Rough StoneMonuments andTheir Builders

Peet, T. Eric (Thomas Eric),1882-1934

Release date: 2005-04-08

Source: Bebook

[Illustration: STONEHENGE FROM THESOUTH-EAST]

ROUGH STONEMONUMENTS AND THEIR BUILDERS

BY

T. ERIC PEET

FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF QUEEN'SCOLLEGE, OXFORD; LATELYCRAVEN FELLOW IN THE UNIVERSITY

OF OXFORD AND PELHAMSTUDENT AT THE BRITISHSCHOOL OF ROME

HARPER & BROTHERSLONDON AND NEW YORK 45ALBEMARLE STREET, W.1912

_Published October, 1912_.

PREFACE

The aim of this volume is to enable thosewho are interested in Stonehenge andother great stone monuments of England tolearn something of the similar buildingswhich exist in different parts of the world,of the men who constructed them, and ofthe great archlogical system of whichthey form a part. It is hoped that to thearchlogist it may be useful as a completethough brief sketch of our presentknowledge of the megalithic monuments,and as a short treatment of the problemswhich arise in connection with them.

To British readers it is unnecessary to giveany justification for the comparatively fulltreatment accorded to the monuments ofGreat Britain and Ireland. Malta andSardinia may perhaps seem to occupymore than their due share of space, but the

usurpation is justified by the magnificenceand the intrinsic interest of their megalithicbuildings. Being of singularly complicatedtypes and remarkably well preserved theynaturally tell us much more of theirbuilders than do the simpler monuments ofother larger and now more importantcountries. In these two islands, moreover,research has in the last few years beenextremely active, and it is felt that theaccounts here given of them will containsome material new even to the archlogist.

In order to assist those readers who maywish to follow out the subject in greaterdetail a short bibliography has beenadded to the book.

For the figures and photographs withwhich this volume is illustrated I have tothank many archlogical societies andindividual scholars. Plate III and part of

Plate II I owe to the kindness of Dr.Zammit, Director of the Museum ofValletta, while the other part of Plate II isfrom a photograph kindly lent to me by Dr.Ashby. I have to thank the Society ofAntiquaries for Figures 1 and 3, the RealeAccademia dei Lincei for Figures 17 and20, and the Socipristorique de France,through Dr. Marcel Baudouin, for Figure10. I am indebted to the Royal IrishAcademy for Figure 8, to the Committee ofthe British School of Rome for Figure 18,and to Dr. Albert Mayr and the Akademieder Wissenschaften in Munich for the planof Mnaidra. Professors Montelius, Siret andCartailhac I have to thank not only forpermission to reproduce illustrations fromtheir works, but also for their kind interestin my volume. Figure 19 I owe to my friendDr. Randall MacIver. The frontispiece andPlate I are fine photographs by Messrs.The Graphotone Co., Ltd.

In conclusion, I must not forget to thankCanon F.F. Grensted for much help withregard to the astronomical problemsconnected with Stonehenge.

T. ERIC PEET.

LIVERPOOL, _August 10th,_ 1912.

CONTENTS

CHAPTERPAGE

I. INTRODUCTION 1

II. STONEHENGE AND OTHER GREATSTONE MONUMENTS IN ENGLANDAND WALES 15

III. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS INSCOTLAND AND IRELAND 34

IV. THE SCANDINAVIAN MEGALITHICAREA 52

V. FRANCE, SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 59

VI. ITALY AND ITS ISLANDS 76

VII. AFRICA, MALTA, AND THESMALLER. MEDITERRANEANISLANDS 90

VIII. THE DOLMENS OF ASIA 114

IX. THE BUILDERS OF THEMEGALITHIC MONUMENTS, THEIRHABITS, CUSTOMS, RELIGION, ETC 123

X. WHO WERE THE BUILDERS, ANDWHENCE DID THEY COME? 143

BIBLIOGRAPHY159

INDEX 167

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES

Stonehenge from the south-east_Frontispiece_

FACINGPAGE I. Stonehenge from the south-west

17 II. Mnaidra, doorway ofRoom H. The _Nuraghe_ of Madrone inSardinia 82 III. Templeof Mnaidra, Malta. Apse of chief room 100

FIGURE PAGE1. Plan of Stonehenge16 2. Avebury and Kennet Avenue

23 3. Plans of English LongBarrows 31 4. Hornedtumulus, Caithness 39 5.Plans of three dolmen-types

40 6. Type-plan of simple corridor-tomb42 7. Type-plan of

wedge-shaped tomb 44 8.Corridor-tomb at New Grange, Ireland

47 9. Corridor-tomb at Ottagden,Sweden 53 10. Plan of LaPierre aux Fs, Oise, France 6111. Chambered mound atFontenay-le-Marmion, Normandy 6312. Plan of La Grotte des Fs, Arles, France

