC-L-33-A-94 method

Mineral oil 20-40

Vegetable oil 90-98

Ester 75-100

Polyol 70-100

13

of power consumption. They removed debris or swarf from the work surfaces

(Brinksmeier et al., 2015). MWFs are used as lubricant in machining processes to

increase tool life, enhance machining efficiency and provide excellent surface quality

and accuracy. There are two major components in MWFs which are basic fluid and

an additive package as shown in Figure 2.3 (Winter et al., 2012). In general,

conventional-based MWF (straight or neat oil) are mostly from petroleum-based oil.

Synthetic ester and vegetable oil are currently used as a replacement of mineral oil.

Furthermore, the addition of various types of additives is to improve the specific oil

characteristic.

MWF can be classified as straight oil, soluble oil, synthetic, semi-synthetic

and vegetable-based oil as shown in Table 2.2. Semi-synthetic and fully- synthetic

oils have been recently used due to their good lubrication and cooling behaviours.

The semi-synthetic oil contains a combination of petroleum-based oil with additives

that mixed with water and the fully-synthetic oil contains a combination of chemicals

and additives that mixed with water (Rudnick and Erhan, 2013). Both petroleum-

based oil and synthetic oil with the combination of various additives can be harmful

to human and the environment due to their high toxicity, non-renewability and high

disposal cost.

Figure 2.3: Component of metalworking fluids (Winter et al., 2012)

14

Table 2.2: Advantages and disadvantages of MWFs (Rudnick and Erhan, 2013)

Types Descriptions Advantages Disadvantages

Straight

oils

These products derived primarily

from petroleum oils or animal and

vegetable oils are occasionally

used. These oils contain no water

and used singly or in combination

with or without additives. These

oils are not diluted with water and

offer excellent lubricants but

having limited cooling capacity.

Excellent lubricity and

rust control

Low cooling, fire

hazard, create a

mist/smoke, limited

to low speed and

heavy cutting

operation

Soluble

oils

There are actually oil-in-water

emulsions which are

combinations of 30%-85%

severely petroleum oils and

emulsifiers that may include other

additive.

Good lubricity and

cooling

Rust control

problems, bacteria

growth and

evaporation losses

Semi-

synthetics

These products concentrate

contains water-soluble additive,

emulsifiers and less than 20%

petroleum oil

Good cooling, rust

control and microbial

control

Easily foam and

contaminated by

other machine

fluids, stability is

affected by water

hardness

Synthetics There are contains no petroleum

oil and form true solutions when

diluted with water.

Excellent cooling, and

microbial control, non-

flammable, non-

smoking, good corrosion

control, reduced misting

and foaming problems

Poor lubricity and

easily contaminated

by other machine

fluids

2.3.1 Flood coolant

In regular machining operation, MWF is supplied through conventional lubrication

by flood coolant to the cutting zone. In this method, large amount of MWF is

continuously delivered to the cutting zone by pipe, hose or nozzle. The MWF is

cumulated in a reservoir, filtered and pumped back to the delivery nozzle. The use of

flood coolant method has increased the overall machining cost especially in disposal

matter (Sharma et al., 2009). Madhukar et al. (2016) pointed that 22% of the MWF

costs in machining process come from disposal cost. Moreover, as flood coolant is

used for several times, the MWFs may become dirty and contaminated as it

continuously in contact to the machined particles. Furthermore, the physical and

chemical properties of MWFs changed adversely, thus affected the machining

efficiency and induced adversely impacts on the environment and human health

(Tazehkandi et al., 2015a). Normally, the flood coolants are mainly made from

water-based oil. Hence, the presence of water led the growth of various bacteria and

15

microbes which can endanger the human health (Kuram et al., 2013b). Therefore,

several methods such as dry machining, MQL and cryogenic cooling are finding their

ways as an alternative to the flood cooling.

2.3.2 Dry machining

Dry machining is a machining process without the presence of MWFs. This method

offers several beneficial aspects with regard to environment and human health. Dry

machining confirms workers’ health and a clean work environment. Moreover, dry

machining reduces the machining cost cutting down the cost of purchasing the

MWFs, reduces the disposal cost and provides less hazardous impact to environment.

