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Pennsylvania's 'Energy Curriculum for. the SecondaryGrades; ,Informational Nodule'.Pennsylvania State Dept. of placation, Harrisburg.Pennsylvania -State GovernOr's Energy Council,liarrisburg.;.80104p. ; For -related- document see' SE 034 450-457

EDEIS PRICE 11F01/PC05 Plus Postage.LESCRIPTOES rrent Events: *Energy: Energy Conservation:

nvironMerital Education: Interdisc iplinary Approach:Science -Education; Secondary Education; *Secondary,

School----Science:*Sor _Studies

ABSTRACTPennsylvania' s'Department of Educat

energy education- modules that-cover different -secondisciplines, This introductory publication'is desigeach of the eight dubject-area modules. It containsinformation= for- teachers-t-on-topics-ra-nging from etre

. and past uses -tg' nuclear waste disposal, energy conprinciples of, energy economics. Also included are abibliography, and -fist of free films and ,other reso

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ion provides eightdary -schoolred to a.ccomp4nybackground

rgy es definitiservation, andglossary,

urce materials.

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from the original document.*****************- ********************44**********

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U S DEPAR_TMENT OF HEALTK "PERMISSION TO,REPRODUCE THIS

_ eDUCATIOri & WELFARE MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BYNATIONAL INSTITUTE Or

EDUCATION17--2PTAL---

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E-pERSON OR ORGN)ZATION ORIGIN- .

INOIT :POINTS OF VIEW-OR OPINIONS. 5. --!.0 60 NOT NECESSARILY R EliRE. w

YE c FFICIAL NATIONAL IVISYLTUTE Or TO THE EOLIOATIONAL RESOURCES-e- T I.r..." POSITION OR AoLicy INFORMATION CENTER (EMU':

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Pennsylvania -Department of Education 1980Funds Provided by Governor'sEnergy Council

ComMonwealth of PennsylvaniaDick Shornbiirgh,Governor

Department of EducationRobert G. Scanlon, Secretary

Office`OfBasic EdRonald I-1. Lewis, CommissionerFrancis J. Moran, D4outy Commissioner

ureau of Curriculum ServicesDavid C. Campbell, Director

Health, Science and Technology DivisionIrvin Edgar; ChiefJohn J. McDermott, Senior Science Adyker

Pennsylvania Department of EducationP.O. Bqx 911, 333 Market Street

Hanisburg, PA 17108

Throughout history, the idv cement of civilization and the quality. of human life haVe beendirectlY related to.the'availhbility-o f energy resources. From the discovery of fire to thi-splitting ofthe atom, there has been a steady increase in the amount of energy used by the world's People.

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Our nation and the rest orltrare noir' faced _with asituation where the major energysources) of oil and naturalgas e significantly depleted .during our lifetimes U.S. dependence onimported- oil is weakening economy;and

,cketing fuel prices are a major cause of inflation.

Although,ener proble s have been with us now for many years, our nation seems to befOunderirig witlicin y clear rogram to deal with them. The President. and Congress are at oddsover questionse-windfall-f-profits-tax---anegasolincrationing- The country-isdivided-on-theissue of . Some people think we should turn our backs on society as we know it, and 9return to a "simpler lifstyle In the face of this confusion, it is important that ttrz, public becomeaware of the energy problems and the .varions alternatives. available to us. The decisions made nowwill affect our quality of life in the future, including OUr home life; -our job-, our health; our leisure

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time, and many other aspects hour lives.

1-The purpose of,these modules is' to help you guide your students to an =understanding ofenergy, particularly as it relates to your specific -discipline, There are eight modules, covering thefolloNvirig-subject areas: . I.

English_florne-ECOrionliesSocial StudiesIndusthal ArtsBiological ScienceEarth SciencePhysical ScienceEnvironmental Studies

This introductory module is included with each of the subject area moduleS. Its purpose is togive background information for all teachers. It also includes a bibliography and a list of free filmsand_ rer resource materials available to teachers.

Also included with each module is a copy of The Pennsylvania er, a publicationof the Governor's Energy Council. It contains energy information especially pertinent to our state.

It is hoped ,that through the use of these materials, both teachers-and students can come to ahotter understanding of the energy situation, and can thus be more informed and vocal citizens.

The word 7energy`',eariiivei,a number of meanings:_ We = 'define:it -here,as, s entis,_\ eriarieers-46:_erie:riy is theabilitki6 'do-Work: The Word=."WOrk"-iri'-thii 'definition aisO'ha*.a spec

meaning :At-refers-to-the- movement of matter-from:one goiritjo another.' or exam pie ;- we, do. workwhen we-push or gull an objeCt-forsonie distance, and effir- ability to:d6,,thiS\wor

Energy can appea airy. ;different foimi. Somd common _fonts__ _echanical, enediarist chemical .energy,-. and:electrical energy-. We will talk at greater,:length\s.a4sUtt-these,

different forms-of ___energy in alater Section. We will also 'disaiss_hoW the variOlis,fornigwene:can be, Changed from` aiieforin into another:

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Throu ghout /history people ha i'develoged sources .0 eigYcto wor k fo _rn. ye,_,humans had only, the strength of their bodies and later the 'use of,fire. People;tainedLar nuls towork for them. They used the energy of wind to move sai1Lng vessels; _;rtd the energy, water to ,

turn=mills._:With, the invention of ihe -stew- engine, steam l 'used...to run maehnieS.,discovery orelectneity created another important way of using energy:=S6='did_ilie inVeritioji of the

\gasoline engine: A new era -in the use of energy was entered with the application -miele\ar ener_

Most of the energy we use comes directly=or hidirectlyfrom the u .\For___exani le when theradiant energy of the sun falls-on the_earth, it is Charige&-to heat energy4, warmin;'-the- earth. Whenthe sunlight falls_7an_the_leaves_of_plants,_itis,changed--intr_cheirricakenergy#enablirfg`theVlants-to-make food for animal consumption, and wood which we can burn to work for us. Other glints h vebeen stored under the surface. of the earth; where they have undergone chemical, clianges7into. co ,

ail, and gas. These are called- the foSsil fuels, and they are 'presently our majdr soutce-pf-Onef-

KINETIC AND POTENTIAL ENERGY-

There are two general categories of energyare potential energy and kinetic energypotential- energy

ricOnign-ssing-

Energy that is stored is' called potential. energy. It is'energy that .ap-Object has because of itsposition' or condition. For exaMple, a tightly stretched spring has potential energyit hag ,theto do work if released: -A rock lying at the top of a hillalso has pbtintialenergy it carc,dia work ifallowed to roll doWn the hilly A pile-of coal has potential energytsince work can be done when thecoal is bunied.

On the other hand, the energy: that an object has because of its mandrils called kineticenergy. If a stretched spring is released, it has kinetic energy. A rock, rolling downhill also haskinetic energy.

Potential energy represents work that has already been done. For example, suppose somequelifts a weight off the ground. As a result of this Work, the weight possesses a certain amount ofpotential energy. If the weight is allowed to fall, its potential energy is changed into kinetic energy.At the instant it strikes the ground, all its potential energy is gone. When_ it rests on the ground, thekinetic energy is also gone; having' been -Changed into some other form of energy, usually heat.

S OF,ENERdliiclianic- Energy,a.

echanical energy. iirthat form of energy which-is-acquu-ed or itleased,byim moving objects. A --.tr,

rot ing wheel, ,'a turning \vindmil4 and a- 'rotating Waterwheel are examples of objects withmec anidal .ehei- :

Mechanical energy can be easily Changed into other-Useful energy., forms 'For example; fallingwater can -sin the blades of Atirbine. The mechanical energy of the 'spinning turbine can beconverted into electrical energy if the turbine is connected:to an electrical, generator_ ,

, Other_ forms of energy.Can also be changed intd mechanical energY. For example, gaso me or.

diesel: fuel, ,which,_ contain relatively ,large amounts of potential energy; undergo controlled.combustion in the engine -ot, a bulldozer and produce motion in the pistons and-other parts of theengine: The bulldozer can then do-work.,

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B s very, nature, mechanical energy is closely associated with kinetic energy.i -

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ravitationai Energy ,

Oneyimportant form Of priteritial energy is gravitatibrial potential energy. This is.the energy'bfa rock pOiged at the ed of a hill, or of droplets of water. .at the top of a waterfall. These are,edgeexamples of graVitational potential energy because it is the earth's gravitational pull which will set'

n.mot ----them in motion, -' .

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One aPplication of gravitation .energy- is to use falling water to turn turbines and produce_. _electricity_in_a hydroelectric -dam, -- . . ..

Chemicil Energy

Chemical energy is that energy which is involved in chemicalenergyreactions, is released or absorbed in the form of heat.

eactions. In most chemical

-Photosypthesis and respiration, two biological processes, are basically chemical reactions. Therusting -of iran is a chemical.reaction which releases heat, but it generally occurs so slowly that theheat released isnoCdetected. In a battery, che_ ical energy is stored for later release as _electric'

Chemical reactions that release heat are o particular importance asUsable energy sources.The burning of fuels such as wood, coal, gas; and oil provides for release of stored chemical energy.Nate that'some initial 'energy is necessary-to-start these= chemical reactions: For example, woodbegins to burn only after ft' has been heated to its kindling temperature. The burning of coal; gas,and oil provides heat which can be used to boil water, creating steam which'can then turn turbinesto.generate electricity. We agaip can see how one form of energy can be changed into many otherforms.

Electrical Ene4

Have/you ever rini a comb through your hair and had your hair crackle and stand ti Or haveyou walked across a carpgt, then. touched a door handle, and felt a shock? These are examples ofthe action of electric charges.

There are two kinds of electric charges: positive and negative. We will see how these electriccharges can become a usable' form of energy. But first we must discuss some basic concepts, All

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matter is made up- of very small particles_called 'atoms. Every atom except the simplest hydrogenatom has a nucleUs which consists cif-neut?onSand.protans. (The- simplest hydrogen atom= has noneutrons-it is simply- a .proton_ .) Neutrons have nb ,electricaj-charge; that is, they are electricallyneutral. Protons are positNely charged, and every proton has the.s e amount of charge, no matterwhat kind of atom it is from.

The nucleus of an atom is surrounded by negatively-charged electrons". Every electron has thesame,amount of charge, and the magnitude of -the negatiVe charge of the electron is equal to that ofthe pasitive charge of the proton. Thus in an atom that is electrically neutral; the number .oelectrons surrounding. the nucleus is equal to the number of protons_in the- nucleus, so filth theircharges exactly "neutralize" each, other; .If an, atom has More electrons than Protons, it is negatively-charged; if it has more protons electrons, it ir positively charged.

In.much the same way as magnetic forces operate, objects with opposite electric chargesattract. ea other, while those with the same charge repel each othef.

rod is held in the hpd and rubbed by a wool cloth., the friction causes electrons tosfei o he wool to the glais. Thus the glass becomes negatively charged, and the cloth

sitively chaigedi When these_two oppositely charged objects are brought close enough together,rons will return-: o the cloth-and tach object will again be electrically neutral. This neutralizing

action will create a spark in the.sm01 gap of afr betWeen the two objects.

aw6er, if a metal rod is held in the hand and rubbed with a wool cloth, it will not become- electricals charged. The charge which. is created singly flows through the metal and through theharid of the person-holding it. This is because-rnetals are good electrical conductors. In a conductor,some of the electrons can move about freely, and thus move the electric charge through theconductor. If the metal rad is held by a piece of rubber, however, the rod can be charged. This isbecause rubber is_an insulator or non-conditor. In an insulator, electrons are tightly held, and thus.are not free to Move through the system. So the electric charge cannot move through the rubberinsulator and' into the hand_

With this background, we can..now :think of electricity as the move nt of electrons.

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The examples- of electricity that we have mentioned so far are all examples of staticelectricity. Static electricity involves electric charges on insulators, such as a ass rod and woolcloth, or a comb in dry, hair.

But of much more practical interest atm an energy standpoint -is an electric current-1continuous flow of electrons through a conductor. There are several ways of producing an electriccurrent. One way is by-using the relationship between electricity and magnetism. Electric charges inmotion are always accompanied by magnetic effects. For example, a bar of, iron placed in a coilthrough which a current is flowing becomes magnetized. In this way, it is possible to makeelectromagnets, whieVarg exfierriely useful in converting electrical energy into mechanical energy, arrfajor component of electric motors.

Conversely, it was discovered that when an electrical conductor is moved through a magneticfield-that is, an area where magnetic- farces are present-an-electric current isproduced in the wire. _If a conductor wire is forted into a loop, and the loop is moved through the magnetic field whichexists between. the north and south poles of a magnet, an electric current will-be produCed in theloop. Note that the conductor or the magnet must be moving-there must be movement of one inrelation to the other-forthe current to be produced. The type of-motion determines the direction

the current flows. If,itor eiample, the conductor loop is spun between the ptiler bf the

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--magnet, the electrons in the loop will move back and forth within the loop. Thus the current floWs'first in one direction and -then in the reverse direction.. Cunt ,piodUced in this way is calledalternating current, and this is the kind 'of current we use when we plug-something into an electricaloutlet.

Electromagnetic or Radiant Energy

The movement of electrically charged paftiCles of matter in magnetic fields produces energy- . . _. .,

-in the- fonn of electroniagnetic waves which radiate from the source at the _speed,Of light. Thisenergy is often called radiant energy, Depending on the gonditiOns uner which they are generated,.

-theSe7electromagnetic waves lore g.wave length, which means the have low frequencyand energy. They may be- of the partE lax wave length. that can be detected by the human eye, in

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which case they are visible light waves. Or they May be of shorter wave length and higher energy,such as x-rays. Thus a wide band or spectrum of electromagnetic_Waves exists:

II-The sun is the major source of _radiant_ energy for the earth. Sunlight-is-that-portion-of-the

sun's total radiation that is visible to the human eye. Other electmmagrietic waves radiated from the,

sun are infrarednd tiltravidletradiation, gamma raYs x -rays, -arid _ radio _waves -

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is the energy released or absorbed during alterations within, the nucleus of anatom. We have already said that -the building block-for all matter is the atom, and that an atom canbe considered to be a dense core of particles called protons and neutrons forming a positivelyCharged nucleus, surrounded by a swarm of negatively charged electrons.

Any one of the more than 1800-species of atoms characterized by the number of neutronsaid protons in the nucleus and by energy levels is called a nuclide. For example; an atom ofchlorine with 18 neutrons.in its nucleus is one nuclide, while an atom of chlorine with 20 neutronsin its nucleus is another nuclide.

IAll nuclides can be placed' into one of two categories: radioactive or stable. RadioaCtive

nuclides (radionuclides) uridergo_spontaneous nuclear changes which transform them into othernuclides. This transformation is called radioactive decay, and through the decay, the radioactive

,nuclide is changed eventually into a stable nuclide. fi

There-are some 265. stable nuclides and 66-radionuclides founthin nature. All the rest of henuclides are man-made radionuclides. Thus most-known nuclides are radioactive.

In changing to a stable state, the nucleus of a radioactive atom emits, radiation. Radiationmay bQ in the form of particles, or in the forrri of electromagnetic rays called - 'photons. Someradionuclides: decay by the emission of alpha particles, whieh are high energy helium nuclei. Othersdecay by the emission of beta particles, which can -be either negatively charged electrons (negatrons)or positively charged electrons (positrons). Decay by the emission of these particles is us -allyfollowed by the emission of photons of two types: gamma rays, which are woduced in the nuca-usof the decaying atom, and x-rays, which are produced as a result of the rearrangeMent of orbitalelectrons. Except for their origin and the fact that x-rays are usually lower in energy and thereforeless penetrating, X-rays and gamma rays are the same.

Loss of this radiation changes the 'atomic structure of the radioactive nuielide, a process whichcontinues until a stable (nonradioactive) nuclide is reached. Uranium, for instance, is radioactive; itdecays slowly into elements like radium, radon, and polonium, and finally stops at lead. The timerequired for one-half of the radioactive atoms of a nuclide to decay to its daughter nuclide is known

as the, half life of that, nuclide. An atom; with a- -short half-life quickly decays. Half lives_vary from=minute fractions of a second to billions of years, _

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As a source of useful energy, at the-present - time, the most importaikt-huelear reaction is thefission reaction; When atoms of certainhetmi nuclides are bombarded b5k.neutrens, the nuclei.ofsome of these atoms will'caPture a neutron and become Unstable so that they fisSiom

= two or more smaller atoms. These Smaller -_atothS-_are generallyitadioactive.._Togetheith fissionproducts weight slightly less than the original atom and ibe:bornbarding neutron. combined ; :,thismissing mass is converted into energy, as described by Einstein's formula: energy equals mass:thnes

_ the -.velocity of light squared CE =mq2). It is tift conversion of mass into energy that niakes nuclearfiSsion so powerful,. and sets it apart from ordinary chemical reactions; where no `suchoccurs; As_ fission _fragnents=fly apart _rriost-ofthis energy_appears almostrinitantaireously as heat as-the -fragmentslose their energy of motion to the surrounding material' The heat from-this fission.reaction can then be used to boil water to make steam, which in turbines that generateelectricity.

When an =atom -fisiionsrseveral-free-detftrons,are released =These are- available to-strike otheratoms, causing them. to fission. This is the:.--,c aiii'-reactiort,.If a chain:reaction is to continue, there-mustbe-enough-7fissionable:atoms_packed-clo,se en u msure.-thecapture ofenoUglineutrons,to keep the rate of; fission constant: The-amo nt o material _reciuire `forlthis is called the critical

. :- -mass.

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Uranium is 'the basic-nuclear fuel because it_containsliranium-215,,, :only, nuclide found in.nat ire that readily undergoes fission. The natural 'CCU-lc-en uranium 235- =iii uranium is-seven- tenths of one percent; -the balance isuranium-238i--* h chid s -not readily undergo fission,

e -process of nuclear ftision also releases a trethendous:amount of energy, but we, have notyet cdme to the, point where wecan make practical use of if.' In filsion; two light nuclei are forced ,together to form a heavier nucleus. The fusion reaction will use folAns of hydrogen called deuteriumand tritium to make -a- single helium nucleus and 'a-neutron releasing-a large amount of-energy..

Heat Energy

Early experiments showed that heat had to be some form of motion. But obviously an objectcan be hot, without any motion being visible. Thus the motion mutt be occurring in parts of the.object which are todsmall to be ,seen- small parrs are called molecules. The speed. of, a--'molecule can be quite large; but the molecules of solid objects move through a very short distance.The -higherthe speed of the. molecules an object, the greatOr- the amcrubt of heat energy it 6,contains.

The combustion of gasoline in an automobile engine produces heat energyl, or high speedmotion of the molecules in the cylinders. The motion of these molecules against the pistons makethe engine run. Thus worlcri; obtained from the h energy'of molecular miotion.

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Note that heat arid temperature :are not t e same thing. Temperature measures the averagekinetic energy of molecules in an object; When an object is heated, this average.speed is increased,and the temperature iricreates. The amount of heat in an object, however, depends on the number

-of --Mbletults --prose- t as'-well as their kinetic energy. Thus -a- cup-of- boiling-water -has -the- same---.-temperature as a qart of hoirMg Water, but the quail of boiling water- has four times as much heatenergy, since it has four times as many molecules. .

Reat1 can be thbtiiiht of as the simplest form of energy, since it is the form o f energy intowhich all other forms can be most readily converted. It is also the. form that is most difficult toconvert into any other form.

ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS

We have already seen that energy can be converted from one form to-another. But no one hasever found, z a way to -create energy out of nothing. Funhermore,,there is noiJknown way of

.---destroymeenergy-enerp is never-lost. Under Special, cireurnstances, energy can be convertedinto matter_ and matter into energy,"bur'thiS is still traniformation; not cieation or destruction _ofenergy.

,One of the biggest problems with energy the fact that= when energy is converted fronf one

form to another; some of the energy is wasted. It is riot destroyed-it just changes into a_forin whereit is no,longer of practical use. This forth is :usually heat,'Which escapes:and is eventually dispersed

pinto spaceoiever, o- e-seen-again

Of-cotirse,41eat energY:can:be converted into other types of energy, but a great deal of effort-must go hit; the transformation, On the other hand, other fornis of energy Can be converted intoheat Much mare easily. There thus seems to be a definite dirgction- _r, which energy seeks to flow,and-this-direction is-toward a dilute;.scattered form of energy: S sts calrthis form "entropy,-and its Precise definition need not concern us. In 'Practical to _ms, it frieensjhat energy that hasbed-otife sri dilute aTild-Sattered cannotibe used ever again to do work:. :

This - inherent l'-wasted heat energy represents a permanent challenge to the energyconservationists 4t is energy n doWn the draM" as far as pmviding-useful work to meet energy ads.We must learn to' reduce. egergy waste to acceptable. levels, keeping in mind .that complete_elimination of energy waste is impossible. _

MEASURVME* NTS OF ENERGY

sWeneed not concern oUrselves with Many sophisi icated -terms in energy measurement,butwe do need some basic definitions to serve as tools in talking about energy. t --

A basic unit Of energy measurement is the British 'Thermal Unit, or BTU. One BTU is theamount of heat energy that must be subplied to one pound of water to raise its temperature onedegree Fahrenheit.

Energy from all fuels can befollows:

converted to BTU's. Approximate conversion

One 42 gallon barrel of oilOne cubic foot-of natural gasOne. kildwatt-hour of _electricityOpe ton of coal

5.8 million BTU's1031. BTU's

,3413 BTU'smillion BTU's .

ates are

The word power refers) to- the amount of energy used or produ6ed in a given amount-of time.One important unit of power is the-Watt. One watt is equal to .00948 BTU per second. One

= kilowatt is 1000-watts, while one megawatt is 1,000;000 watts.

The kilowatt-hour is the familiar measurement of electricity. A kilowatt-hour (KWH) is 1000watts of -power US-6d

All electric appliances and light bulbs are rated in watts. For example, a 100 watt light bulbwill light fdr 10 hours with one KWH of electricity. Ail appliance with a rating of1000 watts willrun for one hour 9n one KWH of electricity.

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In biologjcal processes, the unit of energy is the calorie. One calorie is the heat required to

raise the:temperature of one gram of water, one, degreeCentigrade. The Calorie (note Upper caseis called-the kilocalorie,.and is to 1000 calories. One Calorie is about 4 BTU._ENERGY AND THE LIVING WORLD

We 'have dischssed vatiouS forms of energy, and their transformations. Later Sections will deal,with him people use these forms cif energy to do. work for,thern, But before werleave the general_topic of energy, let us examine some aspects of energy as it pertains to the world around

As we have said before, the sun provides theenergy that Isusiains life on earth. The sari hasprobably- existed for some five* six billion years It is really just an average,--middlized star whencomparecLwitlf---the-restofJthe stars _intlie.universe.=_What_iS So-special :is-_the-earthS_location_in_a-elation to the sun: The earth isjust the: right distance from the sun to support life as we_ know it.'

=Thp -exact source oft/he sun's energy is not really known ..It:hasobeen-theorized that 'the sun is-a giant fugion reactor, fusing hydrcigenint6----belium.and eonveirtingthemais differenceinto etiergIt is believed that-the Sun, produces more energy in one second-thin-has beeri-Use peoplethroughout human history.

The tremerkdous energy produced by the sun radiates out n 411 directions: Only a very srriallfraction (one two-billionth) ever-reaches the earth's atmosphere,-,_Notall of this energy reaches theearth's surface. In fact, 40 percefit Of. the solar radiatiOni is reflected -back to spade (mainly -byCloud's); 17 percent is directly absabed by the-atmosphere, including water-Vapor, clouds, add dust.The remaining 43 percent is absorbed by the earth, and is used to-power the-winds, water cyclei_ and-ocean currents, and to= siipporrlife. Actually, -only- -about one percent "of the incoming solar;radiation is-used to support life through photosynthesis.

---4-The earth's atmosphere plays_an important part in regulating the temperaturegliereonthein_ regulatingearth. Because of our atmosphere, we do not have the large temperature fluctuations' that are-foundon the moon:

AnOther benefit provided by the.atmosphere what is called the "greenhouse e it." ,Wehave said that 43 percent of the radiation from th(sun that reaches the atmosphere dstly visiblelight, paSseS through the atmosphere and is absorbed by the earth. This is"tran ruled into heat(infrared radiation) and iszradiated back toward space. The Water vapor and.carb dioxide found inthe atmosphere are good absorbers of heat. They then trap m& a of this heat energy and prevent it

*frlorn_immediately escaping back into space.' g-kThieeps.the average temperature of the earth hi ethawit would be without the,attuosPfiere.

The greenhouse effect is 'also-the center of one of our modern-day controversies, -On upof scientists is proclaiming that.; because of all the smoke we are' generafing by-I:Wining fuels, we aregoing to block off enough incoming sunlight to lower the earth's temperature several degrees, whichwould- be disastrOusl Another group of scientists arguethai because of the large amount of earbondioxicje we are generating,, also, through burning fuels, we will trap. more heat in the atmosphere,which would raise the temperature of the earth several degrees 4nd also prove disastrous: Might theproduction of energy Prove in some .way to be The downfall of the human race?

Only_.green_plarits_can_directly__Use,the_incorning,sola radiation._All_other_ organisms mustthen depend on the green plants for their life support.

Green plants use solar energy in -the process of photosynthesis, where the sun's energy istransformed into chemical energy and stored -as food. As the sun- beams down-on a green plant, theplant is taking -moleculesof water, minerals from the soil, and carbon dioxide from the, atmosphere,.and is using the sun's energy to combine these molecules into various new arrangements to form

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, -sugafs, starches proteins, and vitamins. These new molecules contain the chemical energy that other _--,organisms will use to sustain their life I- .__

?The process whereby animals-use the energy stored by plants is.called-cellular respiration, and_ is really just the opposites_ of the process of ;phcitt3synthesis.. In cellular ,respiration, the food

molecules (sugar, starch, and protein). are twit-apart and energy' is released, while carbon dioxideand water' are Produced, The energy released is then used by the animal for motion:,growth, and

_other life processes. :- = . .: _ -

Some of-the energy fiom She plants is also stored again` in the tissues and fat of titeanfinal.Thus if an animal is eaten by another; the fiist animal. is .providing energy' fOrthe.next

_:eneigy_thatactually_,originatedlii-the-sun. =

This process of passing on the sun s energy-can continn"Tbr only alimiited:timebecat.ist as inmost energy transformations, energy is being joSt conversion-at each-step of convsion. As_the energy is passedfrom one organism to the next most of RAW- to 90-percent) is lost through reiph-ationtnct heat, -and oriirrI0 to 20=percentiis available to thenext orgahism.-Ilecause of this lass, a country that,4ts-_,large amounts of meat-, like the'--U5., has to produce weeny times more plants (grains) to supplyeverfone:With-Toodfthan-accitintry7Suth as7India-dr-Cliinaitlia--40:ifitire of the pl nts cl ctly, In-other: words, eating meat can be corisidered a waste of energy because so much of the energy islost as the 'corn and wheat 'are transformed into "the meat of the animal.

The sun providqs, the energy for many,other_phenomena-33esideslife suPport. Windis causedby the.uneven heating and cooling of different pads of the earth by the sun. As the teMperattires oftwo different regions of the.parth-are4neqUal, the:air-pressures over these regions are also-different ;-and winds are produced-. The energy in these winds -may then be used for purposes,including steering weather systems, driving ocean currents, shifting deSert sands,?and poWering some

; machines:_

The- sun's energy also driV-es wiiat is knoWn asthe water eYcle. It all begins with the suncausing evaporation of water froin the land and ocean's. The water vapor IateE corlenses and -falls.back to the land' in the form of rain or snow. Gravity causes the water-to run-from the land-back to

Ocean.Ocean.

ENERGY: ITS PAST

Troni their earliest orgins, human beings have sob ht to ease their labor through the use oftoo s..Eaily hunters used, tools to kill animals, and. thus obtained energy from eating the'bison andmammoth to supplement the energy they received from-eating plants.- -

The roost vital Stone Age discovery was how to make fire.

During the . later Neolithic period, humans used stone tools for agricultnre, and were able toproduce renewable crops. The first stable_ communities began to develop, and -various forms of,housing-, were-built.Theseypcirnitive:dwellings.were -all,designal.-to -meet- the= needs of-the ..

area in which they were located. Thus communities could flourish, since the population did nothave to migrate with the seasons to escape unfavorable weather conditions.

Further technological progress brought the ability to mine metals and use fire"to forge theminto tools and weaport&- First came the Copper and Bronze.Ages, and then the iron Age, which may,have begun in Africa'or the Orient some 2400 years, ago.

8

Beforg the time of the Greek acid Roman civilization the only significant energy sources werenatural ones. The power of falling water was use_ d by basic industry, agriculture, and mills. Thepower of the wind was used for ships, and fire from the burning of wood was another energysource. One major source of, elriergy in both- Greece and Rome was the energy of humanbodiesparticularly slaves. From the Greek and Roman era to the beginning of the IndustrialRevolution, sophisticated tools were developed, but they were still powered by humans or animals_

Between the fall 'of theWornan Empire and the last few years of the 17th century, manyimportant inventions were developed and some of the great laws cif nature were conceived. But tobring about the era of modern technology ,.an engine was necessary that could use an energy sourceand produce useful work. The water mills aid windmills were limited to specific sites, and there wasno way known to transport their energy to where it was needed. By the end of the 17th century,this engine appeared. In 1698, Englishman Thomas Savery obtained a patent for a machine whichused fire,to boil water, generating steam in a boiler for use in draining water from mines. His steamengine pump was soon improved upOti and these engines made possible the deep mining of coal,which had previously been hampered b,!cati.e of the buildup of underground water in the mines.

Ili I /61 Lill.. Wu..engine had beLont. , the iutetuntiet ,.1 i1te4i5ani4ed ili4atiou I Ley .b,:k1 ft./1 pUntt.ing

water and supplying power to textile rolling Mills. and 110551 111111. A later bleak throughcame with the 'development of engines that could use high piebblAc the engines muchinure efficient. With Robeit successful operation of thc steamboat i'leiniont on theHudson River in 180 /, and -Richard Levithick's use of a stea.ii lc.,uinutive to\transport coal LlWales, the modern era of inejla1114cd lfallSpultat1011 began

1.1.1.10 was a lti.11y ..1 hi 11, I ,.

llik.111104..111411.1....3 W116(1 these; be understo ld, 1,16L ,11111 betteie1161ne5 could be built

lip until llle _ i irl s)i ii.. I ii, . ,,,. ,t

killu.t, sly uttaschs poviev of l.nitai5s .4.841 cn. Id-AL , d1011A 1114.1, %A UJ, Ali./ Itahillb Pea 1.1. r.dic.Lypercent of the fuel burned in 1800 was wood wily per, c t despite sitepresent,. 01 plenty of coal 4,11d the ti...lin,.logy 1, Ilse II 13,4i [Awn time lla..1V1 1 uitii.6 if foics43 lufile east w 1011 and 1ihaeas...,1 the dt.tau, lh. t ll t,ud Iii I . Liu;

glowing cities So ilk: J..111,,nd sky loci cle until I 68 GO l.1 3 tip issed us likedominal... fuel hi 88.) coal w.,s . to LILL .0ke J tn. tie si. I lido t1) tai

powei iI.IsCella leot.s inonstiis 41.1,1 to ii.ovid.; fucli Coat was to tin ti.c donut'fuel until well into Lk.: 20th cent

11,1. Inn LI... 1 6,0,t .