65 13. The so-calleddolmen-deity, Petit Morin, France 6614. Plan of corridor-tomb at Los Millares,Spain 69 15. Section and plan of a_talayot_, Majorca 72 16. Sectionand plan of the _nau_ d'Es Tudons73 17. Elevation, section and plan of aSardinian _nuraghe_ 83 18. Plan ofGiant's Tomb at Muraguada, Sardinia

87 19. Plan of stone circle at the Sen,Algeria 94 20. Plan of the SeseGrande, Pantelleria 97 21. Plan

of the Sanctuary of Mnaidra, Malta99 22. Dolmen with holed stone at Ala

Safat 115

ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

To the south of Salisbury Plain, about twomiles west of the small country town ofAmesbury, lies the great stone circle ofStonehenge. For centuries it has been anobject of wonder and admiration, and evento-day it is one of the sights of our country.Perhaps, however, few of those who haveheard of Stonehenge or even of those whohave visited it are aware that it is but a unitin a vast crowd of megalithic monumentswhich, in space, extends from the west ofEurope to India, and, in time, coverspossibly more than a thousand years.

What exactly is a megalithic monument?

Strictly speaking, it is a building made ofvery large stones. This definition would, ofcourse, include numbers of buildings ofthe present day and of the medieval andclassical periods, while many of theEgyptian pyramids and temples would atonce suggest themselves as excellentexamples of this type of building. Thearchlogist, however, uses the term in amuch more limited sense. He confines it toa series of tombs and buildingsconstructed in Western Asia, in NorthAfrica, and in certain parts of Europe,towards the end of the neolithic period andduring part of the copper and bronze ageswhich followed it. The structures areusually, though not quite invariably, madeof large blocks of unworked or slightlyworked stone, and they conform to certaindefinite types. The best known of thesetypes are as follows: Firstly, the menhir,which is a tall, rough pillar of stone with its

base fixed into the earth. Secondly, thetrilithon, which consists of a pair of tallstones set at a short distance apartsupporting a third stone laid across thetop. Thirdly, the dolmen, which is a singleslab of stone supported by several othersarranged in such a way as to enclose aspace or chamber beneath it. SomeEnglish writers apply the term cromlech tosuch a structure, quite incorrectly. Bothmenhir and dolmen are Breton words,these two types of megalithic monumentbeing particularly frequent in Brittany.Menhir is derived from the Breton _men_,a stone, and _hir_, long; similarly dolmenis from _dol_, a table, and _men_, a stone.Some archlogists also apply the worddolmen to rectangular chambers roofedwith more than one slab. We havecarefully avoided this practice, alwaysclassing such chambers as corridor-tombsof an elementary type. Fourthly, we have

the corridor-tomb (_Ganggrab_), whichusually consists of a chamber entered by agallery or corridor. In cases where thechamber is no wider than, and henceindistinguishable from the corridor, thetomb becomes a long rectangular gallery,and answers to the French _all couverte_in the strict sense. Fifthly, we come to the_alignement_, in which a series of menhirsis arranged in open lines on some definitesystem. We shall find a famous example ofthis at Morbihan in Brittany. Sixthly, thereis the cromlech (from _crom_, curve, and_lec'h_, a stone), which consists of anumber of menhirs arranged to enclose aspace, circular, elliptical or, in rare cases,rectangular.

These are the chief types of megalithicmonument, but there are others which,though clearly belonging to the same classof structure, show special forms and are

more complicated. They are in many casesdevelopments of one or more of the simpletypes, and will be treated specially in theirproper places. Such monuments are the_nuraghi_ of Sardinia and the 'temples' ofMalta and Gozo.

Finally, the rock-hewn sepulchre is oftenclassed with the megalithic monuments,and it is therefore frequently mentioned inthe following pages. This is justified by thefact that it generally occurs in connectionwith megalithic structures. The exactrelation in which it stands to them will befully discussed in the last chapter.

We have now to consider what may becalled the architectural methods of themegalithic builders, for although indealing with such primitive monuments itwould perhaps be exaggeration to speak

of a style, yet there were certain principleswhich were as carefully and as invariablyobserved as were in later days those of theDoric or the Gothic styles in the countrieswhere they took root.

