The Final Frontier By the beginning of the 18th century, the

Pacific was the only land that had not been explored and charted – it became the final frontier

Antoine de Bougainville landed on an island (present day Tahiti) in April 4th 1768 – saw a land of beautiful and happy people free of social organization, without religion, perfect climate, abundance of food, etcÉ”Islands of the Blest”

Tahitians provided false proof of this blessed land – they were by no means unwarlike nor did they lack social or religious structure

Bougainville and Cook’s description of the islands left a lasting image of the Pacific as a place to act out on fantasies of sexual freedom and liberty from social constraint

Charles de Brosse – new enlightened French presence in the Pacific combines trade with education

Disinterested pursuit of science was transformed into a new kind of ideology and scientist became a new hero

Omai & Aotourou became celebrities when brought back home as a display of native life – they were met by leading scientists, historians, explorers, and philosophers of the day

Empire, Race, and Nation “Empire” was understood to be a federation entered into voluntarily – Emperor is he

who rules over a free people, where a King is a tyrant Napoleon wished to unify Europe – Declaration of the Rights of Man of 1789 set out

“fundamental principles which must provide the ground for all government” (French idealism)

Britain, after putting an end to Napoleon, had similar goals and strategies Exhibitions of natives became regular during the 19th century in Europe – displays of

native colonies alongside the flora and fauna of their home lands, as well as large contingents of trained soldiers to demonstrate the possibilities for “evolution”

“Civilizing” had been an objective of all imperial ventures since Rome, relied upon a widely accepted vision of a universal human nature and a universal law of human evolution

The “primitive” condition of “backward races” of the world – believed to be simply waiting to receive instruction, to be brought enlightenment, technology, Christianity, and enlightenment as defining marks of civilization

Racism separated people into two groups – whites and blacks Whites “have attained a more or less perfect stage of civilization” and Blacks “struggle

for survival in a constantly imperfect civilization”

Ending “Great Game” one power playing against another – Otoman Sultanate

resistance to European incursions Lord George Macartney best remembered today for his celebrated refusal to

perform the traditional kowtow before the emperor or China His refusal was a measure of his conviction and pride In 1911, the Chinese empire collapsed before an internal rebellion and was

delivered into the hands of a number of regional commanders known in the west as warlords until the communist takeover in 1949

Final demise of Chinese Empire left world in the hands of the major Europeans powers, Russia, and the US

Subject peoples were only to remain in subjection as long as a significant number of them could see benefit in it

Resistance to any kind of rule requires organization and courage – vision of a better future