..i5, 1 .1111:;1.1 t / ,1 11,12

dt;v loped a ,Aial gas pidc11,8( t ill. to, 11,1, ti ,E 1,141 1 it it A; i in/I/1110 liott undevelt,pedteal inditA. In tin_ On11cLI S(ahcS II It I NA't II, 11 111. AI)/ allEnglishman ,1 a piun,l,..141E .11 fie h u ,1 1.,111., ,oal uil 01 1,c,fuSine, Bythe late I8 0's, 1.11...fl; were 11 any kclosinc i.11..,nls 1. 1111 L ILL.11 Ii 6 114c..1 pet. pie began tonotn.c a leseinhiance Uetwi,;11 tilt ketosint and lne talk; tc,e1..3.3.1 .11111 that drnC out ofsprings dud wells in V stcIII PC,11131 Ivalila 11, 12.3!., 7 a Vale .1.,;111htly totes .01 Ldwill 1h1.eti

by a gl..1I4p 01 Pe.411,ylvanla l.115ille.361nen ...114; On, 1`e 141 any g,,vc ills tepoltof this oil Ile con.;lutied that s.nue ", cry valuable 1,10111,...ts` 1 tiont

rathel i hal, digging, inniei out to hi tt,c best W,1 y of el timi tt. lilt: 011 amid 30 Ill

September 1859, at itusville, Pennsylvania, oil was struck at a def 69 feet. This was not thefirst oil 'well in history-the potential value of oil'had been recognized centuriesbefore. But it wasonly in the Western industrial world of that time that science, technology, and society cametogether at a point necessary for oil to he exploited as the concentrated fuel that would eventuallyreplace coal..

The crude oil was made mostly into kerosine. Some of the other products lubricants,which solved another major problem of increasing mechanization, and fuel oil whine use grew as itbegan to replace coal for firing boiler for §team generation

rhe use of steam tot railroads and su I ips was a-gi di .i1 1,bulky and inefficient for use in any smaller scale vehicles What w,L, netded was1870, inventors began testing an engine using gasoline in a compressed.aff-gas mixture Lip until Ellistime, gasoline had been a generally useless by -pioduct oft kerosine iefning In 188 /gasoline-fueled engine was adapted to vehicles and the hist Betiz antonlohile was ',tented finsengine was the forerunner of all internal c.oinhastkni, engine, 111 upelation today by 1900 hactilyautomobiles had been built III the United Slates most of litchi alcam ,ail) 1/1,YLIC4.1

But the increasing availability of Loth hid and g.13.)1111.. I,uwCI.11 aul.,1111,bil1 5 1,c,..;.1c4.1

theta development They we,c light inane.n,:i..lble 0400 Ilse

Oldsniobile switchL.1 froin steam to gasoline and Lure,: later Item, 1-4,,14,1 1,,ii .nn_ed illsgasoline-powered autoinobik. His Inas-production lc olut1.-.114cd i-atoth,

A 111 v b) . 1 IL) 111. I I.. .1. A I II

Edison himself, ho,nre a, saw ins own gieatest a hi eu,ei.c lift itie light "selfnisi elca llla al pow.z.1 g4nGlalla.g anal .lisitihnii,,n IA 1862 lie el ill,.Nysl...111 to light I 2 0 0 lallills Iii a in c halt 3511141, 11111, 4.2-4 Iii NIL v it) n,11. , 11'5,

station .,onsiste,i of toot b1,11, is c4.1 311:J1111511), wt t 51,5 1,1;1115:1 .15/13

11. 1.1.11, , 1 111,,,,,tail), put 1,.c etigbh; /5,41 111 L 11111 1) 13111;11. 1 5

.Ii z nicif4,1 Ulla

6+,11

411,11,111,1k it (t., Ws 51,411

1

1. 1,

[mg t11.3, II) J1, I, t, 11A. (

,. vs

1,11 A .10. 3

t .,avi.,g Inc I ai.lcal,on of ti ho 11.

I .1 .1 ..tury ai1 t ,ksi , 1, 1,111;;51 1,51

1,,,v;1 1 ea,as Al) (5/ I d 151, LIR; "6115. IL 11,11 1 aL 1,, 1 .1 1t 111,. Ili +1 ,I1

1111+11. I I 18

. ikillit.I I al 10 1 1. , s...:1, , ,i 111,1, , lk. I ,u h. I 1 .1, ,,, , ititi

. , ,et (ha,. 5 a. 111)11 1 I IZt) LI.... lk ,I i !, , GI gt 1, _,,,t ill .11.o, .., L. 1 ,1,6 1 . ,.,, 1...3 19 i

Iii. ui,,k 1 vA 11, 1.... dial. .....c . .11,111 viLat , I, akl l,k,..11 . 1.10 162, I, .51 ,11,I,1

;lc, (114 1,5,5A,,,..1 ;41_5+,;+ , .11y 1,11,;LI to L1.5; co. .1;1,1 5 1 the , I ,:..I. Iii,, .1

suik. ri ,A/..ticd EIC.,;(1141i EfiLl.! 111..41c 1)1.3, 1(,.,-.1 IL; tit ItS 1,101,,.LI., . 1 t

ii,111

Att 1111,, 1

11111, 5 5

,r1 a it., 1115

1.1 1. 5,,+;112-

1hc.I113e, L,',3 QIC5 ,11,,,d11) 1)1 A',,11;51

10

Total energy use in the United States grew much more slowly after World War I, and the shifttoward oil continued. Oil overtook coal as he donlinant fuel just after World War II, and hascontinued to claim an increasing share of th macket. This shift to oil was brought' about by thegfowing use of the automobile, and the sw. eh from coal to fuel oil for residential heating andpowering trains. Gasoline's share of the pets leum market increased very quickly. Two other usesof fuel also increased sharply during the-- from the 30's to the 50's: aviation and farmequipment. The major petroleum product bein roduced was thus changing hum kerosine to fueloil to gasoline to accommodate the changing patterns in consumption There was also a largeincrease in the use of asphalt, another petroleum product, to pave roads

glaplll,. 4111..... 4,1 4141 1/14/4111.,11%.11 .4104. 11.44,L51.18 144/A" 1.1,4/ 41118

t,1111../ and West Vligania, Lit 41 6klaltssna, .uss.1 theft lcA .1S and 1.ouislima 4

Natural gas, wisi.,is la oit...us tumid us ,..oussuu hos, sins 4/11 Vs 4.1J Wab1C.11 LA.4111 111, LAO-

When it t.u.,:anic 1e.11nulu i.ally (easible to la) pipellue ItanspJit it l'iatut .L ga..,lean burning k,onvenies,t, atid cheap, and. it thus necame the nation', Primary household luei by

1900 (jas al3u tows,' use is, indoshy asid t1.1 ,1c-tis.,,,A1 pow .r./

Alt, I N 1 I_ . 11 IA A,

lat.: .111 kouLu c.r/c;iall IOW 4, : t14,81111 :11

W411 I until 1973 total pu Ner de.,1a,ui 11.1d bees, ,.,rely 10 yzat's 111 [Le 1920'samid i930' ,oai wad ilic 11.,.1 tom atmout t.vo ti.D.,li (lie ei.:,,,tiik, i .) A..1.;/ g,..le,aied withhydulc,,til pc./N4..1 pi vliii..6 tL.,.; it. L Iliac. L11111 to 4141 414. 1 11., i1/ 4441 64 lic....i ,I.atig,cd L111a Lath,significantly, mtil by 1970 ...mai had dioppeo to at)out 4 j 1.,e14ci11,11 drs...,lecifi..; power pro .sided17 pc:I...cut, 114Ltual 1.t;1,4;111, at./);11 1 2 poi,.clit an,1 a 'icy, /;0111C.1 1.1)

fuel s_ 111/,1,..111. 1/0WC.1 1./1111114:44 MIL 1/1 CAL

,

a

A 11

rat

I1,1 ,

tat- 'ed6. OE 1. 11,

1. %11 1ED t", es. &MING I (At 13 i ik ( I

FIGURE 1

At the beginning of the 20tli century, scientists were investigating the rays given off byradium. In 1905, Albert Einstein demonstrated mathematically the relationship between mass andenergy, although it was decades before this theory couldrbe_proved. On December 2, 1942, a groupof scientists headed by Dr. Enrico Fermi gathered under a supash court at the University ofChicago, where the first controlled ,nuclear reaction occurred. Scientists have since been working tosafely 'harness that tremendous nuclear energy for the generation of electricity The nation's firstprototype nuclear power plant was built at Shippingport, Pennsylvania, in 1957

In the yedis sinue Woi Id Wc1I Li clic:18y lia3 appealed ee,..1) whet,.['mole, this pea had. a huge fleet of passettgei aiiplancs has developed, their has :11 a1. autoMobile"population explosion Alf antditioning, cciitral beating, television, doilies was and diyets alegenerally thought of as necessities, not luxuries A inec_hanitied agricultural industry usestremendous amounts of energy. The various engines that perform Affirm-lea's wort, )rodua.,1 7 5times the number of lioisepowct ill 1971 then they did in 1940 while the nuinbel of people in thecountry increased by only 54 percemt t,en with tile slowing populationrowth more and ihoreenergy Is being

1)," 1 .4 . .1...1 14 bdSle 1/11,./ IIAAL 1111 b..,1 1.11411;11 1/1,;311 all I )g, ,11,-.1 11, _ 113

aliv totiay was b( in cars aitt..r [Lis fossil fuel eloicl, beg.,n, a,id w, have (Aided to a, is It wiz

L it Lt, go ott Out U1 1%4 K flobbe.t tl S Cteologi, al Slit% cy kb"( to aperiod ci wily 1300 yedi,. bolo to g., 1111.g !lave .....tobtotto.:.Li llo. vtiolitt'available suppl) of fossil ft.,:ls This is illustrated i.1 Figure 2 Thus the world to,lay is on the brink01 ttansition boot tile 11)5.3.1i f1iui gc. ..,111.; , 1,1 As w... 1,,,c seen (10113 (Lb tibt.,315S1U11of clIctgy hiAt)iy Iln,.ldIIs 11,11.3C. 1110 3,33l 113.'111 OHL 131J 3:1)&3_11 l 3 k11301.13C1 31)I. b, . alas". Int: old soot, cvC s depicted but b,:, dose sotto 0111.g It ILA had 1011,1,1 111 IL,, I lat 1. 1113, 11.:,v

cdcd depict', I of Peopt, aid t ot t 1,1 11 lls 11, A 1.1,1 ,1 .1111111111, 1411., 511.1116

1.0111/%1 5tt.,13.;thillb t, lie. Lit l 111k 1.s1 433 1..,11.1 and 111 till,meantime. until [fit I. .roitgoil It, I111,IC C )11:3c:IVi 113C tOS it Ito I i:aott,t,:,. 1103,2 by

AJ101, A .1,1k:a 41,1 .11 Is..2,1116 III, r,111% Ilk 4./1 0111.11 1 L,e 141,. 11 Le 1..11//1 41A1

kWh, ot eonscivatiou 11.1E ;.1,1 of , ail to , ks.IT.)4 a.16 all Chili II a Li .1 .c, t,

AI, . i . ., l' . I.

1 3 k133, 3 :..1 I . I .1

111,1,.1 , IL lia......, .1 1, :s ,.I ) 1 ..4; 11, 11.11 I VI(.....

1.11t;s. , bc,,t.,ia db,it.i.: I I t; ItalL y pit; .. 1 ,;.al,..;,.ti y I I f14c 1,.1 i

12

0a3t. an..1 1-utui

F1.31)F,E 2

Ft A

The,following sections deal with each of the five primary energy sources of Figure 3, as wellas one secondary source, electricity.

COAL

Basic Informa Iva I

Coal is by far our most abuiidallt d tilestic Isla It RAC! I...at/Urea: 11,1C11(1i1,:a1

NuffkICIlt to meet (he datiun'5 flc;cda for an estimated ZOO y..ars of mote

I 1 \it flibuil hydro6eit, .., 1

ituting polut tVl t-oal lJ the onatiou vi peal Peat is JbbI1 Ll llly .I11 As .1.i11 .1

11.12:/111 plants ill early stages of decomposition Peat is tisuall), toluicd fit alCdS sllbtl as 311 :11 1A0bogs where water covers dead vegetation that has acumulated on the f he wat,;1 blocks (hea,tion of ba,,teria from the all, greatly bluvvillg the 'ate of decay riki, 6aLIS a Itlual 1/4,1 ELI

the ylant !natter l:?e ie.tatited and it it this that produ..es heat whe't buitica Atte' layursof these plants have been t)nic;,d tor pctiock of at,',ut 10,000 yc.AL3 they Le.,,otne t.1 it l'eat

bhick and looks like decayed wood Mit,' dried dc hurtled but it has d I. tatty" lylow energy content and is very smoky Peat used' as a fuel iii itia areas of the woltd

,,, I

a II th, peat was tid-rixl below the surface ratu c and pt 4SS114 (,) _4IIL L.S ,oui

Ili NO WILLI , It,11,1, III 1.1

3

,,a1 , it ,41 1/1011 1 tl 41

11. lk. .

L I 111 +11111 1 1 ir.1,lII,, .iat,C,I iii 1.1 ILAL ,1 I ,Q3kiliL I. Lilt i .1 I ;I 61, 1 1

o1 ia, illki A11111. 3t CAt.11.31 111 .1,, I 1111 tt. 1 6 1) f r .1 11;3 1 . I/1 I

.111 t.l r ,1,bu1.l4 It uilllb Ali a .1 II 11 1 11 II 1, ar

11

I .11 11.1111. aik g, 1 L 1 I., INIL1111.

r.t5: 1 ,1 1 1 II, 1 111 r1 I It itir .1),)(11 It pet 51,1 i.la, 1 E.11 11,1%A.11. I,

it I; tat 1 )t.o, fiat, k 4141 ir , ; 11 I. bill,al , it,41,..1 IL t,ILLI Li ;0111111 ,,/,.1k;11

14

1/11, 4.3 1.1 I. VV.:.1 11111 t .111% it IL I, 41, I. 111''

1,!.. .1 1

.I (11d11 it ,i1,4 At 11 .1 1Ci4AM 1) t ic. /I :`,1 i !I -flits.. ,1

aintztt:s ill 61,p1,,11 t,1 1111. b,,, II it III Alia; th4111 ti.t

a ,

.11. I

1/ II. I,

Et

Slightly more than half of U.S. known coal reserves are west of the Mississippi River. Becauseof high transportation costs, it is not yet economically feasible to use this western coal in theeastern-states, even though its lower sulfur content makes it more environmentally acceptable thaneastern coal.

Coal

In 19/ 11 9O 11/111/W1 E111i. 441 144 te,S lab!, I 3114/11,.] 110101,

vv.; 115c-.11 by Vdf1011s

I

...1 1.1.e i1, 19

(1,illtl,1.1.1Ati,11 I )0

, 1,=11

b per[

A, 11.1_ 1 4 ..1114t VI 15.11 t , 1y .11.

. .14P114 t4Z./ 1

Ii 14,,i ; 3 si !Lc 1..1, ,1 1441;

It t4.1 I,

41, .

1., i '111 114 .4

41.1, 1, ,1S ,ti it, 1, .1,1 11, g. 1,14,4

i.,11

,i.,411.; ,

i1 1111tIt

and h

4,4

141 1_114 1,1 .1 .

111,I4; 6 41 tt.it . 1, .144 lid

.4 1 II, .q

1 IA , ,I I I .. . 11 . .1

1 1 . 1 - 4,,4111 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I , , .4.111," 1, 111

5 C I I

,4,4 11 ,

I. 1115

1 11 i Y4 LI :,,,,ZAkal .t_.I

4

Transportation of Coal

Transportation of coal from the mine to the place it is to be used is a major undert ng,since such large quantities are involved. Transportation costs can account for as much as half of thecost of the coal to the user. About 65 percent of the coal is transported by rail, 11 percent bybarge, and 12 percent by truck_ Another 11 percent is burged in "mine mouth" plants, which aregenerating plants built right at the0wal mine. A small amount of ..ual Is L.otivri fed (u a "slurry," amixture of coal and water, and transported in a pipeline

tanspoiLition ul tic 4.1 11141,1.1 p1.01.414..,111 11 , 14,,,41", 11,,,, 114, 1..,.,..... .11p.1)

111, 1411 Nyste piove itiadetin.ae for 111 l,lulclisc load

Environmental hupacts from (mil

LiivlIsailma.;111d1

, 1 , 1 .,41111416 1 1 ...1 .11 . . ,

4,, 14 .1111Cladi pl4dt 11,:111N 011.: f/1011iCI., 1:4 1, 111 ill 4i,11_11:. 11111111 1C,'1_1111 1 ,111; .111.1 AL 0,1611.1

seeps into deep mines This wale( m ist be pt1,npc1 b. k t.. (lie face ,u win; itoodint, Thisdrall.agc. Ia ottc11 Lind du)/ 1111111 w ii i;liters 111.; tic,,,,Incia of Ininc

.114111.1 6 1141 Cially luvul, La t4/411,,s ..,1.Laill,/Ala

underground miding pro,ess produces Loge anioun(s of sn,lid was( wind' must t,r disposed ofproperly picvent 4uiid 11111 tf, CI Oalt)0 MIA Id11dS1111. I tic 3..1941 n 414;

with cuitll and d VC.L;C:td(14.111 ...,v. .l to ; 411111 11163c.: 41.11141 4,1.(,1[;.14H 14(4.1 ,vith m,derground .1111.11,L; 11 II, . 4.1 ti.r land t114. 1..111. ,l lt,i, 1.1./.311,11;111 4.;

1,) 1-1115 1111 414,11 la, 4,411 al, 1 4. 1c1144,14441

i,,.gr c36 , 41 i l .. I., ,,,a 1 l'/ . ;14 41,- .» 4. ,

u, 61114414,0 A.A111..d T1,10 1111 31 021).1 k 4.1 Lii 4.1t./1.50111i4 1,1411 [1114114.1 ul31t1 td 111116 di 5111 kaa:,1 1 144I44 4.; is 1144. 1111 441 utl i1..11 4116 4t,1 1,4 11414.,11 .1 1.4141 4 411,1 ILI 1 k 4.,4 1 .,r11

14431 441.111, I 4. ..1I to) krk ,,,44,1311 3 !Agit lak Ii.,

' i, 1, i p, i'07 1.444,1

111,,,t 14 41014 .1 1.4/ a 111.1,,I1 411,41,1 sill lt..; ha: 11, s.,,ab ai 41,1. ,i4,4,4110114, .1111ni18 N.. la 1.,41,111 141. 1,1,11)1, 1, A, ,1I1b , 111. 1 aild 111,111,1 11111, .1 1,..6k 1,1 I 1 LI. ,6, ,.1114,1, i11 111) .11111 .11 111 111, +11, A ,.I..111 trfilt 1.3 CAL

1111 11,111 41.4 1, 1 141111L 14. 411, I 14. 11 I . 1111 1+ 1 11, , 4 , 1.,O!, 444141 1111441

111; A d ,i kill 11k1k1k.. .1) ,II t1..,4,..(1.1 ik.. 1.) 1kkk 11 It 1/4_ 113 44 0.444 44 ,44 ,,44 14.. .44,

anti) 1. 1 1 ,1 111 .t 11 ;Ll,. w,1 1 ; ki k. 34 1W/A ,:111 11 3 1.

11`e 10 16 lc 4111 51111 .3 , k I r 1111 111, 1 k, tkl 11.0 41,1, 111 tl,.. ./ 1.I aol,(ka1411 4,4 Ilis 1.144 4,4114 , i.. alh

.4 4,

I M E, !It I1 11 1 ,,1.1..;111 t/1, Sil I ..6 .!(/ al ,,I , in ,,I1 .1 4

degrees Celsius. Some possible consequences of such a rise are warning of the upper layers ofthe oceans, a rise in sea level-, and changes in the polar ice caps. The projections and predictions arevery tentative-this situation is so complex and the future trends in energy use are uncertain. Thehead of the National Research Council study believes that for the next 30 years or so it is safe touse coal, and hopefully well before that time more will be understoodbout the effects of carbondioxide on climate. \

A major pollutant nom the burning of coal is sulint iltorod., win, 14 I 4A A 4.1o11,33 4A.-4

piodu,:ed when fuels containing sulfur are burned hulilit dioxide 4Allet is [tic 4,;s1,11., tot y, syst.nnwhich includes the lining of the tiuse. dt14,441 and Ntlitti 111 th,;

atmosphere cause damage to plants, trees, and sornc structures. Low-suIrm PulloldIll.Y II," theWCSt, S;411 tic used to !fleet E.IIVILO11111C11t1.11 PlOtection Agem,y st4A1 aids fut cult 1t emissions But Otis

nek.essitates Ititge costs tug transportation [Inc plinopal _ 1)ns availatilt, now foi cdti,Ang

sitlfui emissions twin nigh s.11fu1 1,04.11 cleaning )111AeAl 41141 (IOU MAO

3,..3-libtACI-5 to e011[101 enlISAS1011S ..After the 1.0a1 is bullied

,,..I , L74111116 1.71 7 II, i./as t1, , 1 .1.,,a, 11

1...111 k..st 111,E Luisa! ..11) ii Jcail,.47, Acilisss ssi,s.; 4,1 14, 1111111 in .114 the AA )i1,1 1177 t 1.j7 117 7,7.1

Ef A einision, stan11an,13

tat

, ,...t time. I_ a 441.21,, t ii s rat Jt.: 141 dZ 111 Is- .11 11111s .4,4411: 13 t A

N'llli tee 11111: gas 111 [dill( .1 A 11e1111,4il 4.11d4I le111, A11.3 17,4.31 411 Ills .41111111 1,..44 II. A 144,34

6,...,114, tip [tie -Cd4,1 1.;44vlsig, a 1.111-1. all im . Iii the Li

Al.

41 14.11 IA 14411-1, IAA14A1 In AlbiA4. .441 ,., 1 .4144 111AIAA4. 1 A 41 . A 1

Soli .11111 Niss.L;i pi-1114,1./14 :41 U1 k 1,111y 11, 1 Lilt, VAN IAA A id, II 1.11,1

to WI It L,. IL la 1.71114.71A 11.7 a 111/71tA, 1,.11141 VV 117,111111,711 , 1.7 1 ty, 11041

CO turn the stuoge into ceine11t-11l_ con.pou..insx. ht. I b,: d1J1,C, tabis laili Ills

1,t, . ti

IL , 1 n I 11 A 7

...111+. , 1771 4.71 111i41117 e 771 e, 11111 e Is, 71117 11 .1, 171 444 1 1,4 41144 , 11 4 I , i 1 4,4

111e di, 1 , t Ii,. A 1, 411111E. 1 111 14804 3, 14 I11A41 , k 711 1717. 7.1 III, 1177 1 1 7. 11. II k117 1171 5'1

11111e 17/17. It

4. 1114;. 11

I 411. A111 1 1, 1.4 .1 11141141 :1 I 1 A

1 ,,1,..4 .4 .

1.11111141 1) .14 1111 Ai

tt Apci, t 111Z 01 111.7; Olt IAA

144, y, . A

III n.n1ll . 1111.1 Ili, 4414. Ai I, II, s.,1 I. . 4 1 14i 1

,1 nil, 1 i 0,111 In) L1 4 li.1 I -4 . Z.( I11,

A growing concern related to sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen is acid precipitation. TheaCidmosrly sulfuric acid as well as some nitric acidis washed out of the air In complex-,chemicalprocesses during the formation of clouds and precipitation. Sulfuric acid, the major.offender, isformed in the all' by the oxidation of sulfur dio e About halt of the air Ntilltir dioxide coniesfrom natural sources. The other hall collies (rot the burning or fossil fuels, particularly highsulfur coal

Thus It...31 fuel pontstallta 3.611_1_441111y 1I1../L....A:411AB Eli, au1,1 111 tat"1-44/1 ii,ularly Ali thc edstein purtlu.us of the United States ALId retlt)ila[lul, ti141 kiii ti 1, ano utile/wildlltu, stunt flaps and 1.01c.A.S fit10 (1111114E,C InCE411 w..0 l dud 31.4,)ilc sIt it 3 It lia:, Alai 1)C,%11shown to bG directly harmful to humans

01 11h., .4,1,1 11/11011.,t1 14 ., u1111,1,..,. 1, .1,, 1, A, ..t11 is hl. ,,l. that [tic covuon.in ntat two (.4, iltan ,e )

If all SolitCeS to tin. EPA intik 1111 tailure,oniply with these ovel a pciiod of ii,az pose ...cvetc itsks

a,.. .41 , .. 11 I. .I I.../ ..1 .1M1 0. , SI. .x(,i .. II'. ii. , lltx., ha. 1 I. I 11.1f t% ,t all Lilt, ,,apl,d(ill r a st( I,. 1',n11,,nila.... ,411 Aaa A ,.I; . hitit..1,.d ) ,, 1,,,t.o11..

I.,A _:....101 1 . ASe., hi), A the tairaig coal ,. c iniocal 11,1,/14 ,Ii the Ac, Li ,Mall,. pi, oi .Lalui wiliuc.all Jc..k.11,,,a1 II.ItEst; I.N EL cii ti, illk. Iiiii51. L.11.1 iLl1 1,0.11, ica i Itls 11,116_ dilovk lil, 1)4111A%. 1...) ticLitdpc..1 6Q iLat tilt; 6.c hio di.seli,ageal tow tile Itino4plic,e Elcarost.itu; pit,:iptiatofs are kil.ItejIck.(1v Ilicy .114.; AA, L., ILII.,e Amid. 91 pek C11, at Olt; lx..1111,1C:3

/X . I . / 1, i . xi. 4 , ,, ,&

A 1 ,',hl I, .,;.. A /.1.1 .. ..1 i.iiii. 1, 1,1 1 1 a , 1, 1.4. . ti.t 1 / .1) ti, 1. .1 I 1 , ti1 .141. 1 .111,..A. 1 ill/ ., . .111, .. .1. Al II, ., , I. 11,11 1.1141 .1, ,.,, III ,.

, i . , , J , k i , .1... 0 .1 I I I . .$ 0

l .1 1 1 . s . 1 / . , 1 . x i 1 1 1 4 , .1 .1 .... v1. 4 .11,. x,./1 alA

.1

(1.111,..411k

, . ,

111[1. ,,i, 1. Ail. L. I.

,

I

I I I

i ) I,

4.1. . I, , it 4 i I, I 1 ri I .4

,.0.,,i 4.. i 1 i 1,.. . I

i/c I t.. Mix .1.,3 . 1.1 i I III( ti I Ii,.

61, ,I,L Lk I,, Ai i

Procedure

Table 2Estimates of Annual Health- Effects

From the Use of Coal in One 1,000 Megawatt Power Plant

Occupational OccupationalDeaths Injuries and

Disease

Diseaseallsportatioll

Act;idents

'dents.3of

kr 4)0,004.8

OL

ing.the e Id 1.:1.1l orhip octInt 1, ,. 1 1 I ,:io. ,,.. :Iy Ail( U,.., ,. oitto,,;Nipuatoc,) to 111tt144e telease ©t dont,,,I. 4311611 Icaitlt in tit. ti, ell lic.kinc,ily of .1 dthat 04,,11/ s ildliliall, In EL.; e, fused pk,o(ditik.. It IN 1111w 11,11 d Lo isolate. the ...A ul thepollt11411t Al3o it U111)4,.14S 114/411 1.11C 111114;1434 (1011 of vatou,. polillla Ila ao 1,.tvc cllk ,,1 1Itc4e..1 Lointhoc, ol toc, uttlivi.loal pol1,11,aton th6.111aelv,,5

U Liu 0().o-18 )

NuoloccupatturtatDeaths

perN1

1 4- 441_444 t., ..4441141,4 1414 i44 11.

. 414411 VI 41 [4.) b.; 114314.4: 5, 41 ,1ItIV 441 ill) i4.4.111111 1.4..

who already h,.ve ionic type of rest,iratory probicm

, .1 I 411111 .. 4 I .. I

1 LAI

.4 41

pi st li,, k; IL-41113 2.11141+11 14.. '4511%,11 1.441,1441.1kdA 4 1.04 41 I I 4.I11 ,A .44 1 . 14.,1

YVIL146LC..1 4.,c1 t4.illy ark Ow cIWt;k, a 01 141W 14,1 kII14 41111.1. I 14141 [II:- 1 I, ,% la 1 ,I1 C1e141011IN

of 1, ti, 1I 4t444II 1 11 till. 1;1 L, 141E. la IlltisItaic:.,1 L.) 111,, 11 )114),I1s 144 (4 441 di-. La41, ,81416 11,1 4111f.

pk.,11 11k)g, Ill 1 .014 2

441

(4411 Lai , 1,15 I 1 I 1 a '.4

6, 1.1'..1 .01 of 1.1z,11 ALI , .1 it I,

441,4 cop. re,' 411 ,it)113 4 11 11411 II. t4.4.:4 'Jail! CA 1, 14414;11. I 4.111

sc.thificht ,,11111 I oloiloo,11) 1. o, (hat 1, 6.: 4444 .11161L,

Several ol the °We, Lions Ley Iala. aic. valid 444,1 . to junill y reje,,,lt li.c cvldctll,l. "114is sa,tic 3(1,1

.r1/611.3 h11414c. Ia ,. of N(:, ,lc,aveiatc13

,iced the 1.;,1gy Ih i1 OR; k.o.11 1:0111.),111,N 1.4,1 V% C., ja / 4.(1 l,r 1 tJle to (1,) It ilth A 111.41111 ilska0111 c ,11/1 I ili4C111 4.1114.1 14,1 11Calt11

generate electricity with steam. We have previously stated that when energy is changed from onefarm to another, as it ks in thd generation of electricity, some of the-energy is wasted. In fact, nearly70 percent of the energy produced in an electrical generating plant goes into the environment aswaste heat. As the heat energy of the steam in a.power plant is converted to mechanical energy, thetemperature and pressure of the steam decrease. This steam, called "spent" steam is converted backinto liquid water in a condense' The ilea removed this spent steam is the waste heat that isreleased to the clivironment Condensation of the spent steam is accomplished by passing laigeamounts of coolilig watt) thiough [tic Loildensel lhis cooling watel Lan s011iC times he Lakendliec(ly 110111 d Id) IVittti Like ttl Lug,: b,,,ly of water Ned all,1 thenretuened to as source A tie body of cooling water ,,euentualk loses Ole added lict to thed1111°SplICIC. I bi.3 type of cooling is pelnlItEed only if the volume kti w4(4.,1 IS large ellougli so [hatonly negligible tcmpciature Llialiges occult If the ieliiperatule Lliange in (lie , wai,:i NCLi1.00 large k )1 111 ,111,1

favo.-ing the growth of others In such calves sonic other type of c,,oling ..,ysten. would be Ieyu,l, iiI tie ilac at stloling can lake the A.taln off hailual wali,i dys h1 tklt. li a system vtalksf I A.111

Blab. II 1.0111 d 11Cdt w .y al,.l n,cd In tht- 011skiiSCI It ltdd Cti 11116Witt.,1 LYSTZ, IR It la 1.1 tatc,t,_,,l be

1 III, I t,, ii., awm , , i.ackl

I . I I .1

\ I I 11 6,10 J I. . I iiigi t ;C.11.111, 1,11.11 a - 0011 i. ,t1/4.7.. tot SILL 1

ill It lid 1.1 t. t .1 I,.1.t1 (',alit MASI tt 1., 1if k +II A et:- t.)

tt1 11.151 .1t...1

) I. 1.1s),11 r. 1 Alit! ,L 11 1,,, 1 Lai iI, I. I

k114., 1 .ti, n inc. 1,1,k 3is :IL 1 i .11116. I II $11 It 11 ink .C.,,o,=.3

.11 1 1., 1 ..1, 11.6 1., , 1, 1,. 1,1111 (1,,I111 11 .11, I is :) .,'t,

1! Iul 11. ...,at ti , 1 , ^"I' If, ,s .s IA ..4 414 (±4:,i, 11t I

i is jail 141 ;.ii , . , ill. I i

1 1 I 1 k 41 .11 .