The first and most important principle, thaton which the whole of the megalithicconstruction may be said to be based, isthe use of the orthostatic block, i.e. theblock set up on its edge. It is clear that inthis way each block or slab is made toprovide the maximum of wall area at theexpense of the thickness of the wall.Naturally, in districts where the rock is of aslabby nature blocks of a more or lessuniform thickness lay ready to thebuilders' hand, and the appearance of thestructure was much more finished than itwould be in places where the rock had aless regular fracture or where shapelessboulders had to be relied on. The

orthostatic slabs were often deeply sunkinto the ground where this consisted ofearth or soft rock; of the latter case thereare good examples at Stonehenge, wherethe rock is a soft chalk. When the groundhad an uneven surface of hard rock, theslabs were set upright on it and smallstones wedged in beneath them to makethem stand firm. Occasionally, as atMnaidra and Hagiar Kim, a course ofhorizontal blocks set at the foot of theuprights served to keep them moresecurely in position. With the uprightblock technique went hand in hand theroofing of narrow spaces by means ofhorizontal slabs laid across the top of theuprights.

The second principle of megalithicarchitecture was the use of more or lesscoursed masonry set without mortar, eachblock lying on its side and not on its edge.

It is quite possible that this principle is lessancient in origin than that of the orthostaticslab, for it usually occurs in structures of amore advanced type. Thus in simple andprimitive types of building such as thedolmen it is most rare to find dry masonry,but in the advanced corridor-tombs ofIreland, the Giants' Graves and _nuraghi_of Sardinia, and in the 'temples' of Maltathis technique is largely used, often incombination with the upright slab system.Indeed, this combination is quite typical ofthe best megalithic work: a series ofuprights is first set in position, and overthis are laid several horizontal courses ofrather smaller stones. We must note thatthe dry masonry which we are describingis still strictly megalithic, as the blocksused are never small and often ofenormous size.

Buildings in which this system is used are

occasionally roofed with slabs, but moreoften corbelling is employed. At a certainheight each succeeding course in the wallbegins to project inwards over the last, sothat the walls, as it were, lean together andfinally meet to form a false barrel-vault ora false dome, according as the structure isrectangular or round. Occasionally, whenthe building was wide, it was impossible tocorbel the walls sufficiently to make themmeet. In this case they were corbelled asfar as possible and the open space still leftwas covered with long flat slabs.

It has often been commented on as amatter of wonder that a people living in thestone age, or at the best possessing a fewsimple tools of metal, should have beenable to move and place in position suchenormous blocks of stone. With moderncranes and traction engines all would besimple, but it might have been thought that

in the stone age such building would beimpossible. Thus, for instance, in the'temple' of Hagiar Kim in Malta, there isone block of stone which measures 21 feetby 9, and must weigh many tons. In realitythere is little that is marvellous in themoving and setting up of these blocks, forthe tools needed are ready to the hand ofevery savage; but there is something towonder at and to admire in the patiencedisplayed and in the organizationnecessary to carry out such vast pieces oflabour. Great, indeed, must have been thepower of the cult which could combine theforce of hundreds and even thousands ofindividuals for long periods of time in theconstruction of the great megalithictemples. Perhaps slave labour played apart in the work, but in any case it is clearthat we are in the presence of stronglyorganized governments backed by apowerful religion which required the

building of temples for the gods and vasttombs for the dead.

Let us consider for a moment what was theprocedure in building a simple megalithicmonument. It was fourfold, for it involvedthe finding and possibly the quarrying ofthe stones, the moving of them to thedesired spot, the erection of the uprightsin their places, and the placing of thecover-slab or slabs on top of them.

With regard to the first step it is probablethat in most cases the place chosen for atomb or cemetery was one in whichnumbers of great stones lay on the surfaceready to hand. By this means labour wasgreatly economized. On the other hand,there are certainly cases where the stoneswere brought long distances in order to beused. Thus, in Charente in France there isat La Perotte a block weighing nearly 40

tons which must have travelled over 18miles. We have no evidence as to whetherstones were ever actually quarried. If theywere, the means used must have been thestone axe, fire, and water. It was not usualin the older and simpler dolmens to dressthe stones in any way, though in the laterand more complicated structureswell-worked blocks were often used.

The required stones having been found itwas now necessary to move them to thespot. This could be done in two ways. Thefirst and simpler is that which we seepictured on Egyptian monuments, such asthe tomb of Tahutihotep at El Bersheh. Arough road of beams is laid in the requireddirection, and wooden rollers are placedunder the stone on this road. Largenumbers of men or oxen then drag thestone along by means of ropes attached toit. Other labourers assist the work from

behind with levers, and replace the rollersin front of the stone as fast as they pass outbehind. Those who have seen the modernArabs in excavation work move hugeblocks with wooden levers and palm-leafrope will realize that for the building of thedolmens little was needed except numbersand time.