However, this method is not suitable to cut very hard materials and it highly

dependent on the selection of appropriate cutting tools, cutting parameters, and types

of workpiece material (Ghani et al., 2014).

Dry machining process indicates high friction at tool-workpiece interface,

thus increases cutting temperature at the cutting zone stimulated with excessive tool

wear and decreases tool life. Furthermore, the chips produced during machining

cannot be carried away and deteriorating the machined surface. Tasdelen et al.

(2008) investigated the influenced of MQL compared with dry cutting in machining

100Cr6 through orthogonal turning test in terms of tool–chip contact and chip

morphology. They found that the contact length decreased using MQL methods as

compared to dry cutting for both short and long engagement time of the section at

intermittent turning. This scenario was mainly due to cooling effect from air

constituent in the aerosol flow. Furthermore, it can be seen that the chips produced in

dry machining were wider than the chips produced in cutting using MQL.

The performances of dry machining can be enhanced by developing cutting

tool coating materials, developing tool materials with lower COF and high heat

resistance and appropriate tool geometries (Kuram et al., 2013). In this way, MQL

and cryogenic cooling methods during machining may offer a solution to overcome

some drawbacks of the dry machining.

16

2.3.3 Minimum quantity lubrication

Due to the negative effects of the flood coolant on environment and human health

and limited material to cut in dry machining, the MQL or near dry machining (NDM)

has shown greater effect in the machining process. In MQL, a combination of high

pressure and oil are transported in the form of an aerosol (mist) to the cutting zone.

Aerosols are generated by atomization process, which is the conversion of a bulk

MWFs into a mist through the nozzle (Astakhov, 2008). Two types of MWF are

typically used for MQL included vegetable oils and synthetic ester (Khan and Dhar,

2006; Suda et al., 2002). The reasons are these two types of MWF have high

biodegradability and less toxic which lead to the environmental compatibility. The

synthetic ester is commonly made from chemically modified vegetable oil has high

boiling temperature and flash point and a low viscosity that promoted a thin

lubrication film on the tool-workpiece interface to reduce friction and heat

generation. Meanwhile, fatty acids alcohol synthesized from long-chained alcohols

are made from natural raw materials or from mineral oils have lower flash point and

high viscosity. The lubricating effects is very moderate, but they have better heat

removal due to evaporation of heat (Weinert et al., 2004).

In recent times, nanofluids such as molybdenum disulphide (MoS2), carbon

nanotube (CNT), titanium dioxide (TiO2) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) have been

used in MQL systems. The addition of nanofluid in MQL showed an improvement

on thermal conductivity and heat transfer coefficient (Dixit et al., 2012). Zhang et al.

(2015) applied nanofluid containing MoS2 with a diameter of 50 nm in several types

of oil-based (liquid paraffin, palm oil, rapeseed oil, and soybean oil for grinding

process. The grinding performances were compared in terms of cutting force, particle

size, viscosity of nanofluids, and workpiece surface roughness. The experimental

results revealed that the addition of MoS2 in soybean-based oil increased the

nanoparticle concentration and the nanofluid viscosity which corresponded to better

lubricating property. However, the addition of MoS2 more than 6% deteriorated the

grinding performance due to nanoparticle agglomeration that reduced the lubricating

property.

17

2.3.4 Cryogenic cooling

During cryogenic cooling, the liquid nitrogen (LN) at 196º is applied to the cutting

zone. Nitrogen is odourless, colourless, non-toxic gas and evaporates into the air,

which there is no MWF used to be disposed. Tazehkandi et al. (2015a) studied the

machining of Inconel 740 using the application of LN and spray mode of

biodegradable vegetable cutting fluid through turning process. The result showed that

use of LN in a combination with spray mode of the cutting fluid and compressed air

was more efficient that the flood mode in terms of cutting force and tool tip

temperature. There was a reduction in the amount of tool wear which prevented the

formation of built-up-edge. Moreover, by employing this method the consumption of

the cutting fluid during turning process can be significantly reduced.

