People in change management
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Transcript of People in change management
People
Change Management
Organizational Congruence Model
Nadler - Tushman
INPUT INPUT
ENVIRONMENTENVIRONMENT(P.E.S.T.)(P.E.S.T.)
RESOURCESRESOURCES
HISTORY/HISTORY/CULTURECULTURE
OUTPUTOUTPUT
ORGANIZATIOORGANIZATIONALNAL
LEVELLEVEL
UNIT/GROUPUNIT/GROUPLEVELLEVEL
INDIVIDUALINDIVIDUALLEVELLEVEL
INFORMALSTRUCTURE& PROCESS
PEOPLE
FORMAL STRUCTURE
SSTTRRAATTEEGGYY
WORK
TRANFORMATION PROCESSTRANFORMATION PROCESS
INDIVIDUAL CHANGE (Theory Types)
BEHAVIOURAL(Changes what you do)
COGNITIVE(Motivating for results)
PSYCHODYNAMIC(What’s going on for you)
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY(Maximising your own potential)
THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH TO CHANGE
The behavioural approach focuses on •how one individual can change another individual’s behaviour using •reward and punishment, to achieve intended results. •to elicit the preferred behaviour the individual must be encouraged to behave that way, and discouraged from behaving any other way.
12-5
THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH: MOTIVATION
Intrinsic Motivation Factors
Things that are done because the person finds doing the activity a reward in itself
Intrinsically motivated people love their work and take pride in feelings of accomplishment it provides them
Praise, laud, recognition Less concern or desire for
economic or personal gains
Extrinsic Motivation Factors
External to the job and are done in order to obtain a monetary or physical reward, a social reward, or to avoid punishment Wages, incentives, awards,
job title that reflects status Extrinsically motivated people
focus on what they receive or don’t receive for their efforts Work is not of utmost
importance, it’s what they get for it
12-6
THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH: HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION-HYGIENE (2-FACTOR APPROACH)
Definition
People need to have a job with motivators present and hygiene factors absent or neutral Motivating factors are intrinsic
to job Achievement, recognition, the
work itself, responsibility, advancement, growth
Hygiene factors are extrinsic Company policies and admin,
supervision, relationship with supervisor, work conditions, salary, relationship with peers, status, security
Application
Consider presence or absence of groups of factors Make sure people find work
interesting and challenging Build motivating factors—
opportunities for achievement, recognition, enjoyable work, responsibility, and advancement into activities
Ensure hygiene factors are not considered negative and working as de-motivators
THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH EXPECTANCY THEORY SYSTEM
EXPECTANCYEXPECTANCYLikelihood increasedeffort will lead togreater performance
INSTRUMENTALITYINSTRUMENTALITYLikelihood greaterPerformance will leadto more rewards
VALENCEVALENCEImportance of receivingMore of certain rewards
REWARDREWARDPERFORMANCEPERFORMANCEEFFORTEFFORT
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH TO CHANGE
Cognitive psychologists were•much more interested in learning about developing person’s capacity for problem solving. •They were interested in things that happen within a person’s brain. •These are the internal processes
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH: MOTIVATION
(Cognitive Theories: ( Motivating for results )Aaron Beck – 1970
SELF CONCEPT &
VALUES BELIEFS
ATTITUDES
FEELINGS
BEHAVIOUR
RESULTS
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH TO CHANGE
This approach involves focusing on building a• approaches to change•positive mental attitude and •some stretching goals,•that becomes self-defeating.
THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO CHANGE
The word ‘psychodynamic’ is based on the idea that when facing•change in the external world, an individual can experience a variety of internal psychological states. •the psychodynamic approach began not in the arena of organizations, but for Kubler-Ross in the area of terminally ill patients.