The other method of moving the stones isas follows: a gentle slope of hard earthcovered with wet clay is built with itshigher extremity close beside the block tobe moved. As many men as there is roomfor stand on each side of the block, andwith levers resting on beams or stones asfulcra, raise the stone vertically as far aspossible. Other men then fill up the spacebeneath it with earth and stones. Theprocess is next repeated with higherfulcra, until the stone is level with the topof the clay slope, on to which it is then

slipped. With a little help it now slidesdown the inclined plane to the bottom.Here a fresh slope is built, and the wholeprocedure is gone through again. Themethod can even be used on a slight uphillgradient. It requires less dragging andmore vertical raising than the other, andwould thus be more useful where oxenwere unobtainable.

When the stones were once on the spot itis not hard to imagine how they were setupright with levers and ropes. The placingof the cover-slab was, however, a morecomplicated matter. The methodemployed was probably to build a slope ofearth leading up from one side to thealready erected uprights and almostcovering them. Up this the slab could bemoved by means of rollers, ropes, andlevers, until it was in position over theuprights. The slope could then be

removed. If the dolmen was to be partly orwholly covered with a mound, as somecertainly were, it would not even benecessary to remove the slope.

Roughly speaking, the extension ofmegalithic monuments is from Spain toJapan and from Sweden to Algeria. Theseare naturally merely limits, and it must notbe supposed that the regions which liebetween them all contain megalithicmonuments. More exactly, we find them inAsia, in Japan, Corea, India, Persia, Syria,and Palestine. In Africa we have themalong the whole of the north coast, fromTripoli to Morocco; inland they are notrecorded, except for one possibleexample in Egypt and several in theSoudan. In Europe the distribution ofdolmens and other megalithic monumentsis wide. They occur in the Caucasus andthe Crimea, and quite lately examples

have been recorded in Bulgaria. There arenone in Greece, and only a few in Italy, inthe extreme south-east corner. Theislands, however, which lie around and tothe south of Italy afford many examples:Corsica, Sardinia, Malta, Gozo, Pantelleria,and Lampedusa are strongholds of themegalithic civilization, and it is possiblethat Sicily should be included in the list.Moving westward we find innumerableexamples in the Spanish Peninsula and inFrance. To the north we find them frequentin the British Isles, Sweden, Denmark, andNorth Germany; they are rarer in Hollandand Belgium. Two examples have beenreported from Switzerland.

It is only to be expected that these greatmegalithic monuments of a prehistoric ageshould excite the wonder and stimulate theimagination of those who see them. In allcountries and at all times they have been

centres of story and legend, and even atthe present day many strange beliefsconcerning them are to be found amongthe peasantry who live around them.Salomon Reinach has written a remarkableessay on this question, and the followingexamples are mainly drawn from thecollection he has there made. The namesgiven to the monuments often show clearlythe ideas with which they are associated inthe minds of the peasants. Thus the Penrithcircle is locally known as "Meg and herDaughters," a dolmen in Berkshire iscalled "Wayland the Smith's Cave," whilein one of the Orkney Isles is a menhirnamed "Odin's Stone." In France many areconnected with Gargantua, whose name,the origin of which is doubtful, standsclearly for a giant. Thus we find a rockcalled the "Chair of Gargantua," a menhircalled "Gargantua's Little Finger," and an_all couverte_ called "Gargantua's

Tomb." Names indicating connections withfairies, virgins, witches, dwarfs, devils,saints, druids, and even historical personsare frequent. Dolmens are often "houses ofdwarfs," a name perhaps suggested or atleast helped by the small holes cut in someof them; they are "huts" or "caves offairies," they are "kitchens" or "forges ofthe devil," while menhirs are called hisarrows, and cromlechs his cauldrons. InFrance we have stones of various saints,while in England many monuments areconnected with King Arthur. A dolmen inWales is his quoit; the circle at Penrith ishis round table, and that of Caermarthen ishis park. Both in England and France wefind stones and altars "of the druids"; in thePyrenees, in Spain, and in Africa there are"graves of the Gentiles" or "tombs ofidolaters"; in Arles (France) the _allscouvertes_ are called "prisons" or "shopsof the Saracens," and the dolmens of the

Eastern Pyrenees are locally known as"huts of the Moors." Dolmens in India areoften "stones of the monkeys," and inFrance there are "wolves' altars," "wolves'houses," and "wolves' tables."