I) ..10 k 1 1 k 1 111, ,16 I ' I k , k a., i al 1, a li 1 I. I I 1

1511, , ..1% Iiil 11 hi, ,Ii M. ,A1 I I1. I I as 1 ,o, II , , .11 : li . ;,11.111 1 , a 1

, Ii ,. i ) ,a., , I, I). a , , it

II I

are suspended in a stream of air directed trpward through a very-hot- bed of ash and limestone. Asthe Mal burns, caleiurn in the limeitone reacts with the sulfur dioxide released from the coal Thisproduces calcium sulfate a solid substance which is rcinnvcd along with the k. 0,11 ash rhos thesulfur is elifninatetj from the flue gas. Fluidized-bed systems are more efficient than oilviiimidlboilers. But they are still very expensive, and so are not yet in widcwread use

,an be liii,) a I i,,n1,1,..1,1cN lt,l . °al ,I, .,, .1

and used for inahy yc.aia but the gas 111,111

11,1E1E1,11 gds In Lodi g4sEtiLAtinu ixat.,1 dlv,l , with watcn En 101111 d gas will,. h 1.s a 1111 .tul1.'Of carbon ,nonoxitie and hydi-Ogen, This gio can he burned, but it has a low heat value 11,SEndustty is oat rently using such Allow B tr. a 1111111...,1stl.cp ,,_drbou inoiEustdc Ecacis %kat, (t(211Ii (A) Pl(,allik ,d1l.)011 1/10X1114 11 Mt), an,/ hydingEnsulthn; l tins tin. 31.1Ifill t;4111 [ic thni) ill, gas it ,110p_11ne,,cssa,) 1111111 Ill.:than, gas is 101111C:11 IL:.,1111.1116, it a gas 'hat 1 AliEstit in,gas Olic Ent.1 plUblc01 %Ain ,oaf gasiik;atis,in LL, 101 ,,I Vs .11.. Walk. ,1

1,1(atle llte hydiugen 111 1.11,; gastti, atinn End L. al:, ns, dvE Ill t, licediztt WI Cat pound of (no lItit ,I (111.41i;1) hill, I, .11 1110 111.11 Ilk II

w, Id be uscd 1,Et ;ati iii. IS 19eale(I iii aild regions of ,10,_ Jlitl 11Iti,),( sit ,1) beEldned 111.E y lOI AU, IC11114.11,11 III 441 hit )11 1., Hi 11 11,...1..,1 ii 1;,,.,111. ,11,,,n

pith l/1 ..14 InL 1[1[[1. .1111 1-1 EE :cdswater 11. such area,

t, ti, IH.1t111 1.11 ,1a1,114 1 It

th...

.1 1 E 1111.A tA 1 5 0111,--a

t1a,1 e, t5t, IL fa k..111:1 ,ItCELL 4,Iiiky tEEJ fu,,is Pi., 11114 i.1 Lit i it. tit t. ,t. .1

1 It Ltal a

111 Ii.1 . I

II 11,1, I. u,..

ill, a I I I,,1 t,lli Ali ti ,4 ti

10)

\pi; lel ( it I,0 ...41 L . vE. E I Ia Ida .

,11 1,1, ,: .1. aka...A. t..t II. 1 ...al .t I al 1.1ylighiLl (LEA, .1 fa, ,isoi 1, 113, , 51 1. 4

1111/11 I It lit I it, til,11 It a al:. 111,kali . 41 (1,,. Ili ala , I

kR1) 130 -

,4 11 I.

1%, 1111

1.i .1.1

(

OIL-

VU SIC ltifOrfrittilun

uil (ul petroleni 111i1JUI ploviding Heady halt .Tl 111 1411 Y

the United States is able to produce only about hall of its oil acedsi trod' ditinestieresources-the other halt must be imported has led tii serious supply problems and i;conomicdifficulties We will deal here with sonic cit.)4.:;CS of 4J11 115C d1.141 Oil 3l4i)1,11C. 1)141 the leader /Rust keepin inind that the oil sitilatioit is so .:ollipicx alW atiby,, t to ..141,1gc that It la licaily unpossiblc t, "geta handle on it," especially in a few pages

rclioleani .,onsists baal, ,Ili} , i ,,1 1.1,114.408,G.t. ii $A./,a 11,1.,.1 1'10111

of minute marines animals and plants Mai LA tiled di (lie biAtOrli of ancient seaJy eats ago 1110 111(.4(4:41A IA .is then k,I1414;1 14,4y4:., 111 Z111 will! and IiiA wii,.;11,;:. IloVilS

NIOW1) 1.11031WiliCd 11114, 1114L hydwgell dud ,..011-)11 (hak ili) 4.0.1 LILA gas,_ Tilts

transt,,,1.110.1 1,14,116111. dt)4i111 I) E.4A4111d1 I.. ay Cterial andfive a.,1.1[15

a.

, , .114.

lay4i v,t;to LoL). dense 11 11 H.1., V.) 1,la51 00116.11

to lei oil, slowly mi8kate ihrotigh Since the .)il was light .r than the diet- Thai originally filled thepu.otiirocics, It tenikil to Ilse it wa, by dI lay CI the oil Wen

at this 'trap" Ali acciunol,.,, 4.4 4)11 114V. 11..1111 L;,.13 aa51)4.:411:d vt, .111 11,14 ,)) leading tothe assiihipilon lllat [Live tllL aa.11,; ).10.1 i I iii kt, tti haswill, tl1,II1, 11041 11,e t tias ,,. 11,.111 1tL MIL III ilt Oil 1V14:111411e, the

1.4x1111....,114,111 1,t 11.21111.31 gas ,,1 ,1,4, OIL \cgitablc 11141tcr

A A 11

a, .1 I

4,

111 c lit, if t

411

.1 , 11 L 4 ..4 I 11

. .1 11l, I milli I .,k

1 .1 11 hi 41 1;A 111

..1 . a. 111

IA 1 ite old 3 / 4.

. .1,111 ,4,1,

1 .,,,1 .att( ..)t 111116

. A, II . ti 1. i 1 I 11 ..1 I I 11 ;

lit; A.M.., 4,15 IAA A 151 h VC

1..11 1.114;1 1lt,41 ,111 , 1.1 II. 111 .111 1,. c 1

#,1k. :Itz11; Ilk

Occasionally some evidence Of oil Can be:detecfed at the surface. It sometimes appears as a:ar e_ deposit in aras--,-- but more: often as ^a thin filnrof oil on creeks passing through- the:area.

Seepage of 'natural gas also:occurs; and even small amounts can be detected by instruments.Seawater is, sometimes- tested, for dissolved 'gas in the hope of detecting.underground seepage. The.large.majority;,of petroleum. 'deposits dd:not have any such leakage to file,surfaci, so these methodss`,havlelirnited.,_ application. In Some areas_the visible geologie,_featureSigive some evidence of possiblePetroleurn traps beneath the surface. .

',:11150 is found' in areas where` there is.no, detectable- surfaceeyidence. To find these areas,-seisthicrnethods are sometimes used.A small, exiAosiorvisrset off in a shallow hole, and microphones

Virious locations record _the sounds: The.sound waves travel at different velocities depending one types.otrock formation, so the. records can he:iiged to-map underground Tormation:contours, in

-hopes of finding pOsSible lOcations fdi oil accumulations..

,.

thircl:exploratiortniethod_ls.thegrayity ..meter...Changes inthelorcelof; avity-at aCertain _location can indicate geologic features that may contain Oil. A gravity Meter is often used from anaircraft as a preliminary _survey tool toloCate areas where seismic methods shbuld be employed.

.

When alirely area for oil is found, a well must be drilled. In modem drilling operations, thedrill bit rotates as it goes downward.-A substancecalled drilling mud is fed into the hole to preventbloouts (accidental releases of oil or gas during drilling) and to_carry crushed rock to the surfaceas

-thew'drill:goes down.-The drill bit i5 connected to the surface equipmenfthrough a drille,Whieli

. . Ialso carries the drilling mud to-and froth the surface, Tall derricks contain the equipmaneeded to

-rage and lower the drill pipe into the Well.

Wells__can be drilled in Coastal waters and in the-open=sea,,In shallow waters,= the wells are. _drilled from platforms resting_ on Tthe ocean bottom. In deeper waters, drilling is done from :a large

floating platform.

After the well has been drilled into _the_potentialloil area,-tests --are- run -to see if the- well willbe commercially productive_ If so, it is prepared for production by the installation. of varioustubings, valves, and pumps. At the surface, any water that comes up through the well is removedand the oil and gasare separated. The oil is usually stored in -tanks, and the gas is piped to aprocessing plant and then to the consumer pipelines. In a -productive area, many wells will becrilled-

A large part of .the oil cannot-be removed by simple pumping. Some method of secondaryrecovery is_ generally used to increase oil production. One widely used method is water flooding.Water is injected through some of the wells in a production area, and as it moves through theformation, it -pushes oil toward the remaining wells. Water flooding still leaves one-fourth toone-third of the oil behind, and many methods are being developed to try to remove even more of

Traniportation of Oil

The major transportation methods for oil are pipelines for land movement and barge ortanker for water shipment._ Pipelines are normally placed- underground_ One notable example of apipeline is the trans-Alaska pipeline whichbrings oil_800 .miles frorri the Arctic coast of_Alaskato the Pacific coast port of Valdez. Pipeline transportation is generally the most economical formfor oil wherever pipeline construction is feasible.

_Barges are used in inland waters, whileoverseas shipmentiimade in huge tankers.

Oil Refining

Oil as it comes from the ground -is called crude oil, and it is generally unsuitable for use_ ithout. some refining: The, basic_ refining_ process_ s distillation; which uses heat to separate the J.-various componontS_ of the crude oil. As the crude oil is heated, gasoline is removed-is a gas whichliquifies as it cools.' With further heating_ , kerosene is removed, and then lubricating oil, fuel oil, andasphalt. About 9d percent-of crude oil is Made into various -kinds of fuels:- gasoline, jet fuel, heavyduty fuel 'Toll for industries, heating Oil, and diesel fuel. --The rest goes into -lubricants and is a vitalraw matekW in n--hundreds of manufactured products such as-dyes, njedicines, detergents, artificialfibers, and plastics.

Oil' refinerieS in the United States are running near their maximum capacity to process the,c Ide-oilAnto:the_prodUcts___*emeed.:_Unleadedigasplinc.has.sometimes.beeh.in-.short_supply_because

.

o f refinery,problems.-

Uses of Oil

--- Table, 3 shows petroleum consumption .6y the various sectors. The _numbers are -given inL---millionsabarrels -- - - - - -- - -

Petroleum User

TransportationResidential/CommercialIndustrial

Table 3Petroleum Use in 1978

Milons of Barrels per Day Used

Electric Utilities_

9.8-3.53.41.7

The transportation sector is obViously the one most dependent on oil. With few exceptions,our entire transportation system of cars, trucks, planes, trains, and ships are fueled by oil products.Other sectors can be -more flexible in their choice of fuelan electric utility can burn coal, forexample. But with present technology, the various modes of transportation must depend mainly onoil.

Environmental Impacts from the Use of Oil

On-shore oil production rarely creates 'any significant enviroTimental problems. Off-shoreoperations present more. problems, with the'possibility of oil fouling beaches and affecting animal-life in coastal regions= Fires at oil wells could cause 4ignificant air pollution.

In the area of transportationone of theiargest_problems is that of oil spills and dischafgesfrom tankers. Millions of gallons of oil have been released when these tankers have run aground orbroken up, and this oil is 'washed up on shore or sinks to the bottom, ruining beaches and

. -, ...*`4.-.4 ,- .deStroying fishing grounds and killing,hirds.TReiearchis being done- oh satisfactory _Wayg_of cleaning

---_---up -oil :spillr,' but=lt :minding a- sericing- problem:: PipelineT-generally priidifc-&-fevi_eilvithnin-ental__ _ _

problems, aith-46uili considerable controversy, exists over the -effeets of the trans-Alaska pipeline.,D---- its construction,." -'d as these-- uring its such diverse considerations astt ese had to be made. keeping the warm oilfroth meltirig- the permafrost; not interfering with tire- ancient ,migratory patterns:of the carihoU:herds=,not ',, diSturbing_ salmon _spairang ,-, grounds,- ._ and- allowing .; for 'earthquakes_ and : thermal-.

. . . _ .._-.. .exPansion and contraction of the :pipe.

Oil refinieries can cause local-pollution pmblems, especially air and Ziater pollution-.

The automobile is the source of significant pollution. Ekhaust fumes &Om the en nes ofautomobiles contain a number of pollutants,_including Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons burnedfuel compopnds), and nitrogen-oxides: When these poliutaitts are acted upon by sunlig t theyproduce smag.-It was istirnated in 1970 that automotive erpfssions prOduced 39 percent of the airpollutioninthe_Unitd. States This proportion is-bengieadily -reduced-as older-cars are=replaced----by new ones with better'ernission control systems-mandatedby federal regulations.

When used as a fuel for industrial processes and for electrical generating stations, oil producessome air -pollution mainly froin'the oxides of sulfur and. nitrogen. But the pollution problemsassociated- with burning oil are not as serious as with coal. This is a major reason .why some utilitiesurned oilinstead_of coal torneetair_quality_standards=, Government- policies are

now mandating a return to coal, however, in `the face of our increasing dependence on sortedoil.

Use of Imported NI

4

It is this dependence -cni foreign oil that lies-at the,hea Of -many of our-energy problems_today. In January and February of 1977, the U.S. imported about 9 million barrels of oil per day,half the 'of total domestic oil consumption. U.S. domestic oil Production has generally declined

--ii-Irce-1970;-New-production-frorn-Alaska.:-arid7the-Oliter Cofitinerif-Shelf- and new recoverymahods could reverse, this decline-----hut will still not be -able to satisfy-the U S thirst for oil, Most-

,

of our oil is imported from the 13 -countries which make tip the Organization of PetroleumExporting Countries (OPEC). The 1973-74 oil, embargo by this 'organization; along with their-four-fold increase in prices within the space of a .year, demonstrated our dePendence on energysources over which we-have little control. In 1973, a barrel of-OPEC oil cost -$2.80. In 1979, it cost$23.40. The U.S. is expected to pay over 50 billion dollars for imported oil in 1979. Such atremendous drain of dollars can 'hive grave consequences for the nation's econorriy. The cut-off ofoil from -Iran in 1979 due to political. turmoil there demonstrated again our- vulnerability to supplyinterruptions.

In 1976, the Strategic Petroleum Reserve was ,initiated. A stock of oil, is to be built-up tocushion the damage from supply interruptions and to discourage their use as political, tools. A longOPEC 'supply interruption would ultimately be very damaging.

.

Rederal policies to lessen -11 dependence on imported oil are discusSed in a later section.

NATURAL GAS

Natural gas is very nearly an ideal fuel product. It is clean-burning and-convenient to use andtransport.. It is also an, important raw material in many chemical processes. Unfortunately, natural

.

;,7 The major component, of natural gas _ls-imethane, a cc:impound of carbon . and hydrogen-.atuial gag "can sometimiS be Used directly frdm the well, but some gas must be treated to remove

production hat been-decreasing in the United Stateiaincer 1973.

impurities such as sulfur.- - -

ec , - ,

Natural gas usually occurs in association- with petroleum because_ geological conditionsgeologicalfavorable for the presence of oil generally area for natural ga.s as NVell.'Some natural 'gas

.

'dogs occur by itself. Natural gas is extracted from the same wells as oil,orin a similar manner if the,

gasoccUrs by itself.- --

''' 'Areas with significant reserves of natural as are the Soviet Union, the United States- Algena,r ,

and the .Middle Eastern oil producing countries. ,Opportunities for the United-States to supplementdornestic.Stadies with imports are limited', since the gas must lle liquified in order to be shipped,

.. , ,' ancLthealiqUifie,d_naturaLgastleNO)As quite-expensive. Normal transportation of,ndfural gas within

the US:is by'r;ipeline, although some gas'isliquified and sold as "hdttled gas."' _

Tablelgiyes the estimated consumption of natural gas by sectors in 1977. Note that naturalgas measurements are giverfin terms of the volirme of the gas.

Residential/CommercialIndustrialTransportationElectric Utilities

Trillions of Cubic Feet Used

7.585-0.62.8

zi Environmental impacts of the extraction add use ofnatural g s are relatively smexplosive; so some accidents do occur.

HYDROELECTRICITY

. The gas is_

A hydroelectric power plant uses falling water to spin turbines, for generating electricity_ .Water may be collected and stored, at a. high elevation and led through tunnels and pipelines to aturbine at a lower elevation7 or daps may be _erected' across &fiver ±ter -_ raise the water' level. ''A"high -head" installatiortVhe head is the height of the water above the turbine) requfres a smallerVolume of water than a low -head installation to produce an equal amount of electricity:

-Several projects are underway to improve some of the small, low-head hydroelectric plants in

the U.S. These include projects sponsored by the Department f Energy. to demonstrate that,hydrogen can be produced economically at small darn sites. Electricity generated at the dams wouldbe used to break water down into its components of hydrogen and oxygen:. The hydrogen andoxygen could be sold on the commercial market.

--Falling-or- flowing-water -Pmvided-the- earl iest-natural -na e an s -o f-gen erating electricity.Eventually, however, most of the ,favorable sites for large-scale hydroelectric plants were exhausted,and power production from fossil fuels began to take over.

he remaining_ potential- large-scale hydroelectric sites 'in the are in remote areas,o -the eleetncalAernand. Developing -Such-sites could have -_poterriially -adverse effects on

_

increasingly scarce Wilderneks areas and on fishery resources:,

1

. Since no fuel is burned at hydroelectric Plants, there is n -pollution produced.--EnvirOnmental.. 1

n'concerns center on the safety of =the darirs and their effeets nearbyland and water resources.

NUCLEAR POWER

In 9 a; -group of scientists,_ led. by EnriCo Feself-sustaining nuclear chain' reactions; This was the beginni gsupplied over-4- percent of the United -.States' total energyelectricity. It has become an energy,: source surroundedcontroversy, t is section deals "with neuclearenergy in some _dbe-better informed on this important issue.

first initiated and controlled af- an

= energy source that-Air 1978and and about 12 percent bf ourh' controversy.,:Because of this

in the hope that the reader Will

As previously mentioned, it is_the fissionin or splitting of ato s that provides the energy innuclear power plant. The fissioning uranium produces heat viergy hich is used to make-steam togenerate_ electricity. This harnessing of nuclear energy takes place in nuclear reactor, whichis theheart of a nuclear power plant:

ueleif Reactors

There are certain components that are common to all nuclear reVors regardless- of- theirspecific design. These are the fuel, coolant,, control rods, moderator, and shielding..Ming.

The uranium fuel usually in the forrn of ceramic pellets' of uraniu dioxide, is con ainedwithin fuel rods in, the reactor core, which is the hart of the reactor. A typical reactor corecontains thousands of fuel rods which in turn contain several million uranium p lets.

.The uranium fuel must undergo several preliminary pmcesses before it is sed in a reactor.

After Uranium is mined, it must fust be processed to produce uranium o ide, known asuyellowcake." Then it is converted to uranium hexafluoride, a gaseous forni esse al in the nextstep, the enrichment process. The natural concentration of uranium-235 in, ur urn is onlyseven tenths' of one percent. The rest of the uranium is non-fissionable uranium-238. 'In order foruranium to be used as, a fuel for power plants, the concentration of uranium-235 mus be raised tot\iabout ,z3 percent. This fuel is then said to be enriched in uranium 235, The federal governmentis currently the only provider of enrichment services in the United States. Its t ee gase diffiisionenrichment plants provide the enriched uranium for, all reactors in the United as ll'as formany foreign reactors." after enrichment, the uranium hexafluoride is converted to =himdioxide, which is then fabricated into fuel rods.

rt,,

The coolant, either a fluid or gas, floWs over the fuel rods and removes hdat from theSince. the /fuel is contained within the fuel rods; the coolant does not come in direct contactthe fuel. The coolant then is either converted .directly to steam, or ties through a hie exchangerconvert water inta steam. This steam drives aturbinewhicirturns a generator to pmduce electrieity,

Water is the coolant in all except one reactor in the United States (a gas cooled reactor).Th-ciivridcartorifOf water-Cliailite around the -Core to carry away the heat. The core and coolingwater are both contained in a heavy steel pressure vessel which is in turn shielded by a steel-linedconcrete containment structure.

safetyor and reliability, there must be souk' way to control the nuclear reaction=to speed itup, alovrifdoWn, stbp7if entirelir.-.0ne way liotildTbeto `rhove_fuel but of the 'core-until-noenough remained to sustain a chain reaction.-But this -would_ be a rather cumberSome, unsafe,--ind

_time - consuming process. Another way of controlling the reaction would be to somehow stop some-or all. of the., neutrohs -that --are produced in-the fission process .from- interacting with the-uraniumQ35.1tiS:_carl b-e achieved hy the use of ,cOntrol rOds, which act:as neutron sponges. The-

=

control rods, made materials such as boron that' readilyabsorb neutrons,- are positioned inside the--fuel assembly:lithe rods are pulled out of the aseni131y, more neutrons _are available to cause:fasioning of the filet, so the rate -of reaction increases, the rods are inserted into the -fuelassembly, they abosbrb neutrons, so that there are fewer neutrons available-to the =fuel.- Thus, thechain reaction slows or even. stops completely:: This makes it possible to prOduce heat at a desiredrate, or to shut down the reactor. _

_

,

The moderatbr, a material withiethe reactor core, is used to slow down neutrons as theyemerge-frorrilthe-fissioning-atorns:-Slowing-is-necessary--begause-rreutronstraveling too-fast-are :less - ---readily captured by the uranium-235, and they must he captured m order to cause fission. Amoderator- may cause a decrease' in speed of nearly ten thousand times, but even a slow neutrontravels at a rate of appreciably more than a mile, per second:Graphite, water, or heavy water can beused as moderators. Except for the one gas cooled reactor, which uses graphite, U.S. power reactorsuse-the cooling water as the moderator.

As a by-product of the fission process, several different kinds of radiation are produced.consist-Mg of various materials surrounding different portions of the reactor Systems,

prevents_ this radiation from escaping-into the environment.

Types of Reactors

At the end of December 1978., 72- nuclear- power reactors were. authorized to operate,producing 52,396 megawatts of electricity. Construction permits have been issued far 92 additionalreactors-at-51sitesand-meaningful-construction-has-begun for all-but 4 units.T=Fhirty additional

-reactors.are in some phase of planning prior_ to construction.

The most common type of reactor in-the U.S. is the light water reactor, including the boilingwater reactor- and the pressurized water reactor. (Light water is ordinary water, H20, as9tinguished from heavy water containing the hydrpgen isotope deuterium.) There is one high ,temperature gas: cooled reactor in operation in Coloi-adb. About two-thirds of the operating andplanned reactors are pressurized water reactors. Most of the rest are boiling water reactors.

In the boiling water reactor, water is brought into the reactor and allowed to boil. It is thenexpelled frchn the reactor vessel as saturated steam, whiCh drives a turbine to produce electricalpower.

In a pressurized water reactor, pressure keeps the water from boiling. Instead, water- ispumped' through the core and removed at the top as a heated liquid. The water is then circulatedthrough a heat exchanger, where steam is produced from water in a secondary loop. The steamdrives the turbine. The cooled water in the primary loop is returned to the reactor to again cool the

core..

In the high temperature gas cooled reactor, the core is cooled by certain gases passing over it,usually purified carbon dioxide or helium. The gas gives up its heat to water circulating through a

- =steam:gen- ator. The Moderator system usually consists pf graphite piercl to contain the -__

1 :lz-"7:'

Uranium Supplies. _

With today's light _water reactor' technology, the potential of nuclear power as a long-term_

energy resource ,depends upon the supply of uranium-235. Thus,_it is necessary to have a goodestimate of the uranium resources of the United States:

_ _Uranium is a moderately abundant element in the -earth's crust, and it appears in a widevariety of geologidal' situations. Practically no geologic environment is totally free of uranium;however, the concentration of uranium deposits varies considerably. High grade uranium deposits instream-laid sandstone in COlorado, Utah, New Mexico, Wyoming,;and South Dakota have yieldedmosfof the uranium produced in the United States:

The latest available Department of Energy figures estimate that the U.S. hat 690,000 tons ofknown reserves:-and 1.07 million tons of probable -resources of uranium oxide which can berecovered at prices low enough Pi _be .economically feasible.- Adding uranium oxide" which: could

-be- provided as a by:product of phosphate and copper production, the U.S.; appears to have areasonably assured supply of at least 1.8 -million tons. Typically, a 1,000 megawatt power reactorrequires '5900 tons of uranium oxide over its:40 year operating lifetime; underlpresent-Conditions------Which prohibit recycling of fuel. This means that the United States can depend upon its knoirn andprobable reserves to supply projected reactor needs to at least the year 2020. Another 1.5 milliontons of uranium oxide-are listed by DOE as possible and speculative resources..-How much of thiswill actually prove to be economically available is not known.

r

Typically, about a third:or-the fuel-rods in a- reactor must be replaced each year These rodsthat are removed, called -spent fuel, contain fuel that could be salvaged, for further use. Some of theoriginal :uranium-235. remains and could be used for fuel. The spent fuel also contains plutonium

_which_was_formedlby_ nelitron-bombardment-of- the uranium-238:Theplutonium-is fissionable andcould also be used for fuel. This uranium and plutonium_could_berecoveredin special :reprocessingplants. Unfortunately, plutoniurn can also be used in nuclear weapons. Many peor* are worriedthat this plutonium might be obtained by terrorists or oilier groups and could thdn add to theproliferation ofnuclear weapons. For this reason, commercial reprocessing in the U.S. was stoppedindefinitely as-Of April 7, 1977. Fuel rods removed from power reactors are now :stored in pools ofwater at the reactor site.

Breeder Reactors

A nuclear reactor that produces new fuel faster than it uses it up and produces _electricity atthe sane time may sound like sornething_out of a science fiction novel. But there is a reactortechnology in the pre-commercial stage that does just thatproduces new fuel as it produceselectricity. This reactor is the breeder reactor.

The idea of the breeder reactor is not new. In fact, the first nuclear reactorf to produceelectricity was the Experimental Breeder ReaCtor (EBR-I ) in Idaho. It was designed by ArgonneNational' Laboratory and produced about 100 watts of electricity on December 20, 1951. ERB-II isnow.,being_operated=in_Idaho_for_the_Deriartment-of Energy-by-the-Argonne,National-Laboratory-'and is the only operating fast reactor in the United States. (A fast reactor is one without amoderator, so that the neutrons are not slowed down.) It is providing information on fast breeder

29

-reactor fuelS, ateri s, and_".componen is under conditions_ approachhig. those expeoted foi large_ . _ _ _ _ - _

commercial plants.

Several breeder Kea or strategies have been explored. Presently, the Liquid Metal FastBreeder. Reactor (LMFBR) and the.Light Water Breeder-Reactor (LWBR) concepts are receiving themost attention, and these _will be discussed:further here.

It was previously mentioned that uranium-235, "the fissionable fuel used in today's_

conventional reactowlikmakes up only a tiny fraction of naturally4accurring uranium, with the restbeirtg uranium7238: Tranium-238- does not ,fission_ when it is bombarded by slow neutrons.Flo.weVer, it can capture a neutron to forni uranium-239, which decaYs to neptunium-239 and thento plutonitu)Isq_39.. Plutonium -239 is a, fissionable fuel. Because uranium- 238 -can be converted inthis way into a fissionable fuel, it is said to be a fertile material.

This-tonVersion=from-fe e to-fissionable rrtdierialalso takes placein-current-Power-reaCtori,ut not at such a high rate as in breeders. In the LMFBR, for each atom_ of fuel consumed, morean one =atom of plutonium-239 would be formed from uranium-238. _ This is achieved =by

increasing the number of free rel.-eased in fission and by decreasing the number of neutronswasted, thereby making a larger number available for absorption in fertile material:

--_-Fuel--produced in such_ reactors-could dramatically_extend our_energy_resources, since_breeder_reactors could .utilize more than SO percent of the available energy in the world's fissionable:andfertile fuel reserves as compared to only ohe or two percent for light water reactors. One otherfavorable aspect Of breeder reactors is= that their fuel can be produced economically fromlower-,g.ade uranium ores.

Since the LMFBR is a -fast - reactor, contains -no moderator material to cause a rapid:-SloWdown of the fission neutrons. Thus the average "neutron velocity in the core will be considerablygreater than in conventional reactor cores. At these higher energies, thereAs a 'much -greaterprobability that the neutrons not` needed- to maintain the chain 'reaction -will` be-captured by thefertile uranium-238.

The term liquid metal is used because liquid sodium is e reactor coolant. The fuel in sucha sy tem would probably be a mixture of oxides of uranium and plutonium.

Liquid metal fast breeder reactors have the potential of being more efficient than light waterreactors, since sodium is considerably more efficient than water in transferring heat from the core.Also, the reactor core can be operated at a higher temperature without pressurization, since sodiumhas a much higher boiling point than water.

The. LMFBR has some disqdvantages when it is compared to light water reactors _These.disadvantages are due mainly to the sodium coolant. Sodium is a highly reactive metal that will burnif it is exposed to either water or air. Further, it is a solid at room temperature and requires, anelaborate heating system to assure that it will remain liquid- throughout the coolant systentiSodiumis not transparent, Which c rnplicates refueling and maintenance.

e

The sodium coolant cap uses sortie of the reactor neutrons and becomes intensely radioactive.Since the-the main radionuclide- pr duce& (sodium -24y/ hai-a- 15-hour -half-life -and --emits extremelypenetrating gamma rays, refueli g of the reactor and maintenance of the primary coolant systemwould require remote control e= ipment.

e .4 Rris more_ difficult to 'control than -a light water-reactor, because an accidental loss ,-- of- sodium coolant frOm the core- incrgases reader Power. The opposite occurs in light -water, reactors. .

..-- .

.The-cost of -building a LMFBR = considerably greater than that of light-water reac. _

----becaugedf the special problems

= = These problems are now being dealt with in small prototype systems such as the EBR-II in= Idaho and the Fast Flux Test -Facility in Washington, which are the forerunners of the Clinch River

Breeder Reactor demonstration At that -Was. planned to produce 'about 350 megaviatts Of= electricity in the late 1980's. ,Recently, however,-, the --Clinch River -project has become a

controversial, and highly:debated . power issue. the United, States, and the project is faced withsignificant delays in. completica, or indefinite nostPonemenf.