Psychodynamic: ( Whats going on for you? )1. Reactions to change – Kubler - Ross 1969
SELF
ESTEEM
TIME
Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
Psychodynamic: ( Whats going on for you? ) 2. Reactions to change – Adams, Hayes & Hopson 1976
SELF
ESTEEM
CONFIDENCE
MORALE
TIME
Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
AcceptanceShock
Experimentation
Discovery
Integration
(C) Psychodynamic: ( Whats going on for you? ) 3. Reactions to change – Satir 1991 & see also
Wernberg 1977
PERFORMANCE
TIME
OLD STATUS
QUO
FOREIGN ELEMENT
CHAOS
IDEASINTEGRATION
PRACTICE
NEW STATUS
QUO
The DADA syndrome
Denial – ignore possible or current change
Anger – individuals facing unwanted change become angry about the change
Depression – individuals experience emotional lows
Acceptance – individuals embrace the reality of the situation and make the best of it
THE HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY APPROACH TO CHANGE
Humanistic psychology go one step further in stating that without being fully present emotionally in the situation you cannot be fully effective, and you will not be able to maximize your learning, or anyone else’s learning.•Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs•love, creativity, self, growth, self-actualization, higher values, being, becoming, responsibility, transcendental experience, peak experience, courage and related concepts
(D) Humanistic Approach: ( Maximising your own potential )
1. Hierarchy of Needs – Maslow 1970
Self Actual-ization
Self Esteem Needs
Love and Belonging Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
12-18
THE HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY APPROACH : Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Definition
Classifies need Physiological (basic survival
needs) Security (need to be safe, for
shelter) Social (belongingness, need to
have interaction, friendships) Ego (need to feel good about
yourself, receive recognition) Self-actualization (need to
reach fullest potential) When needs in 1 level are met,
factors in the next motivate
Application
Use reinforcements that meet needs at each level Physiological: salary and bonus Security: insurance, retirement Social: work/life balance (flex
hours, job share, etc.) Ego: recognition for
accomplishments Self-actualization: satisfaction
with balance between work accomplishment and home life
COMPETENCE (Gestalt Style)
Unconscious competence
Inductive and deductive learning
Inductive instruction makes use of people “noticing”. the leader presents people with many examples showing how the concept is used. The intent is for people to “notice”, by way of the examples, how the concept works.
A deductive approach means that the leader gives the people a new concept, explains it, and then has the people practice using the concept. The people will practice using the concept in a variety of different ways.
Learning Cycle (Kolb style)
Experience (Start here)
Experiments Reflective Observation
Theories (or Start here)
Encourage New Activities
Design Toolkits to experiment
Question and Analyse what is going on
Research new ideas
Nonaka’s Model of Knowledge Creation and Transformation
3-23
TACIT TO TACIT(SOCIALIZATION)
e.g., Individual and/or Team
Discussions, „Birth giving”
TACIT TO EXPLICIT(EXTERNALIZATION)
e.g., Documenting a Team
Meeting, Best Practice
EXPLICIT TO TACIT(INTERNALIZATION)
e.g., Learn from a report and Deduce new ideas.
Learning on job
EXPLICIT TO EXPLICIT(COMBINATION)
e.g., Create a Website from
some form of explicit knowledge; Knowledge
sharing
Tacit
Tacit Explicit
Explicit
Person–Organization Fit Screening Techniques
Text in this colorPaper-and-pencil tests
Standardized, quantifiable, self-administered
instruments
Advantages: Easy to administer and score Inexpensive to use in large scale Simple to compare Valid job success predictor
Disadvantages:
Produces homogenous work force May be resisted/resented by minority applicants
Person–Organization Fit Screening Techniques
Behaviorally anchoredinterviews
Applicants recount specific examples of past experiences
Advantages: Focuses on specific behaviors Valid Supplement to other methods Validity increases when multiple interviewers score results
Disadvantages:
Deals with recounted rather than actual behaviors Can be slow and expensive
Person–Organization Fit Screening Techniques
Behavioral simulationApplicants engage in
role-playing exercise while observed by screeners
Advantages:
Deals with actual rather than recounted behaviors
Disadvantages:
Can be slow and expensive
Personalities
PEOPLE & PERSONALITIESPersonality Types – Myers Briggs
(E) Extraversion Intraverzion (I) (S) Sensing Intuition (N) (T) Thinking Feeling (F) (J) Judging Perceiving (P)
Useful Change Groups IS = Thoughtful Realists – cautious and careful – “If it isn’t broke don’t fix it”IN = Thoughtful Innovators – generates new ideas – “Let’s think ahead”ES = Action Oriented Realist – energy and enthusiasm – “Let’s just do it”EN = Action Oriented Innovators – enthusiastic for change – “Let’s change it”
Personality and changeMyers-Briggs Type Indicator™ types
•Created in 1954
Bloom’s Domains of Learning/Competencies
Achieving a change affects three dimensions of the individual
Emotional
Change is understood
and feel to be an urgent need
Intellectual
There is a clear rationale for the
proposed changes that makes standing
still not an option
Physical
People need to be competent in a new way of working
People and Individuals Summary
Changing values and behaviours
.
5 factors in responding to change – Cameron & Green 2004
3. ORGANISATIONAL HISTORY
2. CONSEQUENCES OF CHANGE
1. NATURE OF CHANGE
RESPONSE TO CHANGE4. TYPES OF
INDIVIDUALS
5. INDIVIDUAL HISTORIES
People
Training
Building a Vocabulary
People alignment: organizational effects taken to match the skills and behaviors of employees within the organization with the business’ strategy.