Passing now to more definite beliefsconnected with megalithic monuments, wemay notice that from quite early times theyhave been--as indeed they often arestill--regarded with fear and respect, andeven worshipped. In certain parts ofFrance peasants are afraid to shelter underthe dolmens, and never think ofapproaching them by night. In earlyChristian days there must have been a cultof the menhir, for the councils of Arles(A.D. 452), of Tours (A.D. 567), and ofNantes (A.D. 658) all condemn the cult oftrees, springs, and _stones_. In A.D. 789Charlemagne attempted to suppressstone-worship, and to destroy the stones

themselves. In Spain, where, as in France,megalithic monuments are common, thecouncils of Toledo in A.D. 681 and 682condemned the "Worshippers of Stones."Moreover there are many cases in which amonument itself bears traces of havingbeen the centre of a cult in early ormedieval times. The best example isperhaps the dolmen ofSaint-Germain-sur-Vienne, which wastransformed into a chapel about the twelfthcentury. Similar transformations have beenmade in Spain. In many cases, too, crosseshave been placed or engraved on menhirsin order to "Christianize" them.

Remarkable powers and virtues have beenattributed to many of the monuments. Oneof the dolmens of Finiste is said to curerheumatism in anyone who rubs againstthe loftiest of its stones, and another healsfever patients who sleep under it. Stones

with holes pierced in them are believed tobe peculiarly effective, and it suffices topass the diseased limb or, when possible,the invalid himself through the hole.

Oaths sworn in or near a megalithicmonument have a peculiar sanctity. InScotland as late as the year A.D. 1438 "Johnoff Erwyne and Will Bernardson swor onthe Hirdmane Stein before oure Lorde yeErie off Orknay and the gentiless off thecuntre."

Many of the monuments are endowed bythe credulous with life. The menhir duChamp Dolent sinks an inch everyhundred years. Others say that a piece of itis eaten by the moon each night, and thatwhen it is completely devoured the LastJudgment will take place. The stones ofCarnac bathe in the sea once a year, andmany of those of the Pigord leap three

times each day at noon.

We have already remarked on theconnection of the monuments with dwarfs,giants, and mythical personages. There isan excellent example in our own countryin Berkshire. Here when a horse has cast ashoe the rider must leave it in front of thedolmen called "The Cave of Wayland theSmith," placing at the same time a coin onthe cover-stone. He must then retire for asuitable period, after which he returns tofind the horse shod and the money gone.

CHAPTER II

STONEHENGE AND OTHERGREAT STONE MONUMENTSIN ENGLAND AND WALES

Stonehenge, the most famous of ourEnglish megalithic monuments, hasexcited the attention of the historian andthe legend-lover since early times.According to some of the medievalhistorians it was erected by AureliusAmbrosius to the memory of a number ofBritish chiefs whom Hengist and his Saxonstreacherously murdered in A.D. 462.Others add that Ambrosius himself wasburied there. Giraldus Cambrensis, whowrote in the twelfth century, mingles theseaccounts with myth. He says, "There was inIreland, in ancient times, a pile of stonesworthy of admiration called the Giants'

Dance, because giants from the remotestpart of Africa brought them to Ireland, andin the plains of Kildare, not far from thecastle of Naas, miraculously set them up....These stones (according to the Britishhistory) Aurelius Ambrosius, King of theBritons, procured Merlin by supernaturalmeans to bring from Ireland to Britain."

From the present ruined state ofStonehenge it is not possible to state withcertainty what was the originalarrangement, but it is probable that it wasapproximately as follows (seefrontispiece):

[Illustration: FIG. 1. Plan of Stonehenge in1901. (After _Archlogia_.) The dottedstones are of porphyritic diabase.]

There was an outer circle of about thirtyworked upright stones of square section

(Fig. I). On each pair of these rested ahorizontal block, but only five now remainin position. These 'lintels' probably formeda continuous architrave (Pl. I). Thediameter of this outer circle is about 97-1/2feet, inner measurement. The stones usedare sarsens or blocks of sandstone, such asare to be found lying about in many partsof the district round Stonehenge.

[Illustration: Plate I. STONEHENGE FROMTHE SOUTH-WEST PhotoGraphotone Co. To face p. 17]

Well within this circle stood the five hugetrilithons (_a-e_), arranged in the form of ahorseshoe with its open side to thenorth-east. Each trilithon, as the nameimplies, consists of three stones, two ofwhich are uprights, the third being laidhorizontally across the top. The height ofthe trilithons varies from 16 to 21-1/2 feet,

the lowest being the two that stand at theopen end of the horseshoe, and the highestthat which is at the apex. Here again all thestones are sarsens and all are carefullyworked. On the top end of each upright ofthe trilithons is an accurately cut tenonwhich dovetails into two mortices cut oneat each end of the lower surface of thehorizontal block. Each upright of the outercircle had a double tenon, and the lintels,besides being morticed to take thesetenons, were also dovetailed each into itstwo neighbours.