The main issileartlirebntroversy centeri-aaund nus ar weapons proliferation::t he concernthat the nuclear fuel produced by ihe LMFBR, plutonium -239, can be used not only to-produce

. electricity, but also to prOduce nuclear weapons. There is fear that a terrorist or a hostile nationmay either steal or otherWise acquire the plutonium and manbfacture a nuclear weapon. Thisscenario: is possible, despite the large risks associated with stealing or diverting plutonihm, the

:difficulty of manufacturin g a weap6n without a large investment in facilities 'and personnel, and the-low= probabilitiltel siceessi: because Of -the -UnrealfahilitT-of commercial reactor plutoniiim forweapons production. In any event, to minimize the Chailee of theft of nuclear materials at facilitieswhere plutonium is -located, accountability _of materials and security measures would have to beVery'strict.

.

In -order to further abate concerns over the weapons proffer n issysproliferationjesistant__ . . 1-

fuel cycles are being investigated, such as the Civex process whereadded to effectively "denature" the fuel, :making it unsuitable for weajions.

all portion of contaminants is

As the breeder is being debated, the U.S., once the leader in fast breeder reactordevelopinent, finds itself being surpasSed by countries such as Great Britain, France, and the SovietUnion; who haveNnunitted themselves to acceleration of their fast-breeder reactor programs.-Manycountries, particully those in Western- Europe, feel that they simply cannot afford to give up thebreeder because of their la& of other energy resources.

Another breeder reactor concept is the light water breeder reactor. The LWBR differs fromthe LMFBR in several respects. The LWBR uses ordinary . water as a coolant rather than liquidsodium, so that it breeds much more slowly than an LMFBR. Fissions in an LWBR are caused mailyby .low- energy neutrons rather than fast neutrons. The LWBR is based on an entirely different fuelsystein, thorium-232/uranium-233 rather than uranium-238/plutonium-239. An experimentalLWBR is currently operating- at the Shippingport Atomic Power Station in Shippingport,Pennsylvania, where test data is being collected to determine 'the feasibility of this particularbreeder technology for commercial application.

Safety Systems in Nuclear Reactors

Stringent safety precautions must always be 'taken by the builders of nuclear plants, whichCannot be built or operated with-out a license froin the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, charged bylaw with the responsibility of satisfying itself that the plant will not endanger public health andsafety. Licensing was previously done by the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), which was

31

,..-

Re Search and Development Administration (ERD , now part of the Department of Energy.-=-The,-1974..,TheAEC'Sifiesearch_and -',develoAment_activities were taken -eiver-:tiy:the Energy

i, -be

__- regulatoq and licensing activities are the functionpf the Nuclear Regulatory Cortirnisson (NRC, -%.

.,Nuclear,: powerf.- plants form small quantities (several pounds per day) of radioactive

substinees. Iir normal operation, niore,thair 99.99,i:16i-cent of these substances stay 'vithin the fuel = -:;-

assemblies._The small amount that escapes, from- the fuel tnters-the reactor coolant system, wherealmost all oaf it is renloved by purification equipnent An extremely small aMou nt of radioactivitY is

_

released to the environment under strict control, subject to conservative -and rigidly enforced healthtai

and safety regidations. - = t --

There --are several =natural safeguards that Operate in nuclear power 'plants. In today's;water-moderated power reactors, if the rate of fissions were to increase significantly; more heat

'would _ be produced: The heat would increase the energy of the neutrons in the fuel, 'and thusincrease:the proportion of neutrons escaping from the clire and being, eaputured by non7fissiOningatoms Th&rate of fission would thus slow dawn. This effect is automatic and instantaneous; and isone reason -_why a nuclear reactor cannot possibly become a bomb. bomb, essentially purefissionable Material is-required, much more than in the slightly enriched reactor fuel, and it must berapidly compressed and held togetherfor the chain reaction -td increase toan intensity of a nuclearexplosion. =

==

The use of water as a coolant .and. moderator provides another built-in safety feature oftoday's power _reaCkors. If the reactor were to exceed its designed power level, it would raise_thetemperature of the -water, which_ would in turn d_ ecrease the water's ability to act as a moderator.This tends to reduce the reactor's power leVel.

In addition to these natural safeguards, many safety features are built as an integral pany reactor facility. These are a defense in depth agains the release of radioactivity.

One such safeguard is a monitoring' system for neutron intensity. Neutrons-initiate the fissionreaction, and the number of available neutrons is related td the reactor power 1661. Thusmeasurements of the number of available neutrons are made by several independent monitoringsystems at various locations in the reactor. core. These instruments are connected to a rapidshutdown syStem in case neutron intensity rises above a pre-set_limit.

Reactor control systems are also- designed for safety. Materials such as boron or cadmium areable to absorb neutrons and, by 'removing neutrons from the system, shut down a reactor,preventing new fissions from occurring. Common methods-Of using these control 'systems,includethe mechanical insertion of control 'rods into the core and the addition of liquid solutions of theseneutron-absorbing elements to the water moderator. Most water'reactors have bcith, methods ofcontrol available.

.

Instruments constantly monitor what is happening in the core. Improper signals concerningtemperature,- preisure, or other unwanted .conditions will immediately shut down the reactor.' Eachsafety system has one or more backup systems in case thFre is a failure in the primary system.

Reactor designers assume that at some time, electric power to a nuclear plant may be shut,

off. To allow for thii possibility, they usually -design reactdr systems that require no electric powerto achieve safe shutdown. Those which may require power after shutdown, such as those whichkeep the coolant circulating, are equipped with emergency- diesel generators. and batteries so that

32

hey_ -can-operite When-no'outshiepoweris available:_.

_- __--,- : - - _ - .._ _ i tr

-.r16§

r-, _

:- Although the-nuclear Chain reaction can be stopped immediately, radioactive fission prod isin the fuel rods continue to decay and give off heat. If-for some reason there is-a rapid_loss' of the.7-_:_--

_

= _ ,,,-coolant Water to a nuclear,igahctor it is conceivable that:thecore might melidne to heatfrOm these -_,.... fission procZucts even irthe7-quClear reaction has heen stopped. This core meltdown -dotild result ;[

,,

in releaSes'fdf dangerous amounts -of radioactive-material, In . order to prevent the core frorn__ .roverhepting:" due to a Joss of-coolant, several independent emergency- core- codling- systems_ are

available to bring in water to cool the core. The network does not require operator to get started: -_, . n

In drder-to test the effectiveness_ of emergency core gsYsterrN, the Nuclear Regulato-ry.

Commission built a loss-df-fluidtest (LOFT) reactor iii 1d ecernher-of 1978 this reactor-had'a planned loss of coolant, allowing'the effectiveness of the emergency core coolinisysterns to be-Aserved.Jhe_results_of_this_experirnent.indicate_that_thesyttems of-an-actual-nuclear-reactor-work-1-:even .better than ex"Pected;Reactor temperatures never rose as high as predicted, nor did it takeas:long as expected for emergency cooling water to cool the radioactive core. Although more testare planned at the LOFT reactor, at this writing the preliminary experiments are _confirming theefficiency and reliability of nuclear react6r safety systems.

,

_In,fhe,_:event ofan_accident nuclear _power plant, there are many_Tbarriers_in_reactor---systerifs to githd against significant amounts of radioacthiity escaping to the environment. There is,first .ofall,,the ability of the fuel material to retain most of the fission products, even when they areoverheated. There there is-the fuel element claddink through which fission products musfpass toget into the reactor coolant. Next, there'are the warUT-of, the reactor vessel itself. Finally, thereis the containment system, constructed to halt any release of radioactive Material that gets past -allthe other barriers. The reactor building itself:may be sealed off as-a secondary containment system,-

Several attempts have been made to determinethe probability of a 'serious nuclear accident.Oneof-the-best-known;. WASI-0,400,-alsd called-the Raimussen.report;was-orderectin-19 2 by theAtomic Energy Commission. For two years a:staff :Of-60 people studied_htindreds, of things _thatcould go wrong in ainuclettr yOwer plant and estimated the amounts of radjoactiyity.that could bereleased under various weather donditions.,They dtertnined thaftlie-worst,credible accident wouldkill 3300 people, and cause radiation injuries, to ather 45,000.. Seven thousand- square miles of

-dand- would- be contaminated and 29.0 square miles would be uninhabitable for a year or more. Theprobability, that such an accident would occur was calculated to be extremely small-if there were1,000 reactors in operation, such accidents would have -the probability of occurring oncemillion years.-

Ihe Union of Concerned Scientists has produced a critiqUe o WASH-140U. They believe that-,under ifthe worst possible conditions, the immediate. and eventual deaths froni a nuclear accident'

might exceed 300,000, and such accidents have tile probability of occurring about once every000 years.

The NRC ecently commissioned a group to review. the Rasmussen study. Their findings, theLewis Report, state that much of the data needed for calculations of-reactor risks is still inadeqUate,and that WAH-1400 cannot be used to prove the safety of nuclear power. The authorswere unableto say whether reactors ar e more safeotles.ssafe_than the figures in _WASH-1400-suggest.

Nuclear power opponents argue that the consequences, of an accident would be socatastrophic that any risk, no matter how small, unacceptable. They contend that the accident at

isian ,ws t at no ,matter. how many.:safeguards in a-sYstems so _complex it is impossible

t6-inticipalc and ptovide foi all thine-113a' o irong. The Three 'Mile Island accident will be-- discussed fer' t sectiiiii. : '

;,4_,__,. , ,

sed apparently- by combination u i i= d equipMent

The Price-Anderson. .hx-jr

When nuclear_ power began to emerge in the U:S., Congress AA/as concerned with -providingprotection to the=- public and limiting the liability of the nuclear industry in the eine& of a majornuclear accident. To accomplish these purposes, the Price-Anderson Act was enacted in '1957and renewed for the second time in 1976.

ce-Andeison is is-iot unique -. -in providing government liability prbte ion.- The federal-government also iiiovides deposit iffin- 7ance for bsiii atCounts, flood insurance, and

At-preseitt, a total of $560 million is available to cover liability claims for a ritiplearaccident=.-fit a _licensed polder plant or reprOceising- dining the normal course. of -transportationbetween such facilities. The act tCquh-cs that ,apinaxinium amount of insurance -be first -purchasedfrom a private source. This amount citirently-set at $390 million by the American NuclearInsur m. The federal government pr-ovi ca= the-test =of

ach.cutility,,payi aprbmiunito,the--go_vemment for Price-Mderson coverage..1

The Price - Anderson Act will be in-_ effect until August, 1987. The entire - .responsibility forproviding the $560 million liability protection, WhielFinclucles both personal injury and-properdamage, gradually transferred.to- the-ittilities. Congress has also guaranteed further action ifthe liability exceeds $560 million.

Wastes4rom Nuclear Power PlantsE

As mentioned lin- the-section on coal, waste heat ispur into the environment'in large amountsby both nuclear and fossil :fueled power-plants. But,pne of the major concerns overnuclear powerinvolves radioactive wastes. .

Within fhe broad' category, of radioactive wastes, some system of subdivision is needed forclear discussion. Unfortunately, there we tic clear-cut definitions* in 'general use and this has

contributed to the confusion about these wastes.1;i

:One attempt at categorizing radioactive waste is to consider- whether the radioactive materials,in the waste are natural or man-Made. In the production of nuclear poweit natural radioactive

"Materials-, occur _ in wastes...from, the and fuel erginent=fabrication steps whiCh lead up to the operation of the reactor. Although the deay of naturaluranium eventually Steads stable. -lead, therd is I. long series-of intermediate radionuelides whichaccount for more than 90 percent of the total radioactiVity present in a sample of natural uraniumore. These 'daughter* products are16ft behin, d in the:_tailingsv which is the residue .from the millingprodess, in- which flip uranium is chemically ,extracted from the crushed and grounEr ore. Thesetailings are normally stored on the surface near the-mill, graded and diked as necessary to prevent

-:-emsioir-bylurface-1,.Tiaters';--and watered-to-prevent-wind errionn.--.:Wherf- addition-to --tailings-to-aparticular pile has been completed, a vegetation covering can be added as additional windprotettion. It is possible for radon, &radioactive gas, to diffuse-tli gh a tailings pile frora,decay ofthe uranium, and disperse into the air. The Residual Radioactive Material Act of 1978 establishes

E

oint, federal-state programs minimize the pdtential problems froni . these.

aster containing naturally-occurring radionuclides which -result from .various otherteps present no significant disposal problems.

_

Man-made -radioactive Materials origindel within- the reactor -during - the sfissi rr ocess.Man-made wasps carbe divided into two'categories based on their method:of clispositiOri:"'some canbe released _tbe the environment, and some mustr_haye- Varying degrees of controlled -stotage. Mostnuclear facilities generate gaseous and liquid:`Yvrastes which =are contaminated with radioactivematerials. Under strict regulitiOn,1-Whie-i3Of-i-th.646- wastes 'can he treated and released to theenvironment, Thertylaseous WaStes'cgii1..b.--filtered' and are sometimes stored temporarily o permit.=

the decay of;-_.shp_ zliyed radionuclides. Lilhicl'wastes, can be treated by evaporation,or -`precipitation, so that the remaining concentration of radioactivky-in the very lowReleaselOf these treated liquids or gases to the surrounding water or airstriusVbe carefidly monitoredto insure-that vnly-very.srnall-amounts-o f=radioa.ctivitrareputinto the-environment.

The category of radioactive wastes which may_ not be nfisdipeOed- 16 she .envrorient can be-isfurther broken down into two sub-categories-. ,Qiie of 'these solid v.-Mite for which relatively

.

shallow burial is considered--acceptable. Thenther-is Waste for which shallow burial providesinsufficient liblatiOn, or which requires.gieiteror more extended surveillance than shallthiitiurialaffords :Wastes-which-fall--into -the first -of these categories -a re shipped-rfroti-Tiuclear7facilities-torburial grounds which are operated under licenses froth either the Nuclear Regulatory .Commission orcertain .states which operate then- own radiation control programs under agreements with the NRC.._These hUrial_grounds are selected aftet stirdicS of loCal.soiltand.weather cimditions_have-shown anacceptable. Probability that the buried radioactive materials riot be nand from_the.site by theaction of groundwater

..,-ik -.,"--

draygeneral ;class equen. d -lOw-level solid radioactive waste-

the term is not:precise. ost all in the ld' cycle send wastes to the burial grounds. Smiledr

'.4-. L'. of -th-e:types of waste -involved are as follows: filtersr from the clean-Up of gaseous wastes, ion, exchange resins; precipitates,-or evaporator slddges-from the clean -up of liquid wastes; con-diete,or' other solids Made from small batches of radioactive liquid waste not_plactical to clean up; absorbent

paper, swabs, plastic sheeting and similar. materials from contamination ccintrol or clean-up work;,defective or obsolete piping, motors, instrumentation, or other equipment. _ '-'

The -annual-volume Of this general category orwaste is a few million cubic feet pef year. evenis increases over the years-, it will still heivery smallcornpared with other,types of solid Wastes.

e spent fuel rods far virtually jhe,ionly waste front nuclear plants that cannot be- 4

iiispose of by fiat. They.thittain'-highWiadioactivejfission products .as well as part of Ali re trallurancurn-235 fuel and some plutoniuna-239___which was created in-the fuel a7he- uraniumand plutonium are potentially usable for fuel, but regiilations ,banning fuel eprocessibg preclude.their use at the present time. The fission products are basically waste that needs to be disposed o .The final disPosal of these spent:fuel rods is a problem yet to be, solved. It is a problem s ared bywastes from the government -weapons jesting and, nuclear-powered ship promm. The a -aunt ofthese defense; wastes is rinanY times larger- than that frOm nuclear power reactors. Th defenseprograms haye:produced about 500000 tones of highlY-VacfloaCtiVe wastes and _65imillion cubic feet

= _of less radioactiv6 -Solid- waste....eluclear.power plant's-have so,far:prodiked 4botit-500 tons-of spent-.fuel and 16 million cubic feet of low-level' waste.

vel -w ste= from both sources is currently in temporal), storategwaiting a decision

'on the best method of more permanent disposal.Jhe:,veapons Waste is stored in4nks-", and-burialat three:government reservations: The -sperk:fliel is- ,scored in pools' of ,water on'ilie:-ToWer

plant, sites: This-storage-at-the site al1C4sIier-short,livsrl-radipnuclidesjo deciy and thus reduces theioictivity-of the spent fuel.i11_,WillAirbbably-be the 'first steptiii-Any disposal plan.'

-_,. , , 'I.(

Most experts.believe thatr4Ong-lived radioactive waste should be concentrated and put utter -,- .,solid form then_ into prOfective containers and stored :deep underground in suitable geologicormation: - '

-....,-

Radioactive waste-is being solidified intit ass in France, and *LT 6 earchers are looking at --,. .

possibility of -a ceramic_ form, Which would be more resistant_ ea -groundwater.- ,---. _..

deterrnine which might be more suitable long-t riistorage.,The storage site roust be one-whereScientists arelooking atgealogic as salt basaitsiihaIes;# anites to

_ groundwater cannot easily reach: and where earth4uakei are-not

A gOveminent taSk orce-called the Interagency view-Group on- Nuclear-Waste Managementhas been set up to study and-report on the -best methods kir waste disbosal, This group reports that

repository-will probably, not beavailable until 1988 to 09a. The interageneY group believes- -that the radioactive' wastes can be 'successfully isolated for a few thousand years, bilt after thatpoint it is impossible tobe sure ofsuCtess.Most of, the radioactive4natetials would be harmless longbefore that time, but' - Materials containing _.plutoniuni-239 would -remaiii-- dangerous many

.

thousands of years, sine plutonium -239 has'azhalf life of 24,360, years.

One of the key decisions affecting waste'inanagernent- is that of reprocessing: If thespent fuelis considered a waste, it would be eneapsulated in some very -hard rnateqlxdisposed of If, onthe other hand reprocessing is to take: place, the ,spent fuel would betreaittAO'rerriove useful fuelThe remaininginaterial---would-be--a- highly -radiciaOtiVOiquid-which-woUld-be-solidified-heforeL--'v:Idisposal

Since- anytype of comrne power plant his a useful life oVroughtly 40 years, itnecessary to consider the disposal or decommissioning) of a nuclear-power plant. ExCePt for the

`reactor vessel, most of the want c&uld be disposed of bycpnventkinal methods, with the materialsbeing .reeycled or discard K Many of the materials within the reactor vessle will have beObnie.radioactive' 'These. materials and the reactor; ieggel itself would probably remain on the site forsevepl_year§ to allow he shorter half-lived materials to deCay.;rhey would then be dismantled. and_dispoSed of in a burial site.

`transportationv .frThe a of nuclear materials, including nuclear waste, is of concern to many-

,: people,- Some .states. and ,municipalities have banned Jhe transport of radioactive wastes ',throughI --,

-their area, thereby creating legal, logistical, and 'routing problemi. :if:, , -

/- ,.. .The .reder$Departirent of Transportation regulations- require that nuclear wastes -

.packaged so ,that, .even in the event of a severe transportaliorwaccide'nt, there. would be no ..

significant releasewif. nuclear wastes from the packages. Such accident-proof containets.must bestrong_, enough kr:withstand the type: impact., puncture forces, and -fire effects that areencountered in severe accidents. In spite of these precautions,--the movement of nuclear wastes isstill a controversial area.

Health Effects of Nuclear Power Plants

As previously noted, all matter is made up of units called atoms. Each atom has a nucleuswith an electrically positive charge. A cloud of electrically negative electrons surrounds the positivenucleus. Ordinarily, the number of negative electrons equals the number of positive charges in thenucleus. The atom is then electrically neutral. If energy is supplied to an electron, it can be movedto a position further from the nucleus; then the atom is said to be an excited state. If large amountsof energy are supplied, the electron can escape from the atom completely. When one or moreelectrons is separated from the atom, the atom is said to be ionized. The atom has a net positivecharge since it is missing an electron. This positively-charged atom, taken with its separated negative4,electron, is called an ion pair. Radiation produced by nuclear reactions and by radionuclide decaycan supply the energy needed to excite an atom or form ion pairs. Thus it is often called ioniLingradiation.

When !uniting radta[Iuii passes rilryugh t, vvith theatoms in the matter In this process the radiation loses its energy by citing the atoms and/orproctircing ion pairs in the ,atter. This basic process is essentially the same lot all kinds ofmaterials-air, water. people, cement blocks, or steel

I he potential tut inpaly 01 lantagc, ail) .1 1.1111411\jj, .1+ I, iltLe hit 111n. lain. /I .11,1b,it.iha as the radiation travels (though inattv.i This race of en..:Igy loss in lulu di pe,kts ,r11 the iypc ofradiation, its electrical charge, and its cit.Agy 1-116, energy kieposn,,d by the radiation ill theabsorbing 'natter causes dianges III the ihattci, the ploduction of ion pals I hew -italig,ccan result in damage to the matte' inloding disittptio of the functions of ,c11, of lis lug otgaialatIlb

ht; II.ust t./aL11..;(.1a1.141th

conli_iletely penetrate a person a t,ons.acttiou to the gaii.iita Mgt, ,Attos) lay.

t look 01 a sheet of lead

beta 444.1101.1..,41 will, 141614 ....44,48 01 1. 1. ..

pee ,. !lid ul tie, cl.11 la} cis Of t. person', 1l.lu In al, its 1,iug1. ihA) bk; a6 ut hit 06 a j411-41

4,41 vs.per boa cannot psnictiats; alttlostitott till tiovv:; vet alpha I.ulll Is a al, Lill; 1110Lhazardous of all types of radiation it they enter the bt,cly a result of swallowing or innali.ig analpha ciliate!

1{4.4411,,a4. 44, k .4

. ;d by aevelai 1,1aLiii ICA if . I till, 3 1 14 S, 1.4 .1,44 14 I 4 4114.10

phol.dgtiaphi, flint \ 1114,14 ,:143 cr1 44z, .e huh 'LI 0..,1> 3 1,1 .11 , I itIEGs totthcaatartitg Eli , k Ohpoati.c W.110 11011 it ofradiation. types of ;AC4,1.011 311. fl as Cleig I 3.,M1111.c.i it 111L., .011011.10,11111

/111.: 0.33 to 11e tln: ink ItLik,A ai.,11414,4 ;,4114.: the IIItc 11 =4111 let 4,14.114.1114444 lik,1.111111C.Ilta

.,an dctc, t ifl.; of i. .Rely smell aLtootits 01 1e11110ill 11.1a Ka.4111.1w4 Jet.;.1.1ollalso VCI). svn1111yc iii its ability to hic iltity specific. latlivacti 51,1151,111,es I Ilia if iwas.b1c.c.VCI y of gadlo.u.A.ve alul.i leas a 4.1141.1i..LC.11(.1, iialtc,( II 0f .atlioaetivQ ict.a)

14. . AA

, ots is,Ots;esi In an i1Y lay Li 1J g"i.,.i h I.. ait. 4,11.14.4 allEck( Lica 44" ptotitiu, I y ing b sla,.dalil ;1,;4,1i it haige II, a iti..4,1alti di. 1.1 i,I 4,1 1414 111erucikt6cn 1iik 3111.i; ink I, iai .. IC .1/ .;AINSI.Cti 13111..LC4

The radiation absorbed dose (rad) indicates the amount of energy deposited in material, byany type of ionizing radiation. It is a measurement of not only ion pairs, but of all energydeposited. A rad is a very small unit. Fordtxample, one rad equals the energy required to raise thebody temperature by' two-millionths of a degree Fahrenheit. ,

The roentgen equivalent man (rem) is the unit of dose equivalent._

energy deposited but also the resulting biological effects.is a measure not only of

For instance,. sup_ pose. 500 rads of gamma rays produce a certain change in a tissue and 50rads of alpha particle radiation produce the same change_ We then would say that the alpharadiation was 10 times as powerful as gamma radiation in causing this change. In other words, thealpha radiation would have a quality factor of 10 when it is compared to the gamma ray.

We can use the form um reins lads x quality ta,..tot to ..unveil flout tads I) *CMS In outexample, the quality factor for gamma radiation is 1'. Therefore, 500 rads multiplied by a qualityfactor of I gives 500 rears. For the alpha radiation, 50 rads multiplied by a quality factor of 10gives 500 rems. The number of ['ems is thus the same for the two types of radiation which producedthe same biological effect.

Since radiation plotet,tion deals with LII, 4414;..614a1.111.6 110111 AA 11.11IVAAVIt/la

cNpu. regulations and recommendations are usually written ill terms of teins. which take intoaccount the biologiciu effects of the radiation ilowevet it is °act, desirable to work wi,11 smallerunits, so the term flllilirenl (Ilirth)), which is one thousandth ( 001) of a led'. is (Altai used Fotexample, the maximum peimissible expusnic allowed fun a iadialiOn w1.,41 IS 5 tents. en 500iureni, pc. ye,,,

iu 11k7..5,.111_,L; , 1....,11 ..-,.I II,Lodi, aces the total exposure of Al inembes I.I a I,,c11411i pupidatiuil for 4;0.1alsiel as

group of 50 people If each of the 50 people re, civic.- one re.11 the pop,uatiou dose is 50 personrems If 25 people 1. cove l 11c 1C111 and 25 pLople 4 , file populatini du 1c is 25perso..1.-lits If one pelsou rec.. hies 25 16111 and 1111 41;3.1 IC . 11.0 c. p1,:.,/1c the popidalion dObc is25 person-rcias

kk) 311,111.,1, . . 1,, . 1. II I.1{., 1,1,.,114t 1 Ill ..le

I,, ,dye of ,e2dulluu ka) 1 .a 1 .t,tcis lu 11Q tl,1,,/;111-ii 111 ,i1 11.11 ,111r lu 11Z.I46

la,,aiioh A /cm rel..is ; IG 1111, of tl it 11 1+1,11;1 11 (1.N11,; .11101 the %;81.1 1 ;.4)II IcuiuSiitc it glx

11 I I. . ,.,111.

.1 k,I b41 I% it ihd la,liati, I ml A., 11 lildi , 1,, 11 II

1..11.I11 / 31.+11t Lt.;Pittel:11 h .;3, Lieu, till It ,,,, abs il I i IIII)vaLegat

I I.

a I . I I I q.IiiJI a,I /11 11/V. III,. IC 14 Ill' dl 11,.116 1..11

11103( W11 11V 111. Sea I .yel I ating .aplA,, till

I ,,, I. 1,,

. 1. kfl.. 1:(11.,11

. 1 I.i 5, 1110 III.

. t. V,411 ,11,111

,ph: 11) 1.1).1111. 1111111 IICli

Iles.111 dlid .11C.111,1,1 the, \\ ,114:1_ 1liSti11111,4.4, 111 ?.)il It 13 s134. fl VII, V; .111 11,1. ill

houses made from stone or brick receive significantly more natural radiation than those who live inhouses made from wood. Our bodies and the food we eat contain radioactive nuclides such aspotassium-40 an carbon-14.

Table 5 hOois the average dose from natural radiation in the U.S.

Table 5U.S. Average Natural Radiation Dose

Source Dube oureintyeal

(Osnue radiationAA

Radionuclides III ci.1 )6

KadiOiltilAIILICS ill the body 24

Total 90

ALIA ldt.11,11.1,11 .

1114:41, 411d dt;IIGAI A IA A ASJIAA.11,11 Is dia. 1.,I1 JUl11-0111 WCi.11,011 b.:s(ing and t10111 ICA1A.A1.1)1d abic 6 8'1% csalindcs of iii"n maderadiation e't s.res (hal. givc all ay..iage 00 inuen, yc .1 io cve,yone III ilic 11 S

I -LA 1, AAA

.11

I I.. . I

wat ,ties c t .

N,,, .1...._I [Cal:LOIS 11. Jitt 1

NAL,,Icat 'Ica, Lois (av,...ia,b, inpopulation) I/

A AAA, ,515.1 i)clitbtlyst lay

Who'', 11100,1.Bicast niauLui A1.11

C.111 Act ..

kadlall\,11 f, ,

I A , 11

r. 11 1, II

IA 1

, 1 ; II

ei. 11 ,,AAA. Ails.: 11 t.,i 1115

begi 11 .4 14.111A ilai Jos, eIcli.,II with inc LAAF t,5at .1, A 1-1,1t,14, t II It,

A hig

II

A,1 r

Ai An

1,6 , r)ll 14 Is t.Iti at1i1AA, Ill 1 upv,, b plAf lin. 0111 I. rA :1

1.11A; s..III, ,1,,..3c Is a ;IjVi..11i1k1 ,A; Ill; A,IA,11464; It / 1,I.

Kpo ledge of the effects of radiation has generally resulted from data on large doses receivedin a short time. Data sources include Hiroshima survivors, victims of radiation 'accidents, andpatients receiving radiation therapy, However, most humans are exposed to low doses and low doserates. To see the biological effects of this type of radiation, one would have to observe large groups

", :Of people over many generations. Because of this difficulty, the general practice is to predict theresults of the low doses and low dose 'rates on the basis of high dose-and high dose rate data,

furthermore, in order to be conservative in mating radiation effects, one must assumethat some injury results from any exposure to radiation. According to the International Committee-on Radiation Protection (ICRP): "The objectives A3f radiation protection- are to prevent acuteradiation effects, and to limit the risks of late effects to an acceptable level For purposes ofradiation protection, any exposure is assumed to entail a risk of biological daniangt " There arecertainly levels of radiation that produce no detectable effects: background radiation and routinediagnostic x-ray, 'for example. But the most conservative assumptions are used to insuie maximumprotection for the population

l he age of the exposed licilvldiul 4uI, ,really ac:11 b___v),, lu 10.11,1t11)11 W1.

are -developing before birth, sensitivity is 'high, because differentiaiin6 cells and cellsundergoing rapid division are IsiOre easily daniagtd. Silllllai y, flulll fill Ltl to maturity. lush talcs ofcell division and possible further differentiation make a child inorc sensitive tc, radiation exposureAn adult is more resistant Lu radiation effects bhpostn...: flowcvc1 Indy give list; lo gclnAlc ctfet.ts Inthe exposc1 adult's tLitlirc children Fur a person beyor,d the leprodu.,,tion ago genetic effect:3 alenot important Similarly. ladiation effects which might appea, only after a iong time (fur example.tumor induction) would hut be as SigilifIcalit to older people as Lo yonfigcl pc, wic

Some pal la of the bOsly ale 11101c. senatli,c Eu 1.11.114t1011 LAtei.A..) I

it lit.; upper abdoincrl is Irraillatcd_ th..; are 111016; NC.Veit; Ikon It l,ouy n.za ofsltallaf slic olscwhci0 vve,e cxposcd lo EL.; aanme dL. c This is b..eauac of the diebeii.. , t vliar orguns

the upper abdoillififil arca Thu, the tel,,tiveh 11161. (L./3LN hum (Li, Int A 1.1-111

be toLrated since they ale Li an eNti,Aitell small urea ,:ontaiinng us,

I as' ILA fl, al.al1 ..i III, 1,, will I V It 6, .1 I . q!,41A ,14:11VCIki L. Llic vvh.ne bs,d) lin:, i it1J

recd, er

, . 'k . 11.4. In 1, I.. 1 r2IJ1 OA

ta 11 ,1 11 I /CS. Matti tak IIVC II cdcall,IL l,1 ,7L .1,1y

Live cll,n1141, it iii, Inc .111n41irecalkci tiii,lugl. taciloth,11,

1,1

11141P Id4 I 1 11 11 11 (11.