Furthermore Rahim et al. (2016) promoted supercritical carbon dioxide

technique (SCCO2) of coolant in order to replace the usage of LN. They investigated

the cutting temperature, cutting force, chip thickness, tool-chip contact length and

specific energy in orthogonal cutting of AISI 1045 using the approach of SCCO2

method of coolant. They revealed that using SCCO2, cutting temperature, cutting

force, chip thickness, tool-chip contact length and specific energy can be decreased

significantly when compared to MQL method. They initiated that the carbon dioxide

is a non-toxic gas and has excellent solubility with vegetable oils above its critical

point (critical temperature = 31.2 °C, critical pressure = 7.38 MPa), much cheaper

and easily availed as compared to LN. The carbon dioxide offers rapid expansion of

supercritical solutions for coating and spraying applications. The SCCO2 produces a

homogenous and finely dispersed spray of dry ice and frozen oil particles at a few

microns in size, thus provides sufficient heat removal and lubrication to the cutting

zone.

It can be seen that, the cryogenic machining is a recommendable alternative

to flood coolant and MQL. However, Deiab et al. (2014) stated that the machining

cost of cryogenic machining is still undoubted and need to be further investigated.

Moreover, overcooling during the cryogenic machining induces to embrittlement of

workpiece and hence increases the cutting force (Chetan et al., 2015).

18

2.4 Metal cutting

Metal cutting is the process of removing unwanted material from workpiece to obtain

a part with a certain desired shape and size with high dimensional accuracy and high

quality surface finish. Machining performances are influenced by various machining

parameters as shown in Figure 2.4. It can be divided into five main categories

namely cutting fluid, cutting tool, machine tool, workpiece and machine conditions.

Figure 2.4: Machining parameters

2.4.1 Orthogonal cutting mechanism

Orthogonal cutting uses a wedge-shaped tool in which cutting edge is

perpendicular to the direction of cutting speed. The orthogonal cutting models are

shown in Figures 2.5 and 2.6. The surface along the chip flows is known as rake face

and the surface ground back to clear the new or machined workpiece surface known

as flank. The tool used in orthogonal cutting only has two elements of geometry

which are rake angle (α) and relief angle or clearance angle (β). The rake angle

determines the direction of chip formation, meanwhile the relief angle is made to

avoid the tool from touching the newly cut workpiece surface as it passes the

workpiece. During the cutting process, there are forces generated between the

workpiece and cutting tool. The depth of the individual layer of material which have

19

Figure 2.5: Three dimensional process of orthogonal cutting model (Groover, 2007)

Figure 2.6: Two dimensional side view (Groover, 2007)

been removed by the action of the tool is known as undeformed chip thickness, to

(Groover, 2007).

As shown in Figures 2.5 and 2.6, the cutting tool penetrates into the

workpiece and forces to form the chips that fly along the rake face of the tool. High

pressure and plastic deformation occur in front of the cutting edge where the elastic

limits of workpiece materials are exceeded. The chip deformation is dependent on

the cutting conditions (cutting speed, feed, depth of cut), tool geometry and material

properties. From Figure 2.5, the uncut chip thickness (to) is known as the feed while

20

the deformed chip has a different chip thickness (tc). The friction that occurs between

the chip and the tool significantly affects the cutting process. The huge amount of

heat energy produces from this process will be transferred into the workpiece. The

shearing action will takes place along the shear plane when the cutting tool is forced

into the workpiece material. The chip is formed by shear deformation along a thin

shear plan, oriented at shear angle () with the surface of the workpiece as shown in

Figure 2.6. The relationship between shear angle and rake angle is expressed in

Equation 2.1.

Shear angle, (º) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑟𝑎cos𝛼

1−𝑟𝑎sin𝛼) (2.1)

where, ra = Chip thickness ratio, ra = 𝑡𝑜

𝑡𝑐

to = Undeformed chip thickness

tc = Deformed chip thickness

α = Rake angle

The optimization of cutting tool geometry, cutting tool material, cutting

speed, rake angle and cutting fluid are needed to reduce or minimize the friction. In

the metal cutting operation, there are three locations of deformation, namely primary

shear zone, secondary shear zone and tertiary shear zone, as shown in Figure 2.7

(Kiliçaslan, 2009).