Within the horseshoe and close up to itstand the famous blue-stones, now twelvein number, but originally perhaps more.These stones are not so high as thetrilithons, the tallest reaching only 7-1/2feet. They are nearly all of porphyriticdiabase. It has often been asserted thatthese blue-stones must have been brought

to Stonehenge from a distance, as they donot occur anywhere in the district. Somehave suggested that they came from Walesor Cornwall, or even by sea from Ireland.Now, the recent excavations have shownthat the blue-stones were brought toStonehenge in a rough state, and that allthe trimming was done on the spot wherethey were erected. It seems unlikely that ifthey had been brought from a distance therough trimming should not have beendone on the spot where they were found,in order to decrease their weight fortransport. It is therefore possible that thestones were erratic blocks found nearStonehenge.

Within the horseshoe, and near its apex,lies the famous "Altar Stone" (A), a blockmeasuring about 16 feet by 4. Between thehorseshoe and the outer circle anothercircle of diabase stones is sometimes said

to have existed, but very little of it nowremains.

The whole building is surrounded by arampart of earth several feet high, forminga circle about 300 feet in diameter. Anavenue still 1200 feet in length, borderedby two walls of earth, leads up to therampart from the north-east. On the axis ofthis avenue and nearly at its extremitystands the upright stone known as theFriar's Heel.

In 1901, in the course of repairing thecentral trilithon, careful excavations werecarried out over a small area atStonehenge. More than a hundred stoneimplements were found, of which themajority were flint axes, probably used fordressing the softer of the sandstoneblocks, and also for excavating the chalkinto which the uprights were set. About

thirty hammer-stones suitable for holdingin the hand were found. These weredoubtless used for dressing the surface ofthe blocks. Most remarkable of all werethe 'mauls,' large boulders weighing from36 to 64 pounds, used for smashing blocksand also for removing large chips from thesurfaces. Several antlers of deer werefound, one of which had been worn downby use as a pickaxe.

These excavations made it clear that theblue-stones had been shaped on the spot,whereas the sarsens had been roughlyprepared at the place where they werefound, and only finished off on the spotwhere they were erected.

What is the date of the erection ofStonehenge? The finding of so manyimplements of flint in the excavations of

1901 shows that the structure belongs to aperiod when flint was still largely used.The occurrence of a stain of oxide ofcopper on a worked block of stone at adepth of 7 feet does not necessarily provethat the stones were erected in the bronzeage, for the stain may have been causedby the disintegration of malachite and notof metallic copper. At the same time, wemust not infer from the frequency of theflint implements that metal was unknown,for flint continued to be used far on into theearly metal age. Moreover, flint tools whenworn out were simply thrown aside on thespot, while those of metal were carefullyset apart for sharpening or re-casting, andare thus seldom found in large numbers inan excavation. We have, therefore, nomeans of accurately determining the dateof Stonehenge; all that can be said is thatthe occurrence of flint in such largequantities points either to the neolithic age

or to a comparatively early date in thecopper or bronze period. It is unlikely thatstone tools would play such a considerablere in the late bronze or the iron age.

At the same time it must not be forgottenthat Sir Arthur Evans has spoken in favourof a date in the first half of the third centuryB.C. He believes that the great circles arereligious monuments which in formdeveloped out of the round barrows, andthat Stonehenge is therefore much laterthan some at least of the round barrowsaround it. That it is earlier than others isclear from the occurrence in some of themof chips from the sarsen stones. Hetherefore places its building late in theround barrow period, and seesconfirmation of this in the fact that theround barrows which surround themonument are not grouped in regularfashion around it, as they should have

been had they been later in date.

Many attempts have been made to date themonuments by means of astronomy. Allthese start from the assumption that it waserected in connection with the worship ofthe sun, or at least in order to take certainobservations with regard to the sun. SirNorman Lockyer noticed that the avenue atStonehenge pointed approximately to thespot where the sun rises at the midsummersolstice, and therefore thought thatStonehenge was erected to observe thismidsummer rising. If he could find theexact direction of the avenue he wouldknow where the sun rose at midsummer inthe year when the circle was built. Fromthis he could easily fix the date, for, owingto the precession of the equinoxes, thepoint of the midsummer rising iscontinually altering, and the position forany year being known the date of that year

can be found astronomically. But how wasthe precise direction of this very irregularavenue to be fixed? The line from the altarstone to the Friar's Heel, which is popularlysupposed to point to the midsummerrising, has certainly never done so in thelast ten thousand years, and thereforecould not be used as the direction of theavenue. Eventually Sir Norman decided touse a line from the centre of the circle to amodern benchmark on Sidbury Hill, eightmiles north-east of Stonehenge. On thisline the sun rose in 1680 B.C. with apossible error of two hundred years eachway: this Sir Norman takes to be the dateof Stonehenge.