,1b11; ipu3tire n l,, :d half 01 a , I,i . I 1 it, vii 4 0 U. 1,, ,

400 u.tia altd Oh lakk. I t,IN,100, ,,aa 11, .

. 1i .1, 11 , I 1 A...

C1.1 :MI Mk; fc 3I.. I Atli La t= ;1, 11.1 a .1 411:.1 / I it

pcsun f.rf ,liar. ;d

44

lb a,.

" I ;-

11.. to -iLalai .I f)i.f 1..

15 lb I II .

s 1 i

Somatic effects originate with the response of the irradiated cells. The first event in'the,absorption of ionizing radiation is the production of excited atoms and ion pairs. When these areproduced in the chemical systems of a cell, new and possibly harmful chemicals are produced asthe original chemical structure of the cell is disturbed by the radiation. Thus, toxic-materials may beproduced. Furthermore, if the radiation affects chromosomal material within the cell nucleus, celldivision may be affected. -Vs a cell may respond to irradiation in several ways: chromosomalchanges, cell death before division, failure to specialize, failure to divide completely, or slowing itsdivision rate. Some cells will be unaffected by the radiation.

The cellular response to radiation .is determined by a nualabea of lactois. Among thk;sc al hecell's stage of specialization, its activity, and its division roe These factors partially account for anembryo's great sensitivity to radiation. In the embryo, a small group of cells will eventuallyspecialize Of form an organ_ so these cells are especially radlost,nsitiv,

ese factors also help to wake radiation th,;lapy possible A putt a will, fa,,a1 totexample, receives a number of exposures, giving /her a laige total radiation through [ticphenomenon of repair following radiation exposure the begin to repair the radiation damagebetween exposures however, the rapidly dividing cam;ei Lens have a greater clank of beingdestroyed bet..ause they ale 1110te. fir,lucntly In the aakii0SenSian,c, 41ages , I diviNton

x..11. ,.Intestinal tract. for onic cell c..c 111,11 111 1 !ICS die 4:0111111001. ig ins .al ledand replaced new ,:ells produced nearoy II a high do,Je of radioactivity is receiv .d. tricse rapidlydividing cells will be s.;veiely decteascd in imint e . It the tt,s.; is nut [60 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 ...Lab willbe able Ili icl,laee 1.1103e deatiliyCd

II a Loge ak,,, 1,, &vela ao 61o.kla .1 I. b, . I I ,ffil

I.I. IA o.gan is u-radiated a I'LL tit ie /0 ,iii 1 v 1,14,Lly k:a.ase

deteLlable chanbes In the alto but it will not 1c.1,11( lik 41c_1111 01 a.:V..1( kla.oage the hood In/thingsystem hc-aus< lualooty if Elias .4.3U .11 ,A AS 1101. ..;?,/t)sc.,1 1u Jae Iddialloll 01 1114 .411c1 hand amodetate Jose to Oa,. ingajns k.al, l;nyin r/3 steilln)

A lak6c, .ok,iktkok boil) t.i i.11 ,.... 11.

hau,:a, vomiting general Aches alio pain's al1 possibly a S kft the 11,.inberwhite k.,ells t ocalit.....d sti ti as 1 L41Al1 111441 sh In 01 loss of I 111.1 1).0til. ,4-1 I atdOSCS caliU weakness diastik., deplcssloa, of all bili0t1 Is {1.141 ,,t):3311 I) 31 I Ai4. still higheadose I ;yids heath will drobably occur

it btAtrusiy hfti.. ilt it, 4 .1 ,d1! AI, 11 11.1 I I ool, I 11 11

hi.; zaling rink , o,.,1,41 rlik,,I. Lag, d,se

I.I. ,,o,k, it, . ..Its I I 1 .1 .1, , . 1,,,.I ...11 IOSk0411 I.1 i . h.1 I .t.t:14,.). , I .1 2(HAI, l'.1. , .. . I 1

I., Ai '.A

L I. Llti,..iilii and 144...kas kn Wilts II ok,, (II apt atatak,nasal ,,, I iko I,,14, .i , IL c. 1 A 1 h ,,Api . lit,. I A1,41

leAlkcAilld may be looL. 4,1,1a),c,f onactolell, cs o I a 31 161., Lug. ..1,ki,o: uu. Li a.nlo .1 ni ..I the: Inv/also fun, ,,..thulu, ,,,,1.,te out Eil,t,y a (`A; t ,,,,, 11;,1, an a 1,lakthIL ,, ii It it ails I .tin1 ..f tumid!'exp,,stire is. iadiaik.0

L I ...ILL...

If (lie .11,11 41i 11114; I

Mutations occur in all living organisms. They may occur of own accord, apart from anyknown alteration .in the environment. Whatever their origins, rritisi mutations are undesirable. Everyindividual has some of these undesirable mutations.

Radiation-induced mutations are divided into two classes: gene mutations and chromosomalabnormalities. Most radiation-induced alterations are gene mutaiions, which tend to be recessive. Inother words, the effect of the mutation is not seen in the offspring unless the altered gene is carriedby both parents. Even though the mutation may not be seen in first-generation offspring, it makessuch offspring slightly less fit.

Chromosomal abnormalities include chromosome loss and chromosome breaks. These et feetare severe, and usually result in the,death of the embryo before birth This type of genetic effecthappens much less frequently than does gene mutation

The increase in genetic damage to bc expected frolh Ladlatlull Is auniellinc3 disuliisscd III Iet ally

of doubling dose. This dose would eventually use a doubling in the rate of gene mutations thatoccur spontaneously

iii the LlallECd SEalLS atloul IOU 1110114)4 ..,111.14fich 1,,11 L, 4)1 U...4.16c.ILI will have detclabk: genetic defects as a Lons,,ILL,ALLe

passed o1, by all their anecsturs If ,A dose 01 8aticatioo WCI4 al .plied to pies. nl antifuture gznerations it would eventually !cad to a gene mutation rate of four percent It would Lakeon the order of 1U generations to reach the four percent rate Th. doubling dos.:. cited h). theNatibnal Acadello, Scien....es tepol t Effects on .PoiLdati,,,Is oi Esposurc to 1 w 1 ..veloIonthi Rad ta estimat.d to be 40 rads (40,000 iiirads) per generation. In othei words.the average dose to the reproductive cells of all of the individuals of the population were a total o40 tads from k.onceptikni lu age 30 oi I 3 Lad, per yeal above foi cv tyatt.,1 about geneiatio,is the late 01 iii,paimig 1,Inlaltuna $n u111.1 waklii.olly

1,4:4 col to 113111 I./Lit-CA l hla a1,.ullnl ttl ladlallo,. Is tai aLov, thatubtallicd Lulu .illy LlalICtt 111,11 IllatiC

IL 1 1,, I. ,,,,4 I.,

y )111.,6hlu1 I., thAL, )IL I tit; t 1114 ...I 11, b.,

including

l

, r lit, Las

Et/ k i.,.16 k a. .3 I I,. 1, ,.4 I,,it 1111, IL

ariV than, ,1 +AI& ott; A.'11t1,;11 tk 1 JEL.s.lit/lt 01 II I. tal-..N 111 1,1, t

adia 11 attal W 5;3 1101 al t.

1 I. I I, I t., ,t

nail ttlIti; 1,tant

410, ,0111I Lit taiga 11111 tilt. 1 C aLltSlti. c 111. h It I all, 11 ell t,1

tt;tt 11,111t; la 111,1 3t_ .1; 4e . I 1.a II .,tt t.110 t."5 t,t11 it

tt;1 (1 atlatttltaLildt,:t tip I0() 000 11111,;a Alt ICA/C11 rallttil III ill a ,11LA lit Y. 'kit 111 .1 C 1..11 ittaItt,t1 LUI 11,4 ,,11 t)::-.111g I (hi ,41.1wat 1 1 I/1; .1, LL.. ;.,: LINA, 1.1w1A1

L11.1. LC t./l Lt..11.11J Le, lye a Mg1111,La,lt f.a.,1,1011 Ell pc 1111:J.210k J dal; III ilk. t/l.eq}N

FU I ttii3 ,c4 3k)o ediolc aiwilflail ilvlllg near cov.. 1 a.7d ,13 loolotol , to, kiotiradi

42

Under normal conditions, the amount of radiation the general public receives from a nuclearpower plant is extremely small. What are the risks from such small additional amounts of radiation?The latest National Academy of Sciences study indicates, according to its chairman, "At 'lowdoses the risks are very small. There is a risk, but it's not the end of the world." Another member ofthe study panel disagrees somewhat: "We have no idea what the effects are from very low levels,and in any case they are undetectable,"

This very fact of being unable to clearly detect any :ea, accompanied by an unwillingnessto say that there is no effect at all, has led to a dilemma. In order to avoid setting standards whichwould expose the public to unnecessary radiation, the National Council on Radiation Protectionand Measurements has recomrRended exposure limits based upon -the following cautiousassumptions: (I) There is a single, linear dose effect relationship for the effects of radiation, fromrero dose with no effect to the known effets of high levelve. _uses (2) I here is no threshold ofradiation below which there is no effect (3) All doscs received by an oidividual are additivethat is,their effect add up. (4) There is no biological recovery from the effects of radiation Much of theavailable evidence indicates that several of these assumptions are probably too consetvative_ but inthe interest of safety, we assunie that they ate true undei tttu philoNoptly that it Is bettci to heoversafe than to he sorry at some future date

I he radiation g.11.1, a, IN .1 . ti, . ..

.i.sible dose to the geneial popuLoioli Ill cap. 11 ,1111 11 pi

backgrotrod 1 tiln liguie does Ifot IfIkAtAdc.: all 1,1,11doal'a f illation LI 10111 al loth c.J1.11 4

The NCRP does oot a......topt to iegulat ,J) moll radiati.,lt exposoic licck ssoly ,..goostic andtherapeuti, porp.ises but it ci,A ieculilitl, u,l icdo ill,: csi),Thore c !Itch dues nut contrit,oteto treatilietic or diagsktsis

..tai 111411 aaat 1 I.. ..11

/M.1 pats llt 11I3I al 1.14 Ilk 1 etC111Ilb out v Isfi iaks 111ki 1 pat 1,.1 II' tit. '.+ ;tit

the kloa a f c.,,..lvt;k1 IaLIIIIt IIi tilt 4..114..141 Do, t.,rs I Aow LI. it 311,L dos, It ,arisetale ,Ink %.1 a Ziee,)11,1 ,,,111k, out Ow) ..lao way Ic.igki.,;at flit; oft; of

10 O....4. bay. bee., It exgestians that tr,r I axim.rui eAdos,-1: it, el 117eulc1 be 'en ,;k. tty

1./,.1111 ul 11.1 P1111 ,,f the LO1110%.;13y over this .a111.1.11;,1 314,111, l..1111 a 3laltl.) 410111; LI 1). 1 11,1111 13

workers .A govermue..t ;lea' faeilitl, .1 at If ,nfoin Vast.i..sion 11, st,. the14.:(11ASC. 111 J4..41I11 111 1 ,:,10,11.; 1410 II/.1.41 IC.. 11 .d ,pt aLakLa Wflllt. wwitIng I th.Ixadiclcoocluico that ,o1e of tl,e, .ieaths cc,ild be co.lelatud *tit) Il,w level I U1411,1 11 1C.

()OIL! Sa,144,111A... .1114, (1..11w, DI M411144,....a 111,1110 13 1,i ulial, Elul OIL. Lau oil Oa, atha,,00t,.1t. led that is ail dt41,11 a 11.:, (1 1111 1 111,., ky tki4a . Al .

.,^ 1 1 11..1 1i: st . 1/11i , i . aa ,. i I , .1 1,^ ., a 1

4 .11I 11..11 1., 44 , i, .,,al 1.1k. D t 1, 1.1 1, li 1.11 ti II ta 11. 11.1 1 . Iiiii ,1 ilia I, Cl

I, i III, a1111, .1 ,A, ( . t )

I .11, 1 lik

'Procedure

Table 7Estimates of Annual Health Effeets

From the Operation of One 1,000 MegawattNuclear Power Plant

Occupational OccupationalDeaths Injuries and

Disease

MiningAAA: CI11.3 U WY) 0 2 I b I U U

Disease 0 0020 2tatisvortation

Accidents u 0U2 U,00.) 0 U 4) At I A

ProcessingAccIdeiIL, OW 0 2 U o I 3

DiscascGeneratt,..AL:cidents o 1 I )

Diseas,; i

0,013-0

41 . AAA 1_1,...,1

ALP..., 1..

.cA.Itiit; tit I lc) 1,i4a1 pa,atak

NtmoccupationalDeaths

4.) 1 1 1, (t 1)1 U 16

it1)111( 2 Ai pi 1111 11,..1 Int , ,4 IL el 1 14.1 1.i I., al I ,.11 111

;1a..it1,,11114)1 Sal 1.1,141,, 5 L., a dAgialii Iltai 114111

I.. I I 1 .1 A It , 1 aal I.-tuft This is ti,e, ./stern that feeds water Lit- ti inn I; r I. ail> I., 11 I.) ,1

.1 .111) ...a1111, 1a±1,,, 1,4,111,, 1, g, It 1.,

a:f 3(1,111 111 LI4C 11a)11 1411.41 It III Illta VV aLI v41,1,11.1,.i ti gt.Lit Lk 11 kA 11 1. 111 .1a2.1

sa411 .L5111,1116 ,11 1I1 1,.,1, 4414.14111., 111 1 11,,,41 1 01.;r: 111, tik it a IA I.' In II/ 1,11, I 111 1 I ' ;4,11E, .

atito all. It ilk., .1,-1 Li.. A 'Oa, .alkti 311i1( 1.11a 11,111 II 111,'n 'Ch. A A I{ LLAAA1

31L4,3111 list./ is;.AA.lot , MLA. 1,,as at ,o 1,; 3.31i1. 114 HIS 11 411. a 4111rk a1k:111

11113 I 111;1 Uly1 311,/111,1 1111, ti a,11 is ;,1 114 ,,a. 1 It 11 alkali I 411. ,,1 .,11 111,i11a

ilak 1a4 ,11

LAI,. , t a airs, 41,a1-3 ILI, Ilia A .I ii,, a 141.1, I. s.a. ,I aaoali A I. I ,, ..I .111 tA I At, I iakaa Ilia,

a .41,ata1111.1C,1,, 61111411146 taiat IA/,z, (II Is I .1 111,1. .'1; L, akii.if 4k, 1 1.1 III II oital I .1 a 11 (It,tlia. lotallallile

1. , i 1 , l I

L. I ,,1 11.1 111. },t 1,, .

111E At. i.1 Illaa L11 aa t, L

Stwi 1,1V4 111 at, a., a% 1 1, 111 ba A it... is I 1 v,

44

shut off these pumps because if the system were completely filled with water, as they thoughtwas happening, they would have difficulty controlling the pressure. Around 5:30 a.m. they shutdown the primary coolant pumps, which had begun to vibrate, apparently because they werepumping too little water. The operators feared that the vibration would destroy the pumps, and -possibly cause a rupture in the primary coolant system. By the time the stuck relief valve wasdiscovered and rewired, and the emergency core cooling system was turned on again, the coolantlevel had dropped so low that part of the core had been uncovered, resulting in substantial fueldam age.

Mcanwit114; the 1adloactiYe water hum the ,outaiulucut building was I... 1,N flau aage tank in an auxiliary building phis pumping was don.; by sunup p4nnp3_, wilk.Ii Opclatcd

automat fcalty When the soilage tank was lull, %A/ate' spilled 4,11110 111c 114,01 4.111l1 ,adioak gasesbegan to escape to the environment thruugh the a,,xiliary building's ventilation systein l his

PI Obit:III was LIIN.,OVCICLI at about 9 a III Till; al11111) pump was tuincd on and tin ..,ontalninefitbuilding was scaled oft how the test of the plant

111, 1414-1 114:441.41 144441, ,,1 III,. 111,1 ,1-44. 1..114 , It!.

4.. .4,, tk...11111,8 a liydiroguo and atc.an at 01, 1,,11 4111: 11...1 i41G,11,44411,4. 14,a nal01,,,Jat. ,Is Wcii; ,-4/.,1,;Att of tills pi ttt.

ikk 1,11.41 3441144/ ,,4-1414..,14 ,P4ii 4111146 , +11.11 414,

.,.t 1111, I. a,,Lot t,F 1.44111 1,4 ,.t. )i 1114,.. 4,(141,. 11116 Wa, 1,41,.31) al. 14111411...1

p

44)&11416 s 31.L 4,41 ...4.44,14411 4141,11 .3 ,4,4,414.1 14k., 34,4111t I I

i I. 41 . ., , 4 , 4 14. 1 1 ,1 1.1.4 ,14

., 8 II t 111111 t ....,1. I , lit id a Ilk 14,4 4 1,1 I .,11.4., 11, 4.14. 11.414 WO 14 4 41,1, Li. i,i, 1 ,at A. 111131,

114.1 dair.. ,, 1,4,t 1.,1..1 ,1 tilt( .148,;1314 t,oliGk that I 134146t; Hi, .14 11 Lvi 111 ,111 1,1,,V1 rilAy

111a146111. 1-al 11 415 OF 1.3t11.4thai1 t..ott.ititted Lk, 1.,C 4. ,11111. d as pl,.,,t I. ;11-4..,111 -1 1111, I to o11t1,11 Litc

1ailt.a.,t1Ve ..., a .,,, do_ flom of in, anualial) tat 11LIIIi6

1 .1,1 ,, ).) ,, I lila ,,,l. I,1

-41) . LI. 4Y VG I a 3, , 4,1 Alan g I;olt11,11 1 ,.ti t 1,a a ,,44 ;1. la, al 441141 0 4 "*) a a,

MOI-111,A..g .:Is clat.t .ci114/111 44,0414144.44 4.131111184,11114141a1.4 4113 41 44410141

1 1, 411'1 .11 1114 ti 411.11y

Lt. k L ,1.11 Ati

1 a 41414. 14)14 1 41.4111,f 441 I .4111. I1. 14G1

...It .,,al 011/"1 \

s/otat,la. 114 plat" 4111 do.) alktt It 4.11,1 I 1,

cf. i 13,1t-115,, , tfo;o, Ow( (fo a 'Lon 1 .,1 Ific

It i di) J. /V I it oat. 411 ,4 14.1 1,141.1. 4L1444 a J,,, 1,...1,1 ,I1414

111114 1a,111.3 411 Mk. atay

It: (hilt alt

II III, pi 101, y 4,144l11111 aelit s3I3 attain,. 41, 111 ,

I. , 3 in a five Ili,. 1,4,41 4,, 1.44.J 1,1, g11 l ,41

..,1111,t, I. I, it1 1t fi+,c idit. LI L 1,14=4.1 to It ,4441 .,. .k41 444..31 141 . 4,4,14141 )11

1,1ajs.,, 41 vyk.41,1 take 141aLL 1,111.4g ti. It., Ita 1 13 4, 14.111) 'Ali, 1,44:, -411414,41

4 0

IL

FIGURE 5SCHEMATIC OF PRESSURIZED WATER RgACTOR

MAJOR SYSTEMS INVOLVED IN THREE MILE ISLAND ACCIDENT

1,,

A iNritr.ieft rt*

314a11,

4 1 1 . I ;4 I Il4, r 3 /Is 71. 1..1

II 13 11 I 11,1 i..iil 1.6 i1 1.11 ..a

, .1, i1. 14 2.A ,Ai

sil h, i ,i4t1 4111.1 a 1.1 Ili.; AU,. f1 Adi

. I 1

4

I pliA t 11 1,i I t1.1.

I , is (ill iti1b14- i1,i lily 111 1,

1 .1

I L,,

fear that if the .system cooled down very much, the bubble would expand and restrict the flow ofcooling water through the damaged core, possibly exposing the core again.

scenario ",NRC personnel, using a wors-ctas scenario- , postulated that there could be a hydrogenexplosion which could possibly breach the containment building and release serious amounts ofradioactive materials to the environment In actuality, there was never a danger of such an explosionbecause tlwre was no oxygen in the reactor vessel. The chemical reaction which produced thehydrogen had consumed. the oxygen fr in ,thc water by idizing the fuel cladding

About .this time. an NRC official e Seellc iemaiked lu the piesn that th,1,i was iealpossibility of a core meltdown Iii the midst of Elk.: uoilfils101-1 Dehl011 ailiV00 to takecontrol of the NRC stall and began the ,uoidiffailoi, of ,cwn ielean,s

NRC officials debated about tkbetlici they nnould 6,4;i alarea around the- plant. They also considered taking over operation of the crippled plant. but finallyconcluded that they did not have etiougil yuali_fiied- opelatlons Statt to tun the plant Thu an ilackFriday" closed, the nation believed that a catastrophe was enviument

4.41.114.11.1) .11 /1,,11 ,1111 441.1141444 41 1,11S14441 411:1 41 .1 .4. I I. 1 41.11

I- .14 140111 Elie plant 4.111JI.:1111441 1114..)1(16111g1/ 1.014j Elie IlLit, 1,14,t hid IL .1:1 110 11111,,CI

11eI.J..33ZIFY to stay 111,10013 t.)111 still advised WOIIK 11 4.111,1 1104,1chill1,1i LL, avoid , ululugwithin fiv nines of the plant Plans were oeing incimred fl,l 1114 eva,,nation of ev( ty me within 20miles of th lath

Tile but 144/l le44441fied ul tl. 1..1 114,; .441/IL 4" 4..1. 41 Ilia I

was dc.lcaBeing but Ni(' u poiicd that it was grcwil.g toreas,ng tin pus:ability oi illlNR(' advised the boveiioi to Odd. dah..: (h. people up hl 10 to 20 ihilen aiouncl the

but the governoi dek,ide,1 6134-11 all CA40,11.0M1 was wove, ALL) had icioaniedup to this tune, dz,,,Ided 1Cak.C. .,114,1 It is entanal,:,d that ov,:i the we.;14.t.i,d 80 WO t.t 014 000

111, big within 20 ILL11,0 14 It LILLAA liL

At 444 A.44.44A4 1 I% 1414 ,1.,41 .444 4,14,4. 1 1114 11 I. 4 4 0

141aLi1e it riligjit ,otplode at t 1 1) t ILA! p 111 l Lit lI1Is wasfulS,t, .i.1 that the btib1i had 3041t...rd t1, 4Ie,,1 atu Al ahoot ban,- c. gst L 4111 . Ifni LUIS 15,;,1

that 1iL shield. W411,1 vi.ii 01C plaid Olt;

11.411 I 41.3 11 1 ..1

,14i, ,11111 111. Wad.. 44,41.)_ EL) 4(.1114 I,) t 1.: 11)144 1)- 311 1,41, It 1.1.6

y L .% i1441 t tl., , It; ant, theti,liotgc,i and 411 , 0, ; g4.,i into 414 .4,

1.1t (Et; , t I 1 1 , 1 1 .1 ai,I 4111 1,1.

1..,;1.3 tli4 1.e,)1.1. ILL L,i,;

Ai,. ;

,41 )ii :

L,,tt L. , I , A 1 .1 i II. ; 44

1 1 1 ; k, I t 11.1,1 6 , 1 1 1 , . . . a , I 4 . 1 , A E 4 . 4 , 1 1 1, . , 1 , , , 1 , ,1 (11A

W.4A V. it;IihiY

4 d

Harold Denton told the press that,the possibility of die hydrogen bubble exploding was nevergreat. He also began recruiting some 200 nuclear experts from around the world to assist in thesubsequent evaluation of the system.

'By Tuesday, April 3, some schools in the area opened. Governor Thornburgh' declared an endto the threat of an immediate catastrophe.

Joseph Califano, then head of the federal Ueparttnent of Health, Education, and Welfare,stated that the maximum dose anyone might have received was about 80 itirctri, or about the sameas a couple of chest x=rays

Som e radiation ei,lwas a to be cs...aping 144111I p11111alily flew 01,:.11111g a

take water samples.

hi subsequent days. IIIC presNilic and tempciatiitc of tl,a sy5lu111 lelila111ed btabi, and 11a,,tenliaeraturc slowly decreased The pressumel was occasionally vented to the euutaininent to avoidpossible return of:the bubble The hydrogen ra.lcoiners continued to lower the hydrogen contentof the containment building LS), April 9, the ctiolved gases iii the pinnaiy oicieeliminated and Ciuvern01 lnuinburgli litted his advasoly th LIE pregnant women and pic34h0o14hildicil stay out of the aft,

0111 A1,1111 / .i 41, tie

pinilaay pinup. wcie sl..11 1,11 and thc tea, A k,pt cool I tli CI

be I.," cctA the' eo.e dal./ the A s111111 ,.;ett 4.4 the Ill..s51vc 414 at 1.p _Iota 1-111111111;41 lu L1

I ba,.kb.round ,adiation 111 'he die.1 is at.oku nireo i.e,soy 111:. ni (lie 0161l1, ,,,%.1111 have IC. Clv Al A .t.iteal th.; bti18c oil I.

do-e thatside ot the ,.14-tt

..s 11 ,,,ottite. lx to itic 111 ,itliantl 11 aa,.., mat if 3.,,I111 Olic had stay,,,1 it ,hat point24 Iloilo .1 041 during tl,a. 1.1,1,144, that , have. ,c.A.....tvoct a total J103... 01 atm ul 6) i,11,;411

maximum Ictitall) tuk eived by any was less than this , attic

kti 11..,.111, i.+114, 1111%011 al., 1 lit.,, Ilt 1 I

.4 I/1..=. thi, pctso., !W. 1\11,

01 I - LI al . &,,,L 1 JI, ii31 s)11,. the

1.)..,.,1,1aAtAHA loo (ft)t., 11v1,. a 1111111 10 i11,1eS of i II vv, Old

110111'40) I.;k1 4., 000 , , Ci;Nt 20 3i.

.11

Ak lit J.

1.1.

1,, III, 1

,l, ..I it 0.. II, I I ,I,;;it; .10 t e hi, ig .1 i ol ..,.1 I

I, ,,d la. ,..,, la 11.1 .lut.i, ,, Ichi I 11 II ( lie ha ,(Y` .21....S.,111.it it at ihe 1.ni,411 1y k. lid .1,,k1 1116

.!.,tt LA .1 to I L,. late Lug t .111 ,,, al,,; ,,1,,,,,. y cuoiant In.e lit, 3. Vt It; LIIJI PLtid(..ti 1 II ..:,. ILL

wi1,1 lt. it k.I ci i II. 11,111 k I ili,: ..1 .1 III vdN sti IddIll...4, :,111x11 14x1}

I 1 l4. I 4.. 1. ....1 .

illIk) 31 ..'t I; II .A111.1. , i111t =

A survey on the social and economic impacts of the accident was commissioned by NRC andcon cted the summer of 1979. The' survey showed that the cost to people near the site was$1 .2 million in evacuation expenses and lost wages. Two out of every three children under fiveyears of age and three of every four pregnant women in the area left during the emergency.Twenty two perccni of those responding to the survey said that some member of their familysuffei-ed extreme emotional uPserdpipg the einergenkiy period.

.The- complete effect of the accident on the future of nuclea ower not known, Gut it ild5certainly increased the apprehensiod of many peOple about this ene gy source. On the other hand,supporters of nuclear po\ver say that if lessons learned from the accident are properly applied,nuclear power can be made sale, and it should continue to supply an increasig amount of isleelectricity

Nuclear rower: 1-u LHr'e Prospects

Na4,1i;a1 POW ka IIa thus sal 1141.1 a . t,), it, CA

la ally less expensIvc than that produced by coal ol ulr nits has ,estltcd It. in Jo) savi.igs furconsumers while at the snite time helping the I.J.S. d, cit.doc Its dependence on imported oil Andthe unique ability. of nuclear power plants to keep opelating .lining severe w.,atlter conditions siit;lias the froi,m coal piles and barges of 1977 an.1 during a nrilic nal coal stills.), In 19721 helped to Avert

ujot vtivvcr outages In those years

IV, ,,ee-,1 I s.- I .4

from 075 to 1977, resulting in a nt, rt inction of 14 latge' Illants incsd 1 0)3.two new oiders for itticlea, pipits ill 1978 Relays haVi; building ill, pl nits alicatlyordered, and in Jrnpleting the phaits WILL. 4011311,4,,tio,. flu:re ..re many rtasui,s ))./.I )y cicctin,utilities are uoi ordering nuclear pov,er One is tile that the growth to ,e,,tilLalcosuini Lion din slow down tof a whde lo I 1 /OE A111.1 another` pl ln..11 1 ..:.asonthe lag In nu. Isar plant oide.is is the piton by the executive hianch 1It )11c.gov.Amine,it, though endorsing Lt.e u.,,e of light water react),r5 It, tin_ National Encig) Plan, MIS 110tsupported r111..tcar pow61 by L.4.10116 oil the kAcial t-sponsIt)111/1sI-ol licensing spent Inc.1 Innagewaste isolation, and fuel inrichment Another major proble0 faced by utiritLis is the long andon,,e11.4111 schedules tot .c0 nplellon -Wilily

These delays AL.' A stilt 110,.1 llli dItticulty 1,. oLlainIng lh4 II,,.essa.,' I11ellslrlg tr,.arlugsto) va.n3LIS 11.x1lat, hilt. ;3 a)),1 )4)4...ILA-AS filed aht,,,L safelypia"( suing waste 1,cat st,.eag aut.! 1.11111spo.tali.ut lit. ;Ica. Waste cl.,:connulssIt olug ..nd din;

)salt,Illty cl f1551..11dGlr InJ1c11. 13 11,.t11g )111.cile1 Is, 'Joe theliliAG434; c..clE/ supplies in any lo.in A..othc4 L Au) ha. G cu the nitieuity 111 3c1.ls. Inll,.lefttlarl,,ll1 L+' NI, poll Cu, 4./11 a i/C=ali,l, i 111, ta t mla) .mild pnaling 1..ic .3 .J%411(1 ti

icual ;516ti 11,1 , Ikatigca 1.1 c,,v 1111111.1.1 , 1131.1,11 In hasMai lcd

I It h .111 il,tl I. 1.1

Lh) lr. d t. I le 11J II ,;;.. gi IY, )

it t I .J

S , ll. too Ina ,1 1 A +, el 1I tilld,416t i,i II III e .I 1 i Lill It

11, a 1,0Wt: tL 1111111111AI-1 III, II .,A; IA ,1.111 11 .. .1.ig y

hilt ass, Jsiog trreedel react° de ne,L ra wastt atitag, I11 n110 1 9/8EI

h Il

countries had licensed. 20 reactors, el an additional 3.20. reactors were under construction or onorder. This has not been-without some eontroversy, since increasing oppOsition to nuclear power inmany countries has come in the face of its continued growth, S.

ELECTRICITY

In 1977, about 27 percent of the primary energy consumed in the U.S. was used to gener*electricity, percebtage is expected to increase because simile of the energy sources th4ateexpected to be available to us in the future are best suited for producing electricity: Because of itsimportance in our day- today lives, electricity is included in this section on energy sullrc s.

hi 19 / / 411 ...:.1.111,11c,d lw0 tr1111011 141144 41 .411 1141110 41 . 141. Ill welt I,CIsLcd, wilt, I. 4? 441

conttibuting 41 percent, oil 17 percent. gas 14 peicent. nuclear sources percent, andhy,L11.0eleCtill, Sac, 10 pCICCIlt

I113 eleclll. fly WiLlA g114k,.1 by Li, I 1.:.141411 1,4 I 1,,.11.,,111.,1

41 1,....,c;111 k.k.)111111e141/.11 25 pei,eni, a1.d 1)tlic.1 4 periciti

11,, .1. 1.1 11 b,,. al. .it the ,.. . , .1,. 1.,.11,,,L

Is 131,C150:111111 111 Much 1ll1V san,c was' , t,i1114.1.; uti wat..f 1...)1tSs lie lit a h42),.-..