“In order to develop required human resource competencies, organizational leaders need to align
the selection, training, development, and removal of employees with the behavioral
requirements of the desired change.”
“People alignment––getting the right people on the bus and the wrong people off the bus—is a key to effective
change implementation.”
Make/Buy Options for Changing Human Resources
Make:– Training– Alter incentives
Buy:– Recruitment– Selection
Advantage: Uses existing knowledge/
skill base
Advantage: Can quickly add required
skill/knowledge
Disadvantage:May be slow; not allcurrent employees
willing or able
Disadvantage:May undercut morale/
commitment of existing employees
Advantage: Uses existing knowledge/
skill base
Advantage: Can quickly add required
skill/knowledge
Disadvantage:May be slow; not allcurrent employees
willing or able
Components of Training for Change
Component: Focus: By:
Knowledge Development
Developing understandingwithin employees of new strategy and requirements for change
Classrooms, lectures,discussion groups,and so on
Skill Development
Developing capability within employees to enact required new behaviors
Role playing,‐experimentation,real time feedback,‐and so on
“Training can help convey to employees how their competitive environment is changing and why their own behaviors need to be altered”
9-37
The Training Process: 4-Stage Training Cycle
9-38
Determine Training ObjectivesAssessment of Training Needs at Different Levels – example for salespeople
People
Overcoming ResistanceManaging Conflict
Building a Vocabulary
• Resistance: efforts exerted by employees either overtly or covertly to maintain the status quo.
“Employee response to change runs across a broad spectrum, ranging from commitment at one end to aggressive resistance” on the other. Each of these reactions to change helps shape the behavior of individuals and, ultimately, the success of a change effort.”
Management’s Role in Creating Resistance
Text in this colorResistance CauseSatisfied with status
quoEmployees not included
Change is perceived as threat
Employees see little opportunity to get required
skills
Cost outweighs benefits
Inadequate articulation of goals
Belief that management is
mishandling the process
Employees’ voice and interest not being included
Employees doubt success
Past change efforts lack sustained success
Underlying Causes of Resistance• Individuals may be satisfied with the status quo. Because their
needs are being met, they may view any potential change as negative.
• Individuals may view change as a threat, fearing it will adversely affect them in some significant way.
• Individuals may understand that change brings both benefits and costs, but feel that the costs far outweigh the benefits.
• Individuals may view change as potentially positive, but may still resist because they believe that the organization’s management is mishandling the change process.
• Individuals may believe in the change effort ,but still believe that the change is not likely to succeed.
Overcoming Resistance to Change
• Strategies for Overcoming Resistance to Change– Education and communication– Participation and involvement– Facilitation and support– Negotiation and agreement– Manipulation and co-optation– Explicit and implicit coercion
Managing Conflict
• Conflict– One person’s incompatible behaviors that make
another person’s actions less effective• Dealing with the Two Faces of Conflict
– Competitive conflict: Parties pursuing directly opposite (win-lose) goals
– Cooperative conflict: A mutually reinforcing experience (win-win) that serves the best interests of both parties
Ass
ert
iven
ess
Co-operativeness
Unass
ert
ive
Ass
ert
ive
Unco-operative Co-operative
Competing Collaborating
Compromising
AvoidingAccommodating
Conflict Handling Styles
1. Collaborating
• Combining assertiveness and co-operativeness• Trying to resolve conflict through problem-
solving• It works when there is enough trust and openness
to share information so that the parties can find a mutually beneficial solution
2. Avoiding• Smoothing over or avoiding conflict • Appropriate to use when:
(a.) the problem is trivial(b) used as a temporary tactic to cool down heated
disputes
• In the short-term it is OK for handling managing conflict, but it creates frustration in long-term
3. Competing• Trying to win the conflict at the other’s expense
(a strong win/lose orientation)• Appropriate to use when:
(a) you are correct(b) a quick solution is required(c) other party would take advantage of co-operation
4. Accommodating• Giving in to the other side’s wishes, with
little attention to one’s own interests• Appropriate to use when:
(a) you are wrong(b) other party has substantially more power(c) the issue is less important to you than to the
other party• Problem: it may give the other side
unrealistically high expectations– if so, it increases future conflict
5. Compromising• Reaching a middle ground
– being willing to give up something in return for something else
• Appropriate to use when: (a) the parties have equal power(b) there is time pressure to settle differences
• Usually this leads to an unsatisfactory resolution for both parties