Sir Norman's reasoning has been severelyhandled by his fellow-astronomer Mr.Hinks, who points out that the directionchosen for the avenue is purely arbitrary,since Sidbury Hill has no connection with

Stonehenge at all. Moreover, Sir Normandetermines sunrise for Stonehenge asbeing the instant when the edge of thesun's disk first appears, while in hisattempts to date the Egyptian temple ofKarnak he defined it as the moment whenthe sun's centre reached the horizon. Wecannot say which alternative the builderswould have chosen, and therefore wecannot determine the date of building.

Sir Norman Lockyer has since modified hisviews. He now argues that the trilithonsand outer circle are later additions to anearlier temple to which the blue-stonesbelong. This earlier temple was made toobserve "primarily but not exclusively theMay year," while the later temple"represented a change of cult, and wasdedicated primarily to the solstitial year."This view seems to be disproved by theexcavations of 1901, which made it clear

that the trilithons were erected before andnot after the blue-stones.

Nothing is more likely than that thebuilders of the megaliths had someknowledge of the movements of the sun inconnection with the seasons, and that theirpriests or wise men determined for them,by observing the sun, the times of sowing,reaping, etc., as they do among manysavage tribes at the present day. They mayhave been worshippers of the sun, andtheir temples may have contained'observation lines' for determining certainof his movements. But the attempt to datethe monuments from such lines involves somany assumptions and is affected by somany disturbing elements that it can neverhave a serious value for the archlogist.The uncertainty is even greater in the caseof temples supposed to be oriented bysome star, for in this case there is almost

always a choice of two or more brightstars, giving the most divergent results.

[Illustration: FIG. 2. Avebury and theKennet Avenue. (After Sir R. ColtHoare.)]

Next in importance to Stonehenge comesthe huge but now almost destroyed circleof Avebury (Fig. 2). Its area is five times asgreat as that of St. Peter's in Rome, and aquarter of a million people could standwithin it. It consists in the first place of arampart of earth roughly circular in formand with a diameter of about 1200 feet.Within this is a ditch, and close on theinner edge of this was a circle of about ahundred upright stones. Within this circlewere two pairs of concentric circles withtheir centres slightly east of thenorth-and-south diameter of the greatcircle. The diameters of the outer circles of

these two pairs are 350 and 325 feetrespectively. In the centre of the northernpair was a cover-slab supported by threeuprights, and in the centre of the southerna single menhir. All the stones used aresarsens, such as are strewn everywhereover the district.

An avenue flanked by two rows of stonesran in a south-easterly direction from therampart towards the village of Kennet for adistance of about 1430 yards in a straightline.

At a distance of 1200 yards due south fromAvebury Circle stands the famous artificialmound called Silbury Hill. It is 552 feet indiameter, 130 in height, and has a flat top102 feet across. A pit was driven down intoits centre in 1777, and in 1849 a trench wascut into it from the south side to the centre,but neither gave any result. It is quite

possible that there are burials in themound, whether in megalithic chambersor not.

South-west of Avebury is Hakpen Hill,where there once stood two concentricellipses of stones. A straight avenue is saidto have run from these in a north-westerlydirection. Whether these three monumentsnear Avebury have any connection withone another and, if so, what this connectionis, is unknown.

There are many other circles in England,but we have only space to mention brieflysome of the more important. At Rollright,in Oxfordshire, there is a circle 100 feet indiameter with a tall menhir 50 yards to thenorth-east. Derbyshire possesses a famousmonument, that of Arbor Low, where acircle is surrounded by a rampart and

ditch, while that of Stanton Drew inSomerset consists of a great circle A andtwo smaller circles B and C. The linejoining the centres of B and A passesthrough a menhir called Hauptville's Quoitaway to the north-east, while that whichjoins the centres of C and A cuts a group ofthree menhirs called The Cove, lying tothe south-west.

In Cumberland there are several circles.One of these, 330 feet in diameter with anoutstanding menhir, is known as "LongMeg and her Daughters." Another, theMayborough Circle, is of much the samesize, but consists of a tall monolith in thecentre of a rampart formed entirely ofrather small water-worn stones. A similarcircle not far from this is known as KingArthur's Round Table; here, however,there is no monolith. Near Keswick there isa finely preserved circle, and at Shap

there seems to have existed a large circlewith an avenue of stones running for over amile to the north.

Cornwall possesses a number of finemonuments. The most celebrated is theDance Maen Circle, which is 76 feet indiameter and has two monoliths to thenorth-east, out of sight of the circle, butstated to be in a straight line with itscentre. Local tradition calls the circle "TheMerry Maidens," and has it that the stonesare girls turned into stones for dancing onSunday: the two monoliths are called thePipers. The three circles known as theHurlers lie close together with theircentres nearly in a straight line in thedirection N.N.E. by S.S.W. AtBoscawen-un, near Penzance, is a circlecalled the Nine Maidens, and two circlesnear Tregeseal have the same name.Another well-known circle in Cornwall is

called the Stripple Stones: the circle standson a platform of earth surrounded by aditch, outside which is a rampart. In thecentre is a menhir 12 feet in height.