When the destreti voltage l.. reacheci,"the electll.lty ie.s tiatts11.1.:,Niott SyStetil 1.0 DC Call led

wlictc. It 1;3 iiecklcci Navels ieail) &tic; s1reed o. 1161.1 a4 it la used Jl 411.,4 l Llic .d1111C.

11111111 11 b p1Ot111..1.1 1115, 11101 VbIlt.161,11411S1111331inlibieS ,,1,cedsome Liss of electricity as it passes till ough the lities St,:p-uown Ci.insformers fi.rther rt.tuce the

Icvt1 11,1 ,.111311111.;,1 1111,, .LA111/1111011 all bk. inilined

. ,1 .1 ,414,

. Alt/ 111 by I 1, , 1 1, C0 .

the iiI or it 11. gu.,L1 1,)1 d 111.1

t,, 4.1'4, 141514; 34,1V1, ill 1 1 411 114 klial hi.. .11v,:a !tic 1,1L0 ,.t ,±, 11 -441111,1d4114.4

ar, regulat,,d by feikral and sti.tt agencies

C Eli( ;I titIL) "/ it .- I

1111.,,1

7

ilL114110

1 t i,1 1,,e111

,1 111"1o ..4 111.111 =1 1

1,,I Jb. 4 I 1 .; L.,. 1 111 .tt 1., .i 1 I) , 1, 4 11 ,I 113

I ,Iti i 30 PC,. ..1 iii il !OI ',III , ,. LIA1 th , tI.. .. 4.,) i i 1 I El i. i 1 .! i 1 I Ill;

1 ). il.. 1631.41 .4,4 , ,4 ..I 11111,,,I, ..I,J1 Al . .1 Ell .1 ,i,,,.. . .1. ., 1i ,/1,1..,4 by4 li, . :, 1111 111,41 ,./%/1111. 11 I' 1,1, .4414 1 1114 1111±4 11 .4 11 01410.... 1 ift A. ,.1 1,1,111 0,1 lA ....4 11

[I...., i A1.; .ill ,11,.; ay. ; .6-. a11 16 ) ,liz I. t). 11. , , 1. , i ...I ,,n1,. ink 1 ao;at,t I ) yCk. L.) 1)11114J a

laigo. .141,1, al diaLL (iii E.aa l, ,I, si pi,, ila ,t',441,1 .... 1).4,11. ici .1W ,1 .01 ..-.:i ly l,,.1 OR, I 441 ., dm,'i..,,,.._ to ii., ,1111),.1, 11,, .4Z,I.,. . Iii 111,1111 t , . Ai IA: 11,11 . kipti( ns .,,,,i .1,14.1 16 Is. 1114

1111 II. L01411112. I I . , .46t)±(t,),. A 1414 4 , 411, , ,i, i A.13 111ii1 L.Ii. . ).1..,111i, ,Ikiti iiiiik.., 4, Id 4 Ids,

iWi., i 3G,,,41 ,.1 iii...al 011. , hi,. 11 t1 1,,, 114,1 1,,I sit., ,11, t: , 1 1611,I. ., 11 all

j4.2,1,1; 1,14 ,414... 144,114415 . 3144.11 01, ill, ,15L ./VIII 1,.,,111 1. 1.1.. ..-.4 1 i ..)S1.111/1/ ill .t,flilg

50

. .. ..._ ...._ _ _id-oridmic `recession- and, unemploymen -0 he othe&hand, utilities cannot Afford to have too,.. .

inueh excess generating capacity, since it is expensive tolbuild and maintain whether-it is being used.

or not.' .. .. . _

_-.--, Ariother.problem in electrical generation is that there are presently no good-, economically:1-feasible ways to store electricity. :Batteries are, expensive and have limited lifetimes. 'Pumped

'h capability.ydroelectric *rage is being used at some powers plants equipped with hydroelectric_In this systenr;-electricity generated at off-peak times is used Ito pump water into a reservoir. Then-at- peak times- this water can B_e used to operate hydroelectric generators to produce extraelectricity This storage _method has limited application, however, since few suitable exist.le sites

_ -_

-2 This lack of a good method Of storing aelectricity is significant problem, because demand forelectricity varies 'greatly -from day to night arif from season to season. Since electricity has to be

.

--;geneiate&as==-it-is-usedr-the-generating- capacity-must-be-large -enough-to- accommodate-the-peak'demand, while in off-peak periodS only aboiit 50 percent of the generating =capacity might-beneeded. Since the. equipinent is very eXpensive, this unused capacity adds greatly lo thecost of electricity.

It is poisible that e-of-dayt' metering will soon appear on a widescale.. It is being testedet_ this_ system ,-electricitY., used -at-peak -demand_ cost:-mpre- than

electricity used at other times. _This' system would hopefully encourage people to even..out thedemand for electricity. This could mean more industrial work done on a night shift, and residentialactivities such as running dishwashers and washers and dryers done in the evenings to save money.

I .

ENERGY. :_ POLICY AND PROSPECTS

PRINCIPLES OF ENERGY ECONOMICS

_Many aspects of economics e routinely discussed .in newspapers, magazines, and television..Some of those aspects which aris in considering enIrgy economics include competition, monopoly,cartel, windfall profits, supply and demand, environmental effects, and scarcity itself. We canbetter' understand our present energy problems and our future possibilities if we htve some feelingfor the meaning of these terms.

Economics is simply the-science of .allocating scarce, resources. If any kind of useful good istruly abundant, it does not need to be-rationed or-allocated, and it will be free-if anyone tried tocharge for sortie of it:people would be 'able to get it from another source.' Only scarce resourcescomniand'a price, or need to be-allocated. The price of a scarce gbod represents what a buyer has, to

.- give =up when he gets thegood, and what a seller has to receive before he parts with the good. Butthe pride also serves as a signal to both the buyer; and the seller-when a.good becomes suddenlyscarce, for whatever reason, the price: normally goes up until buyers want enough less, and sellersprovide enoughfliore, that no otherkinds of rationing or allocation is necessary.

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Competition exists whenever real or potential producers have the opportunity to make moreprofit by lowering their price enough to sell more goods (though at a lower profit on each). Ifgasoline stations' buy gas at 600 , and are all independent, they tend to sell their gaffor about 650,

-beeause-the stations need about 5 it per 'gallon tO stay in-operatiop. suppose a station sells 50,000gallons.-per week, servicing about 70p cars per day.'Then 50 pergallon yields-the station $2500each' week to pay its rent, wages for the attendants, other operating costs-and owner's profit. If thestation lowers its price' to 630; it needs to se11:83,333 gallons to get the same $250Q; if it raises its-,price to 670, it can get_$2500 by selling only 35,741 gallons. Whenever there is true competitiOn;a station which raises its price too high will lose enough sales that even-at the higher price, its totalprofits drop If a, single station raises its price_ to 800, it could make 200 on each gallon, but itprobably would not sell the 12,500 gallons it needs to make $2500 if _other stations were 'stillwillidg to sell at 650..

Monopoly exists when - a seller sets a Dice without losing sales to competition. If a gasolinestation is the only. one -in town, it will be able to charge more for gas-, up to the point when one of

,;_three things happens: JO its- customers use less gaij-(2) they:find-another town where they-can buy-sgas; or (3) somebody opens a coinPeting ;gas station because it is -:such A profitable business.Monopolies are usually _undesirable because they can earn an unfair profit,-and because they rearictthe availability -of-their goods, Fortunately, either real or poetntial competition usually preventsexcessive monopoly power. However, some. activities (notably_ water, natural gas, electric, andtelephone utilities) are such that once one firrn has installed the necessary pipes or wires, it is bothexpensive and -undesirable to have another firm go into competition with them. Stich a "natural:

"monopoly" is often' regulated by the government. I the only'problem with -a monopoly were that it _

makei too much profit, a tax on'that profit would e the easiest and best way to solve the problem.But the main effect of the monopoly-is that by ing-too -high a price, it sends an incorrect pricesignal and fOrces people to use too little of its n good, and too much of other substitute gdods.For instance, a gas station that is a monopoly fight force people to take time, to drive to a cheaper-but distant gas station:.Regulation tries.to.prev t problems like these. .

A' cartel exists. when independent sellers band together to act like Amanopoly: If a town, hasonly-two--orthree-gasdline stations,_they_would_ordinarilkbein_partial_cornpetitionthiiis called anoligopoly. If they agree not to compete, they, can charge-a higher price andsplit thefull monopolyprofit among themselves. Some nations approve of selected cartels (usually on the gounds that theylead, to more economic stability), but in the. U.S. such an agreement would be-termed collusion

. and would violate anti -trust laws. A cartel or trust has most of the economic characteristibs of a-monopoly. OPEC (Organization of Petroleum. Exporting Countries) is clearly.a cartel. It must berecognized that while a cartel can and :does charge too high a price, that price is limited by demandfor the cartel's product, for the cartel attempts to maximize its total profit. The More that higheroil prices lead to conservation, the less incentive an OPEC cartel has to. raise its prices.

Windfall profits are usually taken to mean unexpected or unearned profitsespecially thosethat exceed the- prqfit a supplier needed to count on before he went into business, When OPECplaced an embargO on oil-in late 1973 And -raised oil prices dramaticallyi U.S. oil and -gas wereautomatically wroth much, more than they had been, In a freely competitive - market, oil and gasprices would have risen quickly to signal for less consumption and more production. (Germany andJapan. dealt with their energy Crisis in this way.) But in the process, existing oil and gas supplies-would also command- the same higher price, and the suppliers would thereby make windfall profits.Since these profits are usually make by large companies at the expense of people who dependon fuels for heating and transportation, their unfairness has led the U.S. to maintain various kindsof price controls. Many vexing political And economic problems center amufid thiskind ofissuewhether or not to allow prices to perform- an efficient job of allocation, at the expense ofinequitable costs and profits.

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Stip-ply-and deitiana are simple concepts, yet are.widely misunderstood: {A. shortage of fuel r'does not mean that peopleare usinuriorefuel than is produeed7it means they want more than theyare using. Strictly ,speaking, no usluittage" can last very long before people's: wants are translatedinto 'higher prices-any -continuing shortage of 'a market good must be due. to some form of price,controls.

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Environmental ,.effects are Called ex ernalities by the economist, and refer to goods which,

are not incorporated in the market, If you and _I both keeP all ciurtrash on our own property, orboth di inp our trash into a truly bottomless pit, no externality is inVOlved in our trash disposal. Butif -only one of us has access to such a pit;_or if the trash causes a problem for someone else, thewhole logic of the marketplace is'distorted. The producer should charge his customers enough sothat he can pay his suppliers for all the materials he uses. But suppost that one of the things he uses .

is clean air, in the sense hat he puts out a lot of dirty, smoke. kir every item limakes.. If he doesnot---have-to-paY-forthe irliehas=dirtied;-he will-chirWhis-eustomers too little, they will buy toomany of this items, 40 e will, make :the, air too dirty. Note that we said,above that price controlswere at the root of ev. continuing shortage of a market good. For non-market goods (external orenvironmental effects) a physical shortage is in fact, quite. possible. We can be confident that theworld will not truly run out of copper, or coal,' or oil-as they become really scarcei they willbecome= expensive enough so that they will be saved for their most vital uses, and substitutes will be

found-for theless iniportant-uses.-7They-becomeeipensive hecause they are each owned by someone _

who sells them to other people, and who charges a higher price when his good becomes scarce. Butclean, water, fresh air, a healthy environment-these could be used free, and could-therefore be usedcould - therefore be_usedup excessively.

The economic rationale fo most conservation and rationing programs is based on ideas like"these. Policy makers judge that generally higher prices would hurt low-income and fixed-incomegroups,' and selectively higher prices would be inequitable,_ so they try to discourage- the. energyuses, that would be dropped if prices were higher. These uses probably include_electric heat, fuels forindoor temperatures higher than 68 degrees in the winter or lower than 80 degrees in the summer,gasoline used for speeding or for some weekend travel,-and so forth.

The important thing to understand is that-higher prices would resolve our energy problemsrather quickly, but at .:a cost which seems unfair to many. onseCnration programs help ,prevent usfrom making choices which will cost society-all of us-more than they are really worth.

THE NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY

"The diagnosis of the U.S. energy crisis is quite simple,: demand for energy is increasing, whilesupplies of oil and natural as are diminishing. Unless the U.S. makes a timely adjustment before oilbecomes very scarce and very expensive in the 1980's, the nation's economic security and theAmerican way of life will be gravely endangered. The step_ s the U.S. must take now are smallcompared to the drastic measures that will be needed if the U.S. does nothing until it is too late."These are the ppening words from the first National Energy Plan from the EXecutive Office of thePresident,_Energy_15olicy_and Planning,-inrApril of 1977,

'Shortly after President Carter proposed this National Energy Plan, the Department of Energybegan operations. This federal agency is responsible for administering the national energy plan.

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The National', Energy Plan was an attempt to deal With many of the. enemy problems faced by ;,.

our-nation. After its-proposals were put forth by President:Carter, Congress deliberatedfor nearly ayear and a half before passillg the_National_Energy:Act on October 15, 1978..It enacted some of thePresident's proposals; rejected, others, =and passed, sente,W:a- revised version. The National Energy, .

Act is composed of_5 bills; They-deal with'the following major ireas:=Coliservation, use of alternate =

fuels for gas and oil, regulation =of public_lailities, natural gas pricing, and energy-related taxes and

--1 tax credits. We will briefly discuss the provisions of each of these.-

The 'National Energy Conservation Policy Act of 1978 (NEPA) provides a program..

which

requires utilities to help their residential customers identify various energy conservation possibilitieswithin -their 'Tomes and estimate their costs and savings; Utilities must also help_ mange = forinstallation and fmancing of such Measures if the customer desires. The act provides grants for

_ insulatin -_ -low= income. -. homes and loans for homeowners and builders for purchasing solarequipment. It provides =loans for home energy conservation measures, and grants -to-improve-the-

,

energy efficiency of schools and hospitals. The conservation act' calls for 'energy audits in publicbuildings, and sets energy efficiency standards for major honie appliances. It-also provides for fineson auto manufacturers who fail to meet set fuel economy standards.

The Power Plant and Industrial Fuel Use Act of 1978 prohibits the use of oil or natural gas in

new electrical-generating-facilities orf arie =in7difitrial bbilers-.71t-alsO re-quires existing :largeboilers _

that can burn,coal to do so. Existing gas-fueled power plants cannot increase the amount of gas they

burn, and, with certain exceptions, must stop ugilg natural gas by .1990. The act provides-a roan

program to-help utilities raise funds for pollution control: It also funds several prograins to reduce

the negative impacts of increased coal production.,_= = .

. 'The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 includes voluntary standards on ratestructure and other utility practices for_ consideration by state -regulatory authorities andrion-regulated-utilitiesAt-provides_forrules favoring industrial cogeneration facilities, and establishes

a loan program to aid development of small hydroelectric projects. The act seeks to expedite the=

issuance of permits for crude oil transportation systems, and establishgia natural gas transportation7

policy. ..

The Natural. Gas Policy -Act of 1978 provides for. a series of maximum prices for yariotiscategories of natural gas, including gas sold in both the interstate (between states) and intrastate(within the same state) markets. Previously, only the interstate rates were federally regulated. Pricecontrols on newly discovered gas- and some categories of high cos_t gas will be lifted as of 1985.Another provision of the act establishes protection Of residential gas consumers by first' passing

through part of the increased gas prices to industrial users. The President was given the authority toallocate gas supplies to insure that in the event of a natural gas shortage, the best possible: use is

Made of gas supplies.

The Energy Tax Act of 1978 provides for an income tax credit for residential insulation andother energy conservation methods, and for installation of solar or wind equipment. It establishesan excise' tax on "gas guizling" cars, and exempts "gasohol" from federal excise tax. The act gives

incentives for the development of geothermal. resources in the form of investment tax credit and

special depletion allowances.- It gives business tax credits for industrial investment' in alternativeenergy equipment, and denies tax benefits for purchase of new gas and oil burners.

It is estimated that these measures in the National Energy Act will save more than 2 million

barrels of oil per day by 1985.

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by May 9-74; President_ Carter to Congress:the 'National,.Energy,.Plan IL it is an-attempt to deal, with issues, notably oil pricing, not covered in the National. Energy. Act, and tofurther eintihasiie --conservation :-and the developMent of new domestic energy sotircei andtechnologies.

V 1, ,"=6 '7

The National Energy-Plan,II pr;aposes an energy` strategy_ dealyith the different problemsthat can emerge in three time- frames: the near term (from now to 1985); the mid-term (from 1985to 2000), and the long term (2000 and beyond). This strategy-is quoted here:

"As an immediate objective, which will become even inore'important in the future, the Nation mustreduce its dependence on'foreign oil.and its vulnerability to supply. interruptions.

In the_mid-term, the, nationinust_seek_to_(1)._k_eep_imports sufficiently,low-to-prbtect-Usecuiiand to extend the period before world_oil demand reaches the lLmits of production capacity.and (2)-.

develop the capability to use new er-priced-("backstop") to hnologies as world oil prices rise:

The Nation's '-long-term objective is to have renewable and essentially inexhaustible sources ofenergy:to_sustain:a healthy economy."

The -major portion of National-Eriergy Plan II deals with the near terns, strategy by phasing. out price controls on domestic oil to encourage production and discourage consumption. Under thecurrent price _control system,--most U.S. oil falls' into one _of two cattgories: -"old" oil, Which is= ;denied as production equal to the amount an existing field Was Pumping in 1972, and 7new" oil,which is production from oil fields that exceeds the-1972 level or oil front- wells drilled after 197 -2.Prices of both categories have been held well below theyorld price set by OPEC-Fgrexample; inApril_df 1979, "old" oil sold for about $6 a barrel; "new" oil about $13, and OPEC oil for Morethan $14. Because of this system, some old wells have been capped even though they have not rundry, because_thecontrolled-costis-relatively-low,-Alsoi-exploration-costs have risen -more rapidlythan the controlled price fof "new" oil, so_ that domestic production sas continued to decline. f

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Thee controls were set to 'expire automatically m 1981, but the President had the authorityto, abolish them at any time after June 1, 1979. Prekident Carter' chose to decontrol-econtrol the oil prices)nstages to lessen the immediate impact on the econanii.--Decoritrol began On June 4., 1979,-and wilbe coMplete by October I, 1981.

The Department of Energy predicts that lifting the controls will quickly boost production`from older 41.S; fields and bring on a new round of exploration. It is also expected that theoil prices brought about by decontrol will cause many oil users to switch to other energy fiources.Decontrol of domestic oil prices- will cause gasoline.zprices to jump sharply, along with alltransportation costs. Home heating Oil prices will also increase. Food production costs will rise,bringing focid ,costs up. All these thirigA will add to the country's inflation woes. But PresidentCarter felt the steps were necessary to halt our growing dependence on whate he called "a thin lineof oil tankers stretching halfway around the earth ... to one of the Most unstable regions in theworld."

Hi er oil prices will add considerably_to_oil_company_profits.President-Carter,has-asked-Congress to pass a windfall profits tax- aimed at keeping these profits down. Under the President'sproposal, half of the profits the oil companies would get from rising prices would go to the federalgovernment. Added to existing taxes, this would leave the oil companies about 30 percent, The newtax would produce an estimated $1.6 billion in 1980, $4 billion in 1981, and $5.8 billion in 1982.

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orne of the tax money would be used: O help loWincome' families cope with rising-energy Cats.Part would be channeled into mass- tiansportation,: including rehabilitation -of railroad% The restwould be used forr-other energy projects such -as the develoPtnentof new -energy lechnblogies,

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fi The President's ,proposaliraninto ooppsitibnin Con and as of this writing they have notbeen acted upon. ,! ,

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In the _National Energy*Plaiii1J, President. Carter again stressed ccinservatioh calling it "ourcheapest and cleanest energy source." His new plan proposes a variety of voluntary measures, such.,as strict adherance,to' the-55 mile perhour speed limit., the use of _car pools and mass transit, andtherMostats-'set at 65 degrees in the winter and 80:degrees in surtimer, If= such voluntaconservation ,does not occur,. President Carter plans, to ask Congr ss for passage of mandatory.'

-measures i---41e;has-already-askedffor-the_aiithority_o_oitrder_weekend losing of gas stations, and has.orderedlederal executive agencies to Cut energy use by 5 Percent.

The President is also allowing some relaxing of environmental standards.-He has postponed-aregulation which would have required refiners to reduce the lead

ofcontent of gasoline and has

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opened the way for emergency use f high-sulfur fuel when the prices.of low-sulfur oil get too high,.

In the area of nuclear power, the administration policy is _that "the nation needs to developsafeguards that will allow light water reactors to continue to meet an increasing share_of elearripal

energy rieeds.L' Research and development on-breeder reactors will be continued', but demonstrationwill be deferred pending further study.

The federal energy policies and Programs of- -the National Energy Plan II can be briefly_summarised as follows:.

onservation:. Encourage-conservation -t -reduce-the-rate of-growth-in energy_demand_and to

improve the productivity,of energyuse throughimproyed efficiency

Oil: Paise domestic oil production and encourage conservation through decontrolof prices. Tax windfall profits and use revenues for relief for the poor andenergy-related projects, and research. Continue stocking the Strategic PetroleumReserr,:ultirrialely to one billion barrels.

Natural . Encourage domestic production by financial incentivesCoal: Enough use in place of -oil and gas wherever economically and environmentally

feasibleNuclear: Use light water reactors to generate an increasing share of electricity. Work toward

resolving nuclear waste management issues, and streamlining licensing withoutsacrificing safety.-

Other energy sources scheduled for arch, development, and/or demonstration:Coal liqueficationCoal gasificationBreeder reactorFusionSolar energyGeothennal energy__

International cooperation: Meet commitment with other member nations of InternationalEnergy Agency to cut energy consumption 5 5 percent by the latter part of 1979

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In a speech given on July 15, 1979, President Carter,made some additions of his energy

tproposals and policies : At that tinie, he ammounced the re-imposition of quotas to limit theOf imported oil to no more than that, mported in 1977. He alSo set a goal Of cutting imports=in half_by 1990: President Carter said that he would propose most-Massive peacetime.COrn injtnierif. funds and 'resources' in our nation's history-'-' to develop: new energy sources. He called for the:creation'-a,in:Energy:Sec-Urity Corporation,an-cl- a Solar Banks fina_riced,by the proposed windfallprofitstaxon-decontrolled-oil prices. To speed major energy projects through g_ overpfne_rif red tape,..the President proppsed creation' f an EnergYT'Mobili-zation Board.. _

In andther recent speech, President Carter said that he wants Americans td be asfiniliar withthe facts aboueenergy, as.they are with the daily weather report. Although both might at times bedull or depressing, it is our responsibility to inform ourselves on the energy situation and to actaccordingly.

WORLD-WIDE PERSPECTIVE ON THE ENERGY-PROBLEM

No- country, however large or wealthy, can now.view the future of its citizens jdependent ofthe _rest. at ihe.World. National monetary systems --are not independent,' but -are part of anm-

_international-onetarysystem National_ economies are increasingly dependent-,on thefinternational._,... ---------.-flow orresources: One small region-, the Middle. East, controls the lion's share Of the world's knownpetroleum reserves: - North -_ rica controls a large share, of exportable grain supplies:

A_Lnterdependente among countries- i so great that the size of automobiles and leVel of thermostats inthe United States are infilicence by oil-production and'export decisions in the Middle East. Foodsupplies-in the Soviet Union and Japan'are stronglY, influenced by U.S. agrictiltural export decisions.

_ .._rz-.-- ---

It is therefore important to understand something about the energy- situation in, the rest ofthe world, and hoW world-wide energy consumption is likely to change.,

A, country -'s standard of living is closely-related to its use-of energy. Those -countries with ahigher per capita (per person) income generally' have higher per capita energy Consumption. Asmight be expected, the United States leads the world in energy consumption: Furthermore, theUnited States, uses more. energy petcapita than other:countries with similar standards aliving. Partof this excess energy is'used to grow food and manufacture products which are then exporte,d toother countries, but a great deal of it is energy that we could conserve and in fact badly need to beconserving. Figure 6 shows the relationship between energy consumption and gross national p_ roduct(a measure of standard of living).

The less developed countries of the world use _very little energy per-capita. These countries,where most of-the citizens live in poverty, have 50 percent of the world's population; they-consumeonly 2 percent of the world's energy. It is estimated that by the year 2000, they will consume nomore than 4 percent, with 55 percent of the world's population. The developing countries of theworld are expeCted to shOw the sharpest rise in per capita energy consumption. Smaller rises in percapita consumption in the U.S. and other industrialized countries will hopefully bring thesecountries' share of the world's energy consumption more into balance.

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7000

-"C 3000

-13r

:'-Uruguay

rliMd Syr'den

Deninark '=ow,A,GerranyNerway 7 Australia,

Li Belgium--Firce -

.._. Netherls!ds ---_---:------Finland's

Zealand* _:Austria===-__41110,

`panne'

Vanazu

4 jj United l(ingdcn.

is Ireland

United, a

ale° at. ith Africa

15 '20 30,

1974 Energy Consumption iBarrals of-

Source of Data: U.N. Statistical Yearbook, 1975

rude Oil iquivai

ENERGY: IS THERE-ANOTHER WAY?

The following section describes softie alternative sources cit' energy. Some are in limited use

today, while others can make no contribution to energy supplies for many years. Some may never

prove to be feasible.

OIL SHALE AND TAR SANDS

Oil shale is a .tindly textured rock 'that contains a tarlike material called kerogen. Whenmelted, kerogen Oyes off vapors that can be converted to shale oil. This shale oil can then be refined

into oil, -gasoline, and other petroleum products. Oil share deposits are located primarily

Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. Tliese deposits are estimated to contain the equivalent of several

times the estimated recoverable oil in the United States.

There are two general ways of recovering shale oil. The one that has already been

denionstrated is above-ground retorting, where the shale is collected and heated, distilling the vapors

to produce the shaleoil. The other Pr&cesi s,vhicilis being studied is in-sitturetorting:-This-involves-----breaking up the shale underground by hydraulic pressure or an explosion. Some of the shale oil

would be burned in place to provide the heat to liquify more of the shale oil so it could be pumped

from the ground. In -situ retorting has many unresolved problems; control of the explosion and

underground fire are among the largest. But it is being studied because above-ground retorting has

two tremendous 'drawbacks.,One is the strip mining that an above-ground OPeratibn would entail,and the other is the disPosg'af wastes. Even high7grader_shale is about 87 percent rock or _inert,materials, -and IheseWaSies swell dp to almost twice the volume of the original shale when theY,;areremoved from 'the grOund. Nothing will grow on theSe Wastes Without large quantitiei-Of water, in== . _Areas where the water is simply not available.

--;

n Oil is expected to begin proddeingshale_oil orrari_experimental basis in-ColoradO.-..-The' oil will be. eXpensive, and propoSals for a S3 per barrel tax break or a loan guarantee are befoie'

madealong with the synthetic fuel bill which-would prOvide mprice suppOrts for fuel ade froshale _and other substances.

=Tar sands consist of sand particles coated' with a tar,_called bitumen. This bitumen can- beextracted-anch-refined'into -fuels.- Tar sind-i-eWerY-iitiore diffientrand expgrilive than Oi.;shal0:recovery, and U.S. tar sand resources-are SrnalSr than oil Shale -resources,- so the future use of thismaterial is uncertain.

MAGNETOIL ypRothNoucs

_ ___ One long-term for-the more- icient-and- relativelY ;ion -polluting- use .04 coal is -.--

magnefohydrodynamica NHD). In this process, a fuel 'and preheated air-are fired in a burnkr at veryhigh temperatures. The restating, combustioti gas is "seeded" with. potassium or cesium salts,: prodUcing an electrically -conducting hot gas:This gas pasies through the MELD .generatOr, which is . ,surrounded by powerfid'inasets, and produces an electric current. The hot gases can-then ba usedin a conventional gas or steam turbine to produce more electricity. ...

An MHD research program is being carried -out jointly, by U.S. and -Soviet scientists and-engineers in Moscow. Natural gas is being used as the fuel in this,experimental=workubut_because ofsupply considerations,, coal is envisioned as the fuel to be used in any commercial applicationin the, US

In addition to the joint U.S -Russian venture, DOE also has its own MHD research program.Commercial operation of MHD plants will probably not occur until early in the 2-1st century.

An important hurdle in the MELD program is the development of a suitable coal combusterfor. MHD requirements, which are .different from those for conventional coal combusters. Anotherimpetrtant' task is to find suitable materials for,th Num generator. This is difficult because Of thevery high temperature that This material must withstand.

The MHD process has a potential efficiency of 50 percent or more, considerably higher than.the 30 to 35 percent efficiency of current stem generating systems.

Pollution should also be less of dproblem with MHD generators. The seed material 'used toincrease electrical conductivity reacts with the sulfur in the combustion gases to form a solidsubstance that can be recovered. Thus MHD generators should be virtually non-polluting as far assulfur is concerned. It is also hoped that the combustion process can be controlled in such a way_as---to keep the-formation-of nitrogerroxidesand particulates to acceptably16W levels.

GEOTHERMAL POWER

Beneath the earth's survace are vast amounts of heat, caused by the decay of natural

9 -.

_- _

radibactive, eleriients, themical-reactions,-- and frictionv= _geothermal energy can s -e es4be

-tapped to-provide usable. energy." Theoreticilly; suchenergy_could he obtained anywhere -on earth-

: _ by enbligh,andextractineihe heat. In most partS_ of the world, however, the hot,

'areas are too- deep to reach with' present But in-some areas-, inciodingMany places :in the 'western U.S., large 'areas- of-heat lie. relatively close to-the surface. This,occurs-prirn-arily in

ivolcanic regions and along geologc faults. =

. -__ The four _major -types of geothermal resources are dry ste

geoptessurized zones:-- r

Dry steam,..the Scarcest type of 'geothermal epeigy, is the orily:type that is well understood --

and used-tb,'any_ extent today.itoccurs:1:vh6ii'hot water bbils in an undergrqund reservoir and drysteam_.(not Mixed with:liquid' water) itTelirbelappedlitf-runa-tUrbLne

7-- and generate electricity. There are.preiJntly three4ry steith:geotherinal. plants_ in-operation in theworld----oriCin.I,4rderello, Italy (the first to eome/intO:Service), One in 'Japan; and one in-Northern-California!-The largest of 'these is the one in California, known as The Geysers. Here, the-steam is

collected from a number of wells, filtered, and passed throUgh iurbiries that drive : electricgenerators. The total -.electrical capacity at The Geysers is now about 500 megawatts, with aproje'ct ors of-adding out-100-ifiega-witti per year-for several Oat-S.-This willr-bring-Ahe -capacity- up

to the amount of electricity now used by the city of San Francisco. AdditiOnal large dry steamsources are not now known, although some may. exist in Yellowstone National Park.

et steam, hot dry rock, and

.

seCorici -type of geothermal reservoir is the wet steam or hot water well. Irkwe.t steam

fields, which. are about 20 times more -abundant than dry steam, water is heated by surto-landing.

rock to well above its normal boiling point, but instead of turning to steam.irremains a liquidbecause of high underground pressure. As it .approaches the surface, the pressure drops and arnixture_of_steam- and ikater is producid Wet steam .fields are sometimes characterized by geysers,hot springs, and naturally-occurring-steam vents dailed..fumarbles. (Technically Speaking, there .are

no geysers at The Geysers plant-theenergy is produced front funiamles.) Among the-most famous'.---

examples of wet steam fields are the) hot springs and geysers at Yellowstdne National Pali.Production o'f electricity from 14(.0 steam fields is more complicated than for d?' steam fields .because the steam must be separated from the water before it can drive a turbine.. In addition, thewater is usually a highly corrosive brine (very salty:water) which must be safely discharged- or

reinjected into- the earth. There are only a few fields currently producing electricty froM wet

stearn,.none in the United States. There are some wells that produce hot water with no steam. Only

limited use has been made .of these resources.