Primary shear zone (A-B): The chip formation takes place firstly and mainly in this

zone as the edge of the tool penetrates into the work-piece. Material in this zone has

been deformed by a concentrated shearing process.

Secondary shear zone (A-C): The chip and the rake face of the tool are in contact

from A to C. When the frictional stress on the rake face reaches a value that is equal

to the shear yield stress of the work-piece material, material flow also occur on this

zone.

Tertiary shear zone (A-D): When a clearance face of the tool rubs the newly

machined surface deformation can occur on this zone.

21

Figure 2.7: Deformation zones in the cutting (Kiliçaslan, 2009)

2.4.2 Cutting force

Cutting forces can be defined as the forces generated by friction in machining. The

generated forces can be used to estimate the lubrication efficiency of the

metalworking fluid. The generated friction is the resisting force of a workpiece

material while it slides over the cutting tool and acts oppositely to the relative motion

(cutting speed, Vc) of the surface. Figure 2.8 shows Merchant’s force diagram which

the forces acts on the chip during orthogonal cutting process. The cutting force (Fc)

is in the direction of cutting which in the same direction as the cutting speed and the

thrust force (Ft) is perpendicular to the cutting force. Both, cutting force and thrust

force can be directly measured through force measuring device called dynamometer

during the machining operation. Meanwhile, the other four forces components;

friction force (F), normal force to friction (N), shear force (Fs) and normal force to

shear (Fn) can be calculated by Equations 2.2 to 2.5 (Groover, 2007);

F = Fc sin + Ft cos (2.2)

N = Fc cos- Ft sin (2.3)

Fs = Fc cos- Ft sin (2.4)

Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos (2.5)

The cutting forces were influenced by machining parameters such as feed

rate, depth of cut, cutting speed and types of lubricant used. Rahim and Sasahara

(2011b) reported that the cutting force significantly decreased as the cutting speed

22

Figure 2.8: Forces in metal cutting (Groover, 2007)

increased. The reduction of cutting force is due to the reduction of contact area at

tool-chip interfaces which reduces the specific cutting energy. In addition, cutting

force increases with the increase in feed rate. The reason is due to the increased chip

load as the feed has been increased during the cutting process. Thicker chips formed

as the feed rate increases which substantially increases the cutting force.

Moreover, Khan and Dhar (2006) stated that the cutting force significantly

decreased using MQL method using vegetable-based oil. The usage of vegetable oil

beneficially improves the workpiece quality and reduces friction and heat generation.

The vegetable oil’s molecules have high absorption ability due to the long, heavy and

dipolar in nature, create a strong lubrication film. Furthermore, greater molecular

weight of vegetable oil stimulates less loss from vaporization and misting. Liu et al.

(2011) found that the usage of MQL method significantly reduced the cutting force.

The oil’s droplets easily penetrated into the contact zone of the chip-tool-workpiece

interface, led to the friction reduction.

2.4.3 Cutting temperature

There are various methods to measure the cutting temperature under different

conditions and on different types of machines as shown in Figure 2.9 (Longbottom

and Lanham, 2005). The tool-workpiece thermocouple (Figure 2.10) and embedded

23

Figure 2.9: Temperature measurement methods

Figure 2.10: Tool-workpiece thermocouple method (Leshock and Shin, 1997)

24

Figure 2.11: Embedded thermocouple method (Hadad and Sadeghi, 2013)

Figure 2.12: PVD film method (Shinozuka et al., 2008)

thermocouple (Figure 2.11) are regularly used methods to measure the cutting

temperature. The tools and/or workpieces have to be insulated in order to avoid

short-circuit in the system during using the tool-workpiece thermocouple method.

Here the cutting temperature is associated to the electro motive force (emf) generated

across the hot interface between tool and workpiece. Meanwhile, the embedded

thermocouple is placed in a hole drilled in the tool in the case of turning or in the

workpiece for milling. The holes have to be placed close to the cutting edge at very

precise locations. This method can be used to identify the temperature distribution

within the tool or workpiece but not for determining the surface temperature.

Another approached method is physically vapour deposited (PVD) film (Figure

2.12). The PVD film method requires the workpiece to be cut into two parts and the

246

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