The third, and probably the most abundant, geothermal resource is hot dry rock that has not

come into contact with underground water systems. Energy might be recovered from these areas by

pumping water into' a drilled shaft connected to the hot. rock and bringing it back to the surface as

hot water or steam. The first water pumped into the shaft would break up the rock, creating anetwork of cracks and fissures to act as "a reservoir. Extensive research remains before energy can be

extracted from hot dry rock.

The final type of geothermal resource, geopressurized zones, is probably the least understood.Such Zones have been -found during oil exploration-along-the Texas and -Lousiana-coasts.---They------contain highly porous sands saturated with high-temPerature, high-pressure brine or hot water. The"

energy potential of these areas is not limited to recovering their heat. The high pressures of thesewaters might make possible the use of hydraulic turbines, and dissolved methane in the water isanother potential energy source. The size and productivity of these reservoirs need to be determined

along with other information, on their pos§ible use

60

Geothermal energy systems, at least as- known today;_are not without their envilonrnentaleffects. Such'syStems afe usually located in remoteAreas, and, their enyironmental.effects are mostlyconfined o their immediate-locality. Mr pollution from hydrogen.sulfidcand ammonia in the hot --

water a st_noise 'from the steam venting procas are very real piohlerns._ In addition, pollution of. __

'surfice or ground waters Can result from the disPosal- of water After the heat has -been removed.d subsidence is another problem .--the withdrawal .of large quantities of water from beneath the

earth can cause Ali& surface_ to settle and craters or holes to form VloreMore research is needed tounderstand the impact of large7scale,use ofgeothennAl power.

Optimistic-predictions would liayeiess than one percent of the U.S.:tott electric generationcoming froni-teolfiermal sources by the year 2000..Although geothermal energy apparently cannot

overalL energy= needs,-it- can -b o cal ----im port ance-in- the--West-and -Southwest-anpossibly along the Gulf Coast, if the needed technology is developed.

SOLAR ENERGY

Solar radiation is the source of almost all energy on earth. The solar energy received by-thehevery_10_ dayS _equals _the _world's total known fossilluel-reserves.-The-average amount-of Solar--

energy - falling on an area 91-feet by .9-feet during one day would be roughly equivalent-to the amountof energy contained m one gallon of gasoline. The idea of harnessing this abundant, inexhaustibleenergy. supply is attractive indeed. But solar energy is variable- factors such as season of the year,cloud cover, and geographic location can affect the amount of solar energy receive_ d. Solar energSP isalso a diffuse form of energy, necessitating a system for collecting and utilizing.it:

There are two basic ways to utilize solar' energy: -using ft directly for solar heating anccooling, and converting it into electricity.

Solar energy( for space heating (heating of =buildings) and ater heating is feasible irCsomearts of the country. Solar space heating systems can be c assi d as either active or passive. In an

active system, 'solar energy is received by solar collectors, u ually on the sloping roof of the bUildingfacing the sun. The 'flat plate .solar collector is the ost common. It is a large air-tight boxcovered with one or more layers of glass or plastic. ergy passes through these layers and isabsorbed by a metal absorber Plate. Heat energy is then transferred from this plate to water (or air)being circulated through the collector, and is thus carried off for immediate use .in the heating

- system or for storage. Water can be heated to between 150 and 180 degrees. Fahrenheit in such asystem. Several refinements improve the efficiency of the collector systein. More than one layer ofgla.si or plastic over the collector permits sunlight to eneter but helps to keep the heat fromescaping. The metal absor r plate is painted black or specially coated sb that it absorbs themaximum energy: A layer o insulation between the absorber and the roof helps prevent heat loss.

-In a solar heating system; heat ,storage system is necessary to provide for nights and cloudydays. Water in an. insulated tank is most often used for storing the heat, although crushed rocks orpebbles are sometimes used. When heat is needed, it is ,delivered to the house through a,conventional hot air or hot-water circulating system.

In contrast to these mechanized systems to collect, store, and release heat, passive solarheating system's release heat from materials that are integral parts of the building itself. Such passiveuse of the sun's energy is of course not a new idea. Research has shown that the structure of Indianpuebloes in the southwestern portions of the United States was carefully designed to use solar-energy and other climatic elements of-the region. A study. of the -Ocoma tribe's pueblo, located

61

near__-Albuquerqiie, New Mexico ,- _showed- that the construction of:buildings was planned 'to-maximiiethe-entry of_ surFin the winter and -minimize it in the -summer. Furthermore-, the =thick

adobe lvallsystored heat for relbaSe on cold nights.

Passive-solar design is typified by-large areal of south facisuch as thick concrete walls or floors, and energy_conservirlsysterdOend. to Cost less than active: solar _sySterns for

and-,-. in some cases, cost-is no more than converitiminimum likelificiotrof Operational malfunctions.

g glass, massive structural elementsnsulation techniques. PAssive- solar

total energy delivered-to the 7g-d:buildinesign,,There is also a

Hot water for household use can also' be- provided by solar energy. In fact, companies_ arketing,solariwater_heaters_did_a_good_businessin__Califon-iia_andzFloridafor incny_years-belOre_low-cost natural gas- came on the scene. TheWater is heate'd by being. piped through_ a sblarcollectori and then is stored -in. a tank. Solar water heating can be used by itself or in conjunctionwith a solar.spice heating System. -

Solari energy can also provide cooling. 1ie solar heat is used to evaporate a refrigerant-in a. closed =chamber causing some cooling. The emorating refrigerant is Picked: up, by An absorber

solution which promotes faster-- evaporation, ;which in turn Promotes* caaling.'As- the absorberpicks up the refirgerant, it rejeCts heat to the outdoors. Thus indoor heat is absorbed and radiatedOutdoors; cooling the house. Sol& cooling ,units of this type require temperatures of-,200. degrees ..`=Fahrenheit, higher than can generally' be produced by current flat plate collectora:-Thus som-e dof concentrator is required.

The combination of a heat pump _and a solar systemis also being explored. A heat pufnp is adevice which moves energy from one place to another. It-is reversible, so it can pump heat into abuilding-inn-the-winter-and-oUt-of-a-budding-in-the-summer:-.--Thus-solar-collectors-can_warmater.

:which can be_drawn out with -a heat pump. _

_.

At firs_ ance,, the' widespread use of solar energy for heating and cooling looks extremelyattractivethe "fuel" is free, non-polluting, and available-to all. But of course this_ rosy view must beteetered with realism.

-First, of all, the cost-of a solar heating ands cooling-system is initially much higher than that ofa conventional system. This cost differential will undoubtedly_ decrease, as mass productiontechniques are already bringing down .the rice of solar 'components. In most areas of the country,solar collectors:cannot yet economically provide all the heat- required for a building, so a solarsystem must be backed up by a conventional heating system. Furthermore, current storage systemscannot store enough heat for more than a day or two, so a back-up system must be called upon forlong periods of cloudy days. TILLS causes a serious problem for utilities if this backup heat is electric,as it -often °is. Utilities must provide enough,generating capacity for everyone at these times of peakuse, but the expensive generating equipment would be idle, or inefficiently used at other times.

In addition to its use in heating and cooling, solar energy can also be converted intoectrieity.-Therearetwo-basic-ways-in..-which--this-can-be-doneby-using the-sun's heacto_generate__ctricity and by using solar -ells to generate electricity directly from sunlight.

The process for generating electricity from the sun's heat is called solar thermal conversion.Solar heat is used to make steam or to heat air, which is then used to turn a turbine to generate

62

pie of solar thermal ,...syStein called the- central receiver. stem. In th-sYstent_.soirieames cIled a "poweetbWer," a:field- of mirrors called heilibstntsfare aimed to reflect the sun's _

lays to-a receiver mounted ori.topotaJoiver!tThe solar energy is absorbed by-water or some otherfluid, in the receiver and generates steam to "turn a turbine. One suc exptrimental plant underconstruction will concentrate the sunlight by a_ field. of morehan 1500:he stats. These heliostats

-will be miilti$aceted glass mirrors each-about-45 scnifirefe etin- area. Their angle will be individuallyconiputer controlled to continuously-direct the sun's energy onto theeentral receiver. The,recciverwill be a cylindrical collection tubes inconted_bn a 283-fobt tifiWer.:-The-.plant,willieneratel 0megawatts of electricity bysteanitiirbines. =

The- focusing of a whole field ofmirrors on one receiver produces a large concentration of'-'_----=erier&zup-to--100Crti-rffe-rar-grearas-tliflicirrnarSfirilight.,Tlius'the7St-eam- temperatures should be

high, which allows for'efficient generation of electricity.-

In contrast to the central receiver system is the distributed system of thermal conversion.,In,this type Of system, the solar energy :falling on a field. of collectors is converted to heat at_ thecollector: The heat is then-conducted_ to a central location where it is used to provide steam to

=generate electricity:-The-major--advantage-of-the-distributed-collector -system =i that it-can=pro-ducb ----some energy from indirect light, while the central receiver works only in full sunlight:. But theresulting temperatures are significantly lower than with the central receiver system and are thus lessefficient for power production. =

_

Generating electricity directly frbm the sun depends on the photovoltaic effict, which is theprocess that occurs when light hitt certain sensitive Materials and creates_ a flow of electrons., Thiseffect, is used to -generate electricitY through the use of solar cells. Solar cells are clean, safesandhave no movingipazts. All that they need to generate electricity is a supply of sunlight,

Solar phritovoltaic cells are .;often made -from- silicon:- Silicon itself is abundant andinexpenSive, but its crafting into solar cells is so exacting that it requires Much careful handwork byhighly skilled technicians, making solar cells expensive. The manufacturing of solar cells also useslarge amounts of energy

In the future, solar cells may generate electricity in central power plants or for individualbuildings. They may' also be used in conjunction with solar heating and cooling systems:

A-proposal-fiut-forward-hy-Peter Glaser D f-ArthurPower Station: A satellite would be built with two wing-like panels of solar cells, each about 3 miles-on a side. The satellite would be in a synchronous orbit-that' is it would be fixed above the samespot on the earth, about 22,000 miles above the surface. Since it would always be-in the sunlight, itwould receive much more solar energy than any earth-based panels. The electricity produced bythe sOlar delfs-viould be 'converted to microwave radiatIon and beamed to earth where it would be-,

A typical solar cell is 2 centimeters by 2 Centimeters in area. Its power output is very small,sci that many- cells must be connected electrically to get -a significant amount of electricity. Forexample,40.cells.provide enough electricity to charge a 12-volt automobile battery. Many Sizes andshapes of solar cell modules are available 'from over a dozen different companies now manufacturingsolar.electric products. They are finding a wide variety of applications vvhere power requirementsare reasonably 'malt --For exaMple, they--power Coast Guard buoys Long Island Sound, andbackpack-mounted two-way radios used by the Fortst Service. Solar cells are the rnajor source ofpower in space vehicles.

63

--...collected y-a- 36 !square Mile- antenna- anobviously-far inTthefirtute.-

reconverted -to elk

Economic factors remain a serious barrier to the widespread 41se of Solar cells. ElectncitysolarEcells' cost 15 to-20 -Ernie§ dsnilich-as that producedfroWn-uclear orfassil_generation:it is -

hoped -that mass production techn ties and improved technology will -reduCethis cost.an,

There are several pro lems common- to -both:types of solar;electrical systems. One,.is the

universal bane --of solar energy-the sun does not alWays-shine,= and good economical_ lorig-terrn_ .

energy Starage -sYsterns are -not currently available. Another- factOr to'be considerediS.that not allareas of the_cotintrY-.receive the same._ardount6f solar- radiation.-The-iontlifivesternportions of.the

.S. receive the most; ire the MidWest and Southeast, the direct solar radiation received is abont onehalf the.Values of the _Southwest, while in the Northeast -and Northwest it ii-abOut one-third Thussolar electric plants, and particularly thermalcoaversion plants which depend on direct sunlight, canmost-4ononneally be used in the Southwest.. But a concentration.of such pl irts4n the Southwest,With transmission of electricity .to other areas, would -prise two major bleins: there is anmadequate amount__ of cooling water available there for'suCh plants and.sti a concentration ofplants in -one area would make-for an unreliable power supply.

A tremendous amount of land area would be required _for- widespread solar viectric-generation. It is estimated that a 1000 megawatt ,solar electric ,plant_operating in the -Southwestwould require an area o 0 to 20 square miles.

The energy costs in building and operating solar_ plants must be considered The eneriyrequirements for solar thermal power plants are primarily for the helioitats, which areade fromsteel,_aluminum,_._copper,_and_plastics. _Studies_have_shown that -such a . plant -ink the:Southwestwill "pay back" its energy requirement in less than 5-years of operation-that is it WillIak:e 5 years ,

to generate as much energy as was required to,build the 'plant. (Similar studies for fossil and nuclearpower plants shoWed energy p.aybacks of 2 to 3 years.) Five years appears to, be an acceptable?.payback, period, but if the same plant were built in another area of the country, the payback periodmight be exCessively long.

-Very large amounts of energy are required to process the silicon crystals fOr use inphotovoltaic cells. Thus the payback period for such a systern ould also be long.

fa5

Solar energy needs to- be looked at as a total system, from raining of materialproduction, in order to be wisely evaluated.

Just how much of the nation's energy requirements will be met by solar energy and how:soonthis will happen, is open to different opinions. Many wefts believe that a 10 to 20 percpnt

-contribution to total energy needs by the year 2000 "would be a trernendou'S accom-plishment."

WIND POWER

The windmill is one- of the earliest machines, with its origins thought to be in ersiaarrathe 7th century. Windmills were first used to pump water for irrigation.

In the nited States, wind power was a major source of electricity, particularly in rural areas,until 1930, whe Rural Electrical Administration began to make centrally-generated electricalpower available to fa-nns. by 1950, small-Scale windmillkwere rare.

64

Wind power is really a form of solar power, since wind is caused by alternate heating andcooling as solar radiation reaches the earth,

A windmill is basically a shaft containing a number of blades designed to turn in the wind.This provides energy which can be used to turn a mill, pump water)Dr turn a generator to produceelectricity. The power output of a wind machine depends on wind speed and on the length of themachine blades. Thus a wind machine needs to have blades that are as long as practical, and alsoneeds to be as tall as practical since wind speed and constancy generally increase with height.

Near Sandusky, Ohio, NASA I s h with d wind genciup to 100 kilowatts with an I 8-mjih wind It has two 6 2 5 loot long blades,feet, and it is on a 125 loot tower.

prOdtlucdiameter of 125

The major disadvantage of wind power. in i A 3,111.A3, ,11,16., 3h/146, ,t6111, Ia

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suitable sites and the large investments required to build the plants, does not appear that tidalpower will make a significant contribution to the total energy supply.

ID Great Britain, studies are being done on extracting energy from ocean waves. This wouldbe done by using strings of specially-shaped vanes which would be turned by the waves to generateelectricity. It is not yet known whether the project will be successful.

The third method for getting energy from the ocean is called ocean thermal energyconversion (OTEC). Enormous quantities of solar energy are collected and stored in the oceans. AnOTEC power plant would utilize the energy that can be made to-flow between the sun-warmedsurface of tropical and subtropical oceans and the colder deep water. A fluid such as ammonia orpropane that vaporizes at relatively low temperature can be vaporized by the warm surface waterThe pressurized vapor would then turn a turbine, and the cycle would be completed by using thecooler deep water to condense the gas back to a liquid_

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sunflowers, water hyacinths, and giant sea kelp. Such fuels would either be burned directly orconverted to liquid or.gaseous fuels.

nergy farms would have to compete with agriculture for land area and water resources. Asthe world's need for food increases, this could be a serious consideration.

Another biomass possibility is recovering energy from forestry, agricultural, and animalresidues, For example, the residue from the sugarcane industry the plant mater remaining afterthe sugar has been extractedis often burned to provide energy for the sugar mill. Similarly, theforest products industry often uses then residue to fuel lumber plants.

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The widespread use of fuel cells is dependent on a number of developments to reduce cost 01the equipment and to allow the use of a wider variety of fuels. Fuel cells now in use depend onnaphtha or natural gas, so their use is limited front a fuel supply standpoint. The cut fenny -availablefuel cells also require an expensive catalyst, such as platinum, for their operation 1 litis electricitygenerated front fuel cells is currently too expensive fur general use

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Since the plasma consists of particles with electrical charges, it can be contained within amagnetic field. In 1967 the Russians announced the development of the tokamak, a donut-shapedmachine in which the plasma was heated by running an electric current through it, and wascontained in a magnetic field. But high enough temperatures could not be achieved. In 1978Princeton University and the Department of Energy announced that the New Jersey laboratory hadachieved a record 60 million degree centigrade plasma temperature, well above the temperatureestimated to be needed. However, many complicated problems remain to be solved.

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IiSZI :llci5 Ifid.1 11,)ac 1..111111 ..1 fi .1 ,C ,z,.. t,, Al I .1

tla

t his

, 1 1

.it11IC 6C:61.11,111E ", I 1 k. tad ,.,1 =, s..l ill) ls, .1, AA , ,, k . .

.Alt III b III...Milt,' dt tit,_ ;11,i If l 410 11 v4111 1 sip L 1 .t..,,111 51.,11 1 11, 1

Sludgy A, it (,, k it, .,.L A1a/4A tiL, 5) Jus I 1/0

t.. I1 t.

ttk., 410 Iii, . tII. I I. A A / p ,111,11i. .!..1, Lit is Ak. A 11,5 A. tit .13 .t.I A.1111. ti .1

.1. L A t-A4 55111, 1,111eil1,c, .1 1 I L I 1,..1 p .. , !1,L 1 'AO

t It 13 ,e. Ii Ill. lr li Li. . did t,drS, ill, II 113.. A Atit 1 1)1 i1ik..1 11.141 1)155 11 tit,1., I Si.

the newer cars are more efficient. Savings of oil as well as several thousand fewer auto deaths eachyear have resulted from the 55 miles per hour speed limit. The use of mass transit systems has beengrowing gradually in recent years. Gasoline shortages and high gasoline prices will undoubtedly helpcontinue this trend.

The industrial sector is actually using less energy now than it was in 1973 fins reduction hascome about primarily through improved efficiency. Lower output during part of the period and ashift away from some energy intensive products also played a part, but energy savings have beenrealized by more careful energy management and by improving industrial processes.

line Method of 111(.116146i c,u16,1vallon 4;iic-I Lluis 111,11 6 ll.. 16, ofsteam) from d single fa..ility for two OE 1.Iare r.rucesses. P141113 c.41 L,e ,;(ni.Lrlik.l.cd which

will produce steam for electricity and make the spent steals available for anuiacturing processes.Increased fuel costs have and will continue to make this practice more attractive to industry, since itincreases efficiency and thus lowers costs, Cogeneration may reduce operating k,OStb of the facilitiesinvolved from 22 to 31 percent compared to the cost of fuel which would be requi.en tot separateoperation

...I, .11y and tin; 10,tug file t-ty d 0.1 tli

no, II.

16C.11C ,)ACg011 1=1)11C, 3 in4)4,1(14.e :,iCt141 ko, .1141 1.5 134:11

,cain i5 ,,c.1 jocriktiob.,

What we le .[11 to do is t, and think 4t, la out ,se of energy , 111 11. I liguaffuid Lo ,.se it .0 it It W,;14.:, 1111111.1C5 -Jonse.v,iimi x1111, 1s ioihcining ed, Is k nocas

HOME ENERGY AUDIT

This home energy audit will enable you to make a survey of your home and identify thoseconditions which are wasteful of energy, and thus wasteful of money. After identifying theseenergy-wasting conditions, you will be able to decide which ones you may wish to correct first,which ones have a lower priority, and which ones you can practically do nothing about.

to use the audit, answer each applicable qucAloit likcit ,4,Albult the latllis Sheet that lUllOWalu assign a conservation value of -5 to +5 to each item You will then be able to make d,:cisionsac..ording to the following scale .

to Z. cticigy v,,13Ling , 0,first prunItyI E., 1 t hticigy wastn,6 , 1 t, 11 1,1b1.

ILC1116

1.: I. 1 SdtiNtiA., 1,1)t4 to I-5 Energy

N condition which has 41.!Mk, or

I. ,. .+1.

A, I Al

V

a

A

A

Cinde. 1.1, .

A luau.

NV04.10

1 the1 1511 1.1.31t/1

NiCklii id le1;14

!)al l\ UlullidL fiC 01431 f

I cal

Dad.. ,.olknektylIul 1.

Idle 1101.4,

PartiallyII

III a,

ULA10. vc.

t)CliC

B. Inside your Home

6. What daytime temperature do you maintain in your home during the winter?

a. 5 5 -5 8

b. 59-62c. 6365d. 66 68

69-7273 7576 77Ovci /

Wiwi night tina 55-58b 59-62

636566-686,9 7273 / 5

8 7b 77h (A L :1

W, wda )I"4 co. c.

b MoreWiLit141 (Lc ot 1 410.11II.L

1 Jul).1 kilt ON

Ii .1 !.o ,.a IS al,bl 1,11c,

b 67 6609 /0

d 71 77/ 3 /4/)// /8/

I

I I. How many of your windows have storm windows or more than one layer of glass(e.g. "Themnopane")?a. Noneb Less than halfc. Halfd More than halt

AllI 2 Hum, many of yum c.;)..teriOf 41,04 an, uguipp,t1 ak..Wilf

Noncthat, boil

HalfMore that, 11411All

I 3 II , ,ta 1,

n, vent IJa- Laicag,;?NOIIC

C5S .1!LitM011 1...1,

AllIl 1411,

NonI c)s 11,..11 171111

HaltMort 411,41, 1.1,All

o i%Lgitiati

Novsearly 4.1

Illi 'ill. I [hi; S, 11 .

1\1,1i4

I C..43

halt

,1

All

a

a

20_ Is your attic equipped with windows or vents that provide air circulation?a. Yesb. No

21. Is your attic equipped with an exhaust fan?a. Yesb. No

2 How much insulation n the tlooi of you' attic.a. None

1-2 inches3-4 inches5 0 inches7-8 inches

f. 9 10 inches6 11 12 inchesh (net I 2 inch..:.W 1..At JOON 010 5tIltd, %.,1 11.. 1. .1 I 1 1.1

None picscutUnknown1 oose paribles

d BlankvAs or Battst) u have a baseslIC

N.,Ramat u11

,f IrdSk.

N(,titCaa 1, alf

11,3,1

About Ulmi) all

N1/4 part o,allot)

.1.21

11.IfIl.tiAll

1,

No

,1

Rating Sheet: Home Energy Audit

I. N or al responses. 10. -5 18. a +5-3 b -5

a. +3 -2b. 0 19 1

c. -3 0 t-2st2

-r3 t3 ZU I

0 h 53 '5

,L I I)4 d

b 4-1

11 d

h

5

r3 2

3'5 3

1

42

3

02 4 \ .

6

S 1 1

C S

U 53

2

3

1

6 3

4

3

2

3

3

Explanation of the Audit Questions

Exterior Construction

This is an example of a difference which will affect your total energy use, but about whichyou can economically do little or nothing in an existing home. Stone, cinder block; and brick,contrary to comm.on belief, are not good insulators. The usefulness of any material as aninsulator is described by its R-value, which is a numerical index of its resistance to heatpassing through it The greater the R -value of a material, the greater its thcnnal insulatingcapability. The 14.-vahic,of some common h materials arc.

4-inti stone 0 15U

8 inch concrete block.4-inch brick: .81)

Wood. 94

4-0111....1.1./1 Of ilCaL

it,, battlii8, 3 71 I 1,t ,

(which COrTi;,s in LOW thIcl I,Css) miAs the

d3 4 j3 111,,114:3 11 3L011C 01 bit b So4 II1. he . f fibc.161,..Nb in you' wail, will pLix lac Li._

same insulating capacity as 18 inches of stone b,,,II IesL tacts iiiiit,1

. axdoly r.

11 k)is,4

0 Hi

2,4 1)1

, I, 1 114 L ".11,4 III,

Heating System Maintenance

Heating systems should be cleaned and serviced annually to avoid costly bicandowi15 andmaintain efficiency.

9. 10 inside Icinperattlie 111 SUI11II1L1

tsces.sivcly 44. 1 3511111115;i 1Lit515,-,8541111- tilL; 5,k,311) (b0115 555 ,,,,563 555,,55,

maintain

Storm

All 150

in ,tuttgil :tiolgy y 54, .

1.51

of ilic ex cc, i 11 A ill., I in 1).K55, 11.15

5.. 1.,

1 111 555111), ilIC.1b

/ 5 1.1 51 t1.14 1 11, 45 1'.51 51. / I 11 11110

L:s Wilt i Wdlh ,ons.iz I, 6 i3AAV.111 'I ./..1. ,..... 511 111.1115=1/.1 11 511151 ,n -011,1 111551E 1 111 111 5 allK ,..0155c A at lcd.t I ) Ltoial d01,5,5 r,11 .41611551,..5511,s 11I./L.1 . 11 K val AL 5.51 It) ,I, 1v1.115;

closing out chilling drafts wish mi, ht *.titer around the door 1 11erg.' ..avhrbs Irmo thetnstallar,on ..1 stool' .1s.o4.5 ,, ill cV. Lau ill }5,5)5 1,51 tn., ,i 555

I .1.

p,.e (:id of L.. Al., 1 Ito .

dv4i .44 144,.1..c ... LI

55 1 V1 555.1

51,

.15 out,'

.55 it.. , I.

5

1A, 555 511

III1,111)' 1

PLA1113 .1 ,411.51,55V11 15

1,14..1.514551 Al LIS k, 15111.15

1g1a111. 1111511.1 16,511 al., . Al

111, 5115;01 , 11

5 1 11 1 pi .1 ' //A.

.5 11

lit 1 11 3 :151 5'11 5=11 1,

41 1

ALL

17. Shade

Shading, obviously, will keep your home cook, 111 LItc 51111111101 llees will also serve as wind 4

breaks in winter,

IS. A or Crawl Space

All uticdtcd dIth, 41.4.1.3 al.. ...Lade 1 Ilciebe 41. l6413.. A 1.11Ctle'S 1101,11dil41 di,ovc y 1111 ,ciling

Attic 10 urlt

Pc1.11.1111%.,111 11.1)/1116 111 .4,. ...J...Ai_ _S .11111 Al .11, 1.....1 .1., 01 LO1

determine if insulailui, exi..ts mule"- die floor In suchinsulated iiistcad

1 lal. 111A1

ligtiLcus (Lc 14)&1 ul, yuI

11.

ling 1,G. t. II a 111a :411+1. 114A' t1.1

N,11 A , . 1 ...411,

the tic hi it,IE 1d, i

lik 11 .,1 , .1

A 4A

11 I. 1 i

tk 111cas. -,11 ,li 1 I"

1.1 11144i11i 0 1 , , 111 . 1 .11 I 1, , 1

1

_ r1 I

rawl Space Ventilation

'CraWilapaces,stiould- be adequately ventilated, allowing; the fre6 pistage- of outsideairwill alio help to remove -moisture.

0.- Fireplaces

.

'The modern, home fireplace in operation =may produce an overall heat loss to the home.Heated room air may escape up the; u faster rate than hy from the fireplace'.enters the room. Several heat pipe'devices are available to,increase firep e efficiency..In any.case, glass fireplace doors and a closable flue will Delp eliffiinate excessive heat loss. ', .

.

Ire Pennsylvania:

Carridgielviellon Institute4400 Fobres AvenuePittsburgh, PA 15213

WRITE FOR MORE INFORMATION

'Coal Mining Institute of eric416 Ash StreetCalifornia, PA 15419

Energy Conservation Research-9 Birch Road,Malvern, PA 19335

The Franklin. Institute20th Street and Benjamin Franklin ParkwayPhilidelPhia, PA .19103

The_Governor's.Energy CouncState Street Building6th FloatHarrisburg, PA 17120

Gulf Oil CorporationGUlf:BuildingPittsburgh,- pA -15730

K6ystont Bituminous Coal Association'660---Boas- Street-Haryisburg, PA" .17101

Pennsylvania Department of CommerceFourth Flobr - South Office BuildingHarrisburg, PA 17120

Pennsylvania Enviromnental Council225 SOuth 15th StreetPhiladelphia, PA 19102

Pennsylvania Gas AssociationState 'Street BuildingHarrisburg, PA 17101:

Pennsylvania Power and LiInformation CenterMr° North Ninth Street

entown,.PA 18101

Philadelphia Gas Works1518 Walnut StreetPhiladelphia, PA 19102

Solanco _ _

Bak 64Quarryville, PA 17566

r

Company

U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgenc., Region III

-Curtis Building6th add*alnut StreetsPhilallelPhid PA 19106

Pennsylvania Department ofEnvironmental kesources

Evangelical Press Building-3M and Rely StreetsHarrisburg, PA 17105

Pennsylvania Electric AssociationNorth Third street

_arrisburg, PA 17101

Philadelphia Electric Company2301 litarket StreetBo* 8699

PA 1,9103

ElseWhere in the U. S.

American Ent rise InstituteNatiOnal Ener Project1150 7th Street, N.W.Washington, D.C.- 20036

American Gas Association1515 'Wilson _BoulevardArlington, VA. 22209

American Nuclear Society244 East OgdentAvenueHinsdlae, IL 60521

erican Petroleum Institute01 K. Street, N.W.

Washington, D.C. '20006

Atomic Inthistrial Forum, Inc.475 Park Avenue South" =_New York, NY 10016

Center for Energy Information340- East 51st StreetNew York, NY 10022

Center for Environmental Education1621 Connecticut Avenne', N.W.Washington, D.C. 20009

Conservation Foundations1250 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.

Washington,_D.C._20036

Consumer Action Now317 Pennsylvania Avenue, S.E-.

f Washington, D.C. 20036

onsumer_Federation ofAmericaEnergy Polic54Task Force1012 14th Street, N.W.Suite 901 =rte

Washington, D.C. 20005

Council on Environmental Quality.721 Jackson Place, N.W.Wishington, D.C. 20006

.

Environmental Defense Fund1525 .1fith Street; N.W.

-Washington, D.C. 20036

Environmental Policy Center3:1`7 Pennsylvania Avenue, S.E.Washington, D.C. 20003

Environmental Protection Agency401 M Street, S.W.Washington, D.C. 20460

Exxon Corporation1251 Avenue of the AmericasNew York, NY 10020

Federal Energy Administration,12th and Pennsylvania Avenue,-N.W.Washington, D.C. 20461

Federal Power Commission825 North Capitol StreetWashington, D.C. ,Ford FoundationEnergy Policy ProjectBox 232 2Washin n, D.C. 20024

Friends of the Earth.620 C Street, S.C.Washington, D.C. 20003

cal Mass Enirgy Project _

B' x 1538Washington, D.C. 20013

Edison Electric Institute1140 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.Whington, D.C. 20036

Energy 80.Enterprise for Education10960 Wilshire BoulevardSuite 2134Los Angeles, CA 90024

Envl nmental Action Foundation, Inc.DTRont Circle BuildingRoom 720Washington, D.C. 20036

International Solar Energy Society12441 Parklin DriveRockville, MD 20852

League of Women Voters of he U.S.1730 M Street, N.W.WashingtonD,C: 20036

Mobil Oil Company150,East 42nd StreetNew York, NY 10017

National Academy of Science2101 Constitution Avenue, W.Washington, D.C. 20418-

National Association of Electric Companies1 f40 Connecticut Avenue, MIKWashington, D.C. 20036

National Audubon Society-950 -Third -Avenue

l':4101, York, NY. 10022

81

=

National Coal Association1130

ashington;DC. 20036

National-Petroleum Council1625 K Street, N.W.

-1 Washington, D.C. 20006

National Science Foundation1800 G Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20550

Natural Resources Defense Council917 15th Street, N.W. =

-Vishington, D.C. 20005

-Resources for the Future1755 MassachlielTrAvenue, N.W.Washin oncD.C. 20036

Solar Energyanstitute1001 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.Suite 632Washington, D.C. 0036

U. S. Department of Commerc-eWashington D 20230

U. S. Department Of EnergyWashington, D.C. 20434,

U: S. Department of the Interio18th and,C Streets, N. W.Washington, D.C. 20240

U. S. Department of the Interior .-Btireau of MinesWashington,= D.C. -20241

_U. S.-Department of Transportation200 7tli Street, S.W.Washington, D.C. 20590

U. S4House of ReptesentativesCommittee on Science and-Technology2321 Rayburn House Office BtiildingWashington, D.C. 20515

Senate Committee on Energyand Natural Resources

3106 Dirksen Senate Office BuildingWashington, D.C. 205-10.

Sierra ClubTower

220 Buch StreetSan FranciscO, CA 94104

Solar Action1028 Connecticut AvenueSuite 1100Washington, D.C. 20036

U.-S, Nttelear Regulatoiy_ComniisSionWashington, D.C. 20555

= FOR FURTHER STUDY-.

=

Alternative Sources of Energy, The Sedbury Press, 815 Second Ave., New_ York, NY 10017.

Cct der The Process of Living,. W. H. Eddy, Jr. et. al., Conservation Foundation, 1717-Massachusetts Ave., NW, W,Ishington, DC 20036,

Critical Mass: Alternative to Energy Famine, Jacque Srouji, Aurora Publishers, -Inc., 118Seventeenth Ave: South-, Nashville,TN 37203.

. Direct Use of the Sun's Energy, F:. Daniels, Ballantine Books, 201 East 50th St., New York, NY= -10022.

Economics of Ener E. Grayson, Darwin Press Inc Box 2202, PrincetOn, NJ 08540.

Energy, Ecology, Economy, Gerald Garvey; W. W. Norton & Co-Inc., 500 Fifth Ave., New York,NY 10036.

Energy for Survival! The Alternative to Extinction, W. Clark, Anchor Press', 245 Patic Ave., NewYork, NY 10017.

Energy from Coal, Tetra Tech, Inc, Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government PrintingOffice; Washington, DC 20402

Energy from Source to Use, Edited by Howard S. Stoker; Scot Foresman & Co., 11310 Geminine, Dallis, TX 75229.

The Energy aving Guidebook, George S: Springer, TeChnomic Publishing Co Inc., 265 Post. RoadWest, Westport, CT 06880. . -1

Energy: Use, Conservation, and Supply, AAAS. Publication Sales, Dept; Q, 1515 Massachuse ttsAve., NW, Washington, DC 20005.

Hidden Waste: Potentials for Energy Conservation, D. B. La rge,Conservation Foundation, 1717Massachusetts Ave. . I'M, Washington, DC 20036.'

The National Energy Act, Department of Energy, Office of Public Affairs, Washington, DC 20585.

The National Energy Plan, U.S. Department Of Energy, Technical Information Center, P.O. Box 62,Oak Ridge, TN 37830.

Nuclear Power: The Unvible Option, Johii Berger "Ramparts Tress Palo Alto, CA 9 0_

_Oil from Prospect to Pipeline; Robert R. Wheeler and Maurine Whited, Gulf Publishing Co. 3301Allen Parkway, Houston, TX 77001.

4

General Energy Topics

Challenge 5f thf:EutureDepartment eiT Energy Ft _Library, Technical- Info ation Center, P.:0. Box 62, Oak Ridge,-37830_

FREE FILM

We 'are :entering a new age when energy will be more expensive and less abiindant; This filmPurpose is to look at the problem and detail the options that face the nation.

EnergyAmerican Gas Association, 1515 Wilson Blvd , Arlington, VA 22209

This film traces, energy sources from the first primitive fires through the fossil fuel era to atomicenergy,' outlines problems, and proposes possible solutions. For environmental uses,,it is a goodhrought provoker.

Energy: The American ExperienceDepartment of Energy Film Library, Technical Information Center, P. 0. Box 62, Oak Ridge; TN_

This film's purpose is to show the development of different foams of energy under the uniquecoriditibris- of -the -American-experience:- e- see -the sixty-year-changinrcycles-of energy:sources--from wood to coal to oil and gas.

-37830

World Behind your Light SwttchU. Department of Energy; Bonneville Power Ad97208

This film tells_in a general wad! the_story_of_how_electricity is produced, transmitteddistributed.

Ecology

No Turning BackDeputment of Energy Film Library, Technical InfOrmation Center, P. 0. Box 621Oak Ridged TN37830

This film visits some of the technicians involved in government' studies at laboratories and sitesacross the country, such as arid land ecology, a tropical forest study, river ecosystems, ,industrialimpact on natural waterways, and pollution patterns in layers of atmosphere.

Economics

Don't cut Us OffDepartment of Energy Fi37830.

-'

ibrary, Technical Information Center, P.O.. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN

This film documents the activities of four communities to solve a common national problem-,- e13i h'cost Of energy as it affect§ the poor and elderly across the *country. A

Energy, Economics, Environment -,--._ _Modern TaLking Picture Service, Inc., 2323 4ew Hyde Park , Road, New Hyde Park, NY 11040

This film shows the interrelationship among energy, economics, and-the environment. The problemsare shared andsolutions must come from Mutual endeavcirs. -

Coal

-Coal Connection" .

Utah Power and Light Co., 1407.West North Temple St., Salt Lake City, UT 841 01

This film documents electrical generation methpds.with emphasis on coal as a_primary fuel. It shoWshow generated heals used to, produce steam to spin turbines-.=_

Coal-the Other Energy_Department of Energy_Film Libraryc _Technical 2Inf miation_Center, _Ridge,_-37830

This film feviews the technologies now available to permit coal. to be burned more cleanly andefficiently with concern for the environment where it is mined and used:

Energy vs.- Ecolgy-Modern Talking Picture Service, Inc., 2323 New Hyde Park Rd., New_Hyde _Park, NY 11040

Coal is the most abundant source of energy in this -country. Thi film-indiCates how we can utilizethis valuable source without disrupting our environment

Oil, Gas, and Hydroelectricity

Focus on EnergyAmerican Gas Association, 1515 Wilson Blvd.Arl- Von, VA 22209

-

This-film-reviews-our-dependence-on energy-with-an emphasis. on- natural gait describes-poisiblesolutions to the current .supply problem.

Offshore: The Search for Oil and GasModern Talking Picture Service, Inc., 2323 New Hyde Park Rd New Hyde Park,NY 1040'

Before the end of this century, more than half of the world's petroleum 5,ilpply will hve to comefrom the oceans. This film tells of the intensive, search and the painstaking effort to preserve theocean environment.

Reserved for TomorrowDepartment of Energy Film Libra

,.37830';h

This dm stows the sites in Louisiana and Texas where the United States will ore one billion .

barrels of crude oil in underground salt domes by 1985.0

Teehnical Information-Center, P.'p Box h2, -.Oak. Ridge, TN

WaterModern Talking Picture Service, Inc. 2323 New Hyde Park Rd., New .Hyde Park, NY 11040

This, film explores both the aesthetic and practical use of water. It.covers the hydroelectric cycle,-- -water; chemistry;-pollution;--irrifttion,---conservation;-and -industrial-and-domestic -use -of- water;-----

Nuclearrower_

Introducing Atoms and Nuclear EnergyDepartment of Energy Film -Library, Technical Information Center, P. O. Box 62,.0ak Ridge, TN37830 --

ilm intraducesitoinic structure and eipiains how energy is-released from a nucleus. It definesbasic terms and demonstrates uses of nuclear energy.

Now that the Dinosaurs are GoneAtomic InduStrial Forum, 7101 Wisconsin Ave., Washington, DC 20014

This filin -presents the story of nuclear energy as the next step in man's use of resources. In-non- technical language -it answers bisic questions often asked about nuclear ene

_ =

Nuclear Power and the Perry Environment'Corporation,-4 Research-PlaceT-Roc --20850

This film is a documentary of- environmental issues- regarding- nuclear planuclear plant siting.

.A Sea We Cannot See .

- Department of Energy Film Library, Technical Information Center, P. 0. Box 62, Oa_ k Ridge, TN37830 '. t

Almost everything in nature can be seen or feltwind, light, cold, texturethat is everything except -

adiation. This is the sea we cannot see.

emphasis is on

ergy Policy

EnergyA Family Album' Department of Energy Film Library, Technical Information Center P. 0. Box 62 Oak Ridge TN,

37830

A- brief history of energy in America is followed with some details of the nation's plan to keepahead of energy demands, alternative sources of fuel, geothermal, and solar power.

_

Energy Update..Department of Energy Film _Librai37830

Technical Information Center, P. 0:Box

With the President's -energy.message of April 19-, 1977, as a backdrop, the film describes a numberof situations in which people try to cope with energy problems and seek solutions now. The film-touches-on coal, soles, nuclear, and other energy sources.

Conservation

ConservationInvesting in TomorrowDepartment of Energy Film Library, Technical Information Center, P. 0..Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN37830

This film shows some of the ways we can save energy now: more efficient machines and industrial__processesimproving,the Aransmissionof electric_power,new _autos, making homes and buildings

energy efficient.

ohn Denver on Consavation _ _Department of Energy Film.,Library, Technical Information,Centei, P. O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN37830

..The internationally-known-singin tar-John-Denver appears in t is short film, shot entirely onlocation in Colorado and California. _The film showcases a portion of Mr. Denver's--"Red Rock". .

outdoor concert coupled- with a personal message from Denver on behalf of energy Conservation:

Running on Empty-The Fuel Economy Challenge _

Department of Energy Film Library, Technical Information Center, P. 0 Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN37830

Through citizen participation over a 90-mile road rally, the film illustrates various driving and fueleconomy techniqUes. It shows how average drivers, driving average 'cur, can practice ways toachieve maximinn savings in gasoline and money while traveling city streets, country roads, andmajor highways.

- - . .

. _ rLW -.

Up the Power CurveDepartment of Energy Film Library, Technical Information Center, P. 0. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN

Trz

) 37830

This film-shows the practicality,of energy conservation. It covers a wide range'.ot energy saving ideasand the dollar sayings to be achieved from each:

_ -

Alternative-Energy Sources

Coal-TTaking the Lumps OutDepartment of-Energy Film Libraiy, Technical Inforniation Center, P. O. Box 62, Oak37830

This film=shows-the-research thatis underway-to convert coal to- liquid, or gaseous fueprices,

Ocothertnal-Nature's BoilerDepartment of Energy Film Library, Technical Information Center, P. 0 BOx 62, oak Ridge, TN

e, TN

ordable

37830-

Natural heat energy stored in and under the earth's crust can be put to work just as the Geysers nowsupply half the electricity for San Francisco's needs. These resources may heat, cool, and Iiglhomes and factories across the country.

Here Comes the SunDepartment of Energy Film Library, Technical Information Center, P. 0v ox-62, Oak Ridge, TN37830

In this film solar systems are shown on the roofs and' on the ground working in four states.Collectors warm the air and water for swimming pools, dishwashers, and storage tanks.

Power from the EarthDepartinent of Energy Film Library, Technical Information Center, P. 0. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN

-37830

-We need new sources of electriarpoWer:liftl-iiS film, scientists, engineers-, and naiers explain thevarious problems of obtaining thermal energy from the earth.

-- Putting the Saiilto-= Department of Energy Filch Libiary,

37830

Three leading solar -experts explhome and industrial usage.

Struggle for PowerModern Talking Picture- Service, Inc., 'Catepillar =Film Library, 1687 Elmhurst Road, Elk Grove

nfomiation Center, P. 0. Box 62; Oak- Ridge, TN

he -current schemes for harnessing solar power. Emphasis-is on

Village, IL 60007

This_ film documents -what is being done to supplement dwindling fossil fuel supplies. It covers shale ='oil extraction and coal gaiifidation processes.

Tidal PowerDepa=rtment of Army, New England Division Corgis of Engineers, 42 4Trapelo Rbad, Waltham, MA02154

This film documents a study made by the U.S. and Canada on the etonomic feasibility of harnessingtidal pawer for electrical energy. It includes a tour of project sites.

To Bottle the SunDepartment of Energy_ Film Library37830

echnical Information Center, P. 0. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN

. 4.)The fusing of atoms releases large amounts of energy. In this short film,- two scientists explain thefusion process in the-attempt to generate electricity.

FREE BOOKLETS TO SEND) FOR

_ The following= are available in single copies or classroom quantities from the U.S. Department.of Energy, Technical Infonn ion Center, P.O. 61,0ik Ridge, TN 37830

_

nerg Energy Topics

Energy in Focus: Basic Data

Statistics on U.S. enemy production, Linpofts, ciansumption, and prices tliafreflecfenergy situationsover the past quarter centuiy.,Essential background for an understanding of the trends that have ledto the current status of energy.snpplies.

Energy History of the United States 177-1976'

3 x 4 foot Color chart and users man

Energy Technology-..

Describes the research needed to locate, recover, develop, store, and distribute varioussnergy formsin a clean, convenient, and econoinical way..

Oil and. Gas

Enhanced Recovery of 0 and Gas

Discusses the potential contributions of enhanced recovery to increasing-our energy supply andexplains some of the met ods, including the use of water, steam, chemicals, and combustion.

B -infornaationabout the use of-oil to prOvide power andthe developments in technology thatbe needed tdi.ise it more effectively.for the benefit of mankind.

this how oil is produced, trunspd

Nuclear Power

The First Reacto

Dramatic story of the first con _olled nuclear -chain reaction.

SJer Space: The;(<tructure of the Atom

story and preient-day knowledge of the princip s and conceptsof atomic structure.

Nuclear Energy

Tells how nuclear energy generates electricity.

Nuclear Power Plant Safety

Describes the three levels of safety incorporated into the design of actors.

uarding of Nuclear Materia

Describes the basic components of the nuclear system, including facility protection and inventorcontrol:-

g of Nuclear W es

Te s how radioactive wastes are packaged and transported, including. the safety precautionsemployed.

Energy Policy _

The National Energy flan. .

e_plan_submitted toi C ngress j_n.. pril for._energy agement _production, research; .

pricing, and conservation into the mid-1980's.

Conservation

Gas Mileage Guide for New Car Buyers

Lists the estimated fuel eC'oncirtiy potential of 1978. cars and light -duty -trucks and the enginecombustion designs that me-et emission standards of all states.

How to Save-Money by Instilating your Home

Clearly illustrated instructions for insulating home walls, windows, doors, and a les. -.

How to Understand your Utility

Popular, guide to reading electric and gas meters and checking, utility bills, so that householdersknow how- much energy they use and how effectively they conseve

Sixty-five Ways to.Save Natural Gas ,Offers money.saving methods to'save natural gas in homes.

Tips km Energy Severs

practical and simple ways to save energy. in the kitchen, workshop, garden, and car. Includesy-saving considerations when buying appliances and other household merchandise. (A Spanish

ariguage edition is also available.)

Tips for the Motorist: Don't Be Fuelish

Lists 30 ways tp make gasoline go furth r ranging from. tips on improving driving skills to carmaintenance checkpoints.

Alternative Energy Sources ,.

Fuel Cells: A New Kind of Power Plant

Explains how fuel cells produce electricity, and fea ures experimental demonstrations for utilities.

t.

a

from Biomass

ow- biomass Tiregetation, animal wastes, can be processed to proddce methane gas or fuel oil.

=Ftilion

Explains a pri9cess, similar to that by which the sunelectrical energy production.

Cicea* Thermal Energy Conversion

How the difference in temperature_ between waryused to generate power.

_ Solar.Electrici -from Photovoltaic-Conversion=

generates energy, that could b

surfaCe water and cooler water b

used for future

eath the sea is

_ .

Tells how solar cells, composed of silicon and sin] materials, are used to generate electricitydirectly from the sun's rays.

Solar Energy

--Basic in nnation-about the use solar energy. tci provideelectrical-power and the -develcipments intechnology that will be needed to ,use it more effectively for the benefit-of mankind.

Solar Energy for Heating and COoling

Describes how s.olar heating and ooling sysan alterptiVe energy source.

ms operate, and ells hctir solar ener, can be used as

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OTHEW FREE MATERIALS FOR TEACHERS

From American Petroleum Institute,Ene 7 A Guide- -to Information Besot

K Street NW,-- Washington,- DC 20006 Looking for

From National Coal-, Association, Coal Building,- 120036.. A bibliogriphy, of publications on

30 Seventeenth St, NW Washington, = DC

A

From National -Science Teachers Association, 1-742, COnnecticut Ave., Washington, DC20009. Ehergy andEdueation, ahi-monthly newsletter, gives information on educational materials:workshops, and up-to-date Topics related to energy and education.

tom_ Sea Grant Communications -- Office, 1800 University Ave., Madison-, _5706._ TheHouk-hold Energy' Game, agam nce_e designed to experiehudgeting energy in 'the home,

, .

--,.From Standard Oil Company, Public Affairs, MC 3705, P:0. Box-5910-A,'-Chicago, IL 60680.

noco Teaching Aids, describes films, low-cost teacher aids, and free teacher materials.

From Mr. David 0. Schantz Charles Edison Fund, r101 South_,HarriSon St ast Orange, NJ 07018.

Teacher's-Aid-Kitzcontains-10-booklets,-mainly_ 'experiments arid projects elatirig tovarioui aspects =

of energy. .., --._ .

of the following are available from U.S. Department Energy, TechnicalInfo- ation Center,P. O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN 37830,

Award Winning Energy_ Education Actiyities: for Elementary and High School Teachers. Containsbrief descriptions of prizewinning entries in the:National Science. Teachers Association Teacher.ParticipatiOn Cdntest conducted m 1976. The contest sought ideas that would fit easily- intostandard- .(science and noracience) courses of study at various grade levels to .further .student -understanding-of important energy issues.

Energy Conservation in the. Home: An Energy Education/Conservation Curriculum Guide for.Home Economics Teachers. This resource book will help home economics students'eonserve energyin their homes and lives.

-=

Energy ilistory. of the United- States. Charts the growth of Amercia'n energy use and traces thehistory of the major sources of energy (coal, Wood,: and oil) in the United States.

. .

How a Bill Becomes Law to Conserve Energy. 'Study Units include "Case Study ora Bill," which''describes how the 55 mph national speed limit became a law_ and take& the student through thelawmaking process; and "A Co_ ngressional Hearing," in which students play typical roles: at a hearingon a--national speed limit bill in a simulation. game: (See also U.S. Energy Policy-Whichbirection?)

Mathematics in Energy. This packet is desigheito infuse energy concepts Into junior high mathclaises. The unit deals, with -a wide_ range of :energy math including conversions, statistics, and themanipulation of energy units,.

.Organizing School 'Energy Contests. Outlines: proce tires for tonducting khool and community

-- energy-projects-- frpm -the --planning -state. to -issuing-publitity -and presenting awards:-for-Winningentries. , -I--

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U.S. Energy PolicyWhich > irection? This unit, which is a-dornpanion to How a Bill. Becomes Lawto Conserve' Energy; concentrates on the Executive Branch cif the Government and the vnriousforces that go into making energy policy.

iFact-Sheets on alternative Energy Sources, a- series of 19 fact sheets-on various_alternative energysources.,

Energy Films Catalo desctibes.more than 190, motion pictures that a

Acid Precipitation

Alpha Radiation

Anthracite

GLOSSAR

-Acidic rainfall caused by the oxides of nitrogen ox sulfurpresent in the atmosphere' as pollutants being-removed byrainfall.

A flow of .positively charged particlei . (alpha particles)emitted by ,certain radioactive materials. Identical with thenucleus of a helium atOrn.

"Hard" coal, which contains the highest= carbon content.It is easy= to handle, barns cleanly, and contains little sulfur.

Barrel

eta Radiation

'amass

Bituminous

kliqUid measure. A barrel-of of contains 42 gallons. r=

An elementary particle emitted from the nucleus of an atomin one type cif radioactive decay. Identical to the electron.

ii'n2 Water Reactor

Breeder Reacto

BTU

ant-rnaterial inany form usable +for fuel:

"Soft" coat The coal stage between lignite and anthracite.Has an energy content 25% lower than anthracite, Oftenhas a h sulfur content.

A nuclear- reactor in which water, used as both coolant andmoderator, is allowed to boil in the core: The resulting steamcan be, used directly -to drive a turbine.

calorie

Cartel

94

A'special type of nuclear reactor iii vhich: the_ core sur-rounded by a blanket of fertile material (uranium - 238Or thorium 233). The fertile blanket captures rieuironsand decays- into fissile fuel material-. Breeder i_ ektors couldextend our nuclea fUel supplies'indefinitely.

The amount of heat required to raise, the temperature of Onepound of water one degree Fahrenheit. (British ThertnaUnit)

Four BTU's equals about 1 -calorie.

The heat required to e the temperature of am of waterone degree Celsius. The lie (note upper case C) is calledthe kilocalorie and is equ 000 calories.

One Calorie is about 4 BTU.

A worldwide monoply.

=

emical Energy

Coal Gasification

Cogeneration.:

Combustion

The; ene eastd i_ n chemical reactions due to the positionof electrons.

Carbdriifemus remains of dead plant material. _.Coal- is'AmeriCa's most abundant, domeStic fossil fuel reso rce.The basie' composition of coal is carbon, hydrogen; Oxygen,nitrogen and sulfur.

nThe_production of a gaseous fuel fro coal.-

The double use of high energy steam. The steam is used to. produce electricity, then- the lower energy steam is used for

The rapid oxidation (burning)_of fuel or any other burnablesubstance,

,

A substance Circulated through a nuclear reactor to removeor transfer heat, some_collants-are water, heavy=water,and-=air.-_

keinoval of governmental controls of prices.Decontrol =

Electromagnetic Ene

A heavy-: isotope of hydrogen in which the nucleus _Consistsof a-proton and a neutron, giving it- an atomic weight of 2. *-

The productiOn of electromognetic waves which radiate froma source thevelocity of light. Produced by electricallycharged = particles moving in magnetic fields:

Electron

Energy.

Fertile Materia

Fission

An elementary subatomic particle with a unit negativecharge and a mass of 111837 that of the proton. Electronssurround the positively charged nucleus and determine thechemical Properties of the atom.

The ability to do work (the 'movement of maone point to another).

A material, not itself fissionable by thermal neutrons, whichcart be converted into a fissionable ma_ terial by irradiation.

reactor. T twohere are tw basic fertile materials, uranium238 and throium 232, which can be converted into plutoni-um - 239 and uranium 233, respectively.

Tho splitting of a, large atomic nucleus into two or moresmaller nuclei. Large amounts of energy are released in this

- process.

Fluidized lied Combusion

. Fuel Cell

Fusion

Gamma Ray

A Method of burning coal with e low release of sulfur.Particles-of coal and limestoneae-fsuspended in a stream ,,ofair directed ,up-Ward through a very hot _bed -of= ash andlimestone. AS- the coal burns the sulfur in the coal combineswith the calcium in the limestone. The calcium sulfide isremoved with the ash.

Any fuel derived froth -the remains of once living o_Examples-are coal, oil and--natural gas.

A device in which chemical energy is converted directlyinto electrical energy without the, combustion step necessary

in the stearruenerator

oled Reactor

The formation of a. heavier =nucleus from two lighter nuclei,with the attendant release of energy.

Higi energy, short wave electromagnetic radiation originatingin the nucleus. Similar to x-rays.

A nuclear reactor which uses a gas (possibly air) remove

excess heat.

asohol Gasoline with up to 20% ethyl or methy -alcohol as an ex-

tender.

A petroleum component used extensively as a motor fuel.

The use of the earth's interior heat in volcanic regions or,/ near geologic raults to produce steam, for electricity.,

form of potential energy due to position.

The retention of the sun's heat by the water vapor and

carillon dioxide of the earth's atmosphere.

Geothermal Power_

'Gravitational Energy

Greenhoijse Effect

Heat Energy

Hydroelectrici y

The energy of the motion of molecules:`

Electricity produced by allowing stored wafer to fall, turningturbines. High head hydro- consists of allowing a smallamount of water to fall a great distance; in low-head hydroa large volume of water is made to fall for a short distance.

Ionization The process of removing or adding electrons to atoms ormolecules, thereby producing charged (ionized) particles.

Ionizing_ Radiation

96

Any radiation capable of displacing electrons from atomsor molecules. Examples: alpha, beta, gamma radiation,ultraviolet light. May produce severe skin or tissue damage.

petroleum component- ,u4e, ' Keroifrie

-

ne hou

_ reactOr whiA-uSesand moderator.-:

_gular e s- 0 a

etohydrodynamics

axinnimliemiissibieExposure

A method_ of eitraci(ing electricity- .

._-,That dose of ionizing 'radiation .istablished-_,kat amour)below, which no, reasonable of risk t humanhealth occurs. Presently_-5:_-_RE, p'er_, ear.

'The lifitirrie do.- = (N

e a= not a

WhireN.= agekinle

-` r

Mechanical Ener

Megawatt .,

ethane .

Millirem

Moderator

The .fonas:of e=, .-

1,000 watts

gy acquired or released-by :Inc)

. .

A-=natural-gas -prodifeed- by-the-decay'oMay_be used asi_fuel.

11.000 of a REM.

Monoply

Neutron

Nuclear Energy

A material- such=as ordinary -water; hea er-orkraphite,used in a reactor' to slow down high speed neutrons, this -increasing thOtkellhood of further fissioP.

The sole seller of arifr good or comthOditY_.

An unchanged neutral subatomic particle with agreater than that of the proton..

tThe energy released in nuclear leafusion.

Ocean Thermal Power Also: called Ocean Thermal Energy ConVersion (OTEC).A device designed to use temperature_ _differences . at thesurface and depths of the ocean to produce electricity. Mostefficientin the tropics.

=

e:separatiOn of crude oil into itsyarioUs_ eomporients by,fractional distillatjone' Some:. comPonents are rgasoline,kerosine, fuel oil, light oils and heavy-Oils:,

_

A finely textured rack ._which-contains,.a tarlike:substandecalled kerogen::=The kern en can be driven off by teating,-,,and. then refined into petroleurri fuelS grid ,othet products:-

,

/Acroriyrn for , the Organization' of Petroleum :Expbriing'Countries, an intemation cartel which controls most 'ofthe World's oil.

_Essentially_arLaccumulation of dead Plants -in _ early 2

,_ stages of decomposition. Peat is- usually- formed in swampsand- bogs .where the dead vegetation- is -covered with "water,

_ which blocks bacterial -action, sloWing the rate of deeiY.Thus, most of the carbonis retained.

-Plutonium

A-. theoretical measure of the exposure receivedentire population.

.

Person Rem Dose in REM's x No. Persons.

Naturally occurring 'compounds of carbon and hydrogenformed from = the .remains -of minute= marine animals andplarits which died and settled at the bottom of ancient seas

it was covered with silt. Various forces convertedthis material-to petroleum-and-natural gas.

Potential Energy

Power

Pyrolysis.)

iff

Quad

A process whereby green plants store the sun's ener,

chemical compounds such as sugars.

A heavy, radioactive, man-made meta c element withatomic number 94. PlutoniUm - 239 is fissionable and is

suitable for use in re ctors or weapons.

"Black Lung" ! disease of coal miners, characterized by thedevelopnient of fibrous masses in the lung following yearsof exposure to coal dust.

Stored energy due to position or condition.

e amount of energy used or produced in a given amountof time. The watt, is defined as .00948 BTU per second.

of tars and other i_mpurities from biomass byheating in the absence of air.

A measure of energy equal to x 1015 BTU.

R-Value A numerical comparison of theinsulating value of variousfi

Acronym for;_radiation absbrbed dose. The absdiption .of =

100.ergs of radiitiori energy per gram of-absorbing material.

rant l n rgy= i Energy which radiates through. space from a central point

_inactive Waste , `_= Equipment and-materials from nuclear operations which are

`radioactive and for which there is no further use. May be

'onuclide

Respkation

Roe

Roentgen

Soli Energy

high -level or low-level wastes._

radioactive-fsotope.

_device designed to contain the nuclear fission reaction andto extract usable heat from the reaction. This heat is usedto convert water to steam. The steam is used to turn turbinesto produce electricity.

cronym of Oentgen-equivalent Than The unit dose of anyradiatioh -Which, produces:the same biological effict as theunit-of absorbed.dose df x-rays.-

.

The opposite protess to photosynthesis, .Whereby living cellsrelease _usable energy by the, controlled oxidation of carbo-hydrates.

Petroleurn

A unit of exposure to ionizing radiation.

The use of the sun's rays.

A process used to remove chemical impurities from coal.Coal is dissolved in a light oil at high temperature andpressure. Ash iand nsoluble matter settle out an& can beremoved. ProduCes a brittle, shinY, tar-like solid. which canbe remelted and transported by pipeline.

Solvent Refiring

Stack Ga Scrubber

Tailings

--Tar Sands

Tidal Power

A method of cleanirg the gaseous emissions caused byburning fossil fuels. Limestone is brought into contact withthe, flue gas in a cleansing tank. Most of th ulfurls removed.

Waste) materials left from materials from e after thedesired material has been removed.

Sand particles coated with a tar called bitumen. The bitumencan be extracted and refined into petroleum fuels.

The harnessing of tides to produce eletrical energy.

'A Russian-invented device to produce and conplasmam a fusion reaction.

_

A naturally occurring radioactive element with = an,atbmicnumber of 92 And an average atomic weight ofapproximately238. The -two principle isotopes- are guranium 235 (0.7%of natural uranium), which is fissionable, and uranium 239(99.3% of natural-uranium) whichis fertile.

Devices designed to convert the motion of oibean waves torotary motion driving. Thq..JaPanoe ship "Kairnei" wasthe first operational floating plant:

Excessive profits-'earned profits.

ade by a company. Unexpected or un-

^ ,

A machine designed to convert the rnOVFInent of the windinto.rotary motion by means of rotating blades.

100