At Merivale, in Somersetshire, there arethe remains of a small circle, to the north ofwhich lie two almost parallel double linesof menhirs, running about E.N.E. byW.S.W., the more southerly of the two linesoverlapping the other at both extremities.

With what purpose were these greatcircles erected? We have alreadymentioned the curious belief of Geoffrey ofMonmouth with regard to Stonehenge, andwe may pass on to more modern theories.James I was once taken to see Stonehengewhen on a visit to the Earl of Pembroke atWilton. He was so interested that heordered his architect Inigo Jones to

enquire into its date and purpose. Thearchitect's conclusion was that it was aRoman temple "dedicated to the godCaelus and built after the Tuscan order."

Many years later Dr. Stukeley started atheory which has not entirely beenabandoned at the present day. For himStonehenge and other stone circles weretemples of the druids. This was in itself byno means a ridiculous theory, but Stukeleywent further than this. Relying on a quaintstory in Pliny wherein the druids of Gaulare said to use as a charm a certain magicegg manufactured by snakes, he imaginedthat the druids were serpent-worshippers,and essayed to see serpents even in theforms of their temples. Thus in theAvebury group the circle on Hakpen Hillwas for him the head of a snake and itsavenue part of the body. The Aveburycircles were coils in the body, which was

completed by the addition of imaginarystones and avenues. He also attemptedwith even less success to see the form of aserpent in other British circle groups.

The druids, as we gather from the ratherscanty references in Car and otherRoman authors, were priests of the Celts inGaul. Suetonius further speaks of druids inAnglesey, and tradition has it that in Walesand Ireland there were druids inpre-Christian times. But that druids everexisted in England or in a tithe of theplaces in which megalithic circles andother monuments occur is unlikely. At thesame time, it is not impossible that some ofthe circles of Ireland, Wales, and Francewere afterwards used by the druids assuitable places for meeting and preaching.

Fergusson in his great work _Rude StoneMonuments_ held a remarkable view as to

the purpose of the British stone circles. Hebelieved that they were partly Roman indate, and that some of them at leastmarked the scene of battles fought by KingArthur against the Saxons. Thus, forexample, he says with regard to Avebury,"I feel it will come eventually to beacknowledged that those who fell inArthur's twelfth and greatest battle wereburied in the ring at Avebury, and thatthose who survived raised these stonesand the mound of Silbury in the vain hopethat they would convey to their latestposterity the memory of their prowess." Itis hardly necessary to take this viewseriously nowadays. Stonehenge, whichFergusson attributes to the same late era,has been proved by excavation to beprehistoric in origin, and with it naturallygo the rest of the megalithic circles ofEngland, except where there is any certainproof to the contrary.

The most probable theory is that thecircles are religious monuments of somekind. What the nature of the worshipcarried on in them was it is quiteimpossible to determine. It may be thatsome at least were built near the graves ofdeified heroes to whose worship they wereconsecrated. On the other hand, it ispossible that they were temples dedicatedto the sun or to others of the heavenlybodies. Whether they served for the takingof astronomical observations or not is aquestion which cannot be decided withcertainty, though the frequency with whichmenhirs occur in directions roughlynorth-east of the circles is considered bysome as a sign of connection with thewatching of solar phenomena.

Dolmens of simple type are not common in

England, though they occur withcomparative frequency in Wales, wherethe best known are the so-called Arthur'sQuoit near Swansea, the dolmen of PentreIfan in Pembrokeshire, and that of PlasNewydd on the Menai Strait: in Angleseythey are quite common. In England wehave numerous examples in Cornwall,especially west of Falmouth, among whichare Chun Quoit and Lanyon Quoit. Thereare dolmens at Chagford andDrewsteignton in Devonshire, and there isone near the Rollright Circle inOxfordshire.

Many of the so-called cromlechs ofEngland are not true dolmens, but theremains of tombs of more complicatedtypes. Thus the famous Kit's Coty House inKent was certainly not a dolmen, though itis now impossible to say what its form was.Wayland the Smith's Cave was probably a

three-chambered corridor-tomb coveredwith a mound. The famous Men-an-tol inCornwall may well be all that is left of achamber-tomb of some kind. It is a slababout 3-1/2 feet square, in which is a hole1-1/2 feet in diameter. There are otherstones standing or lying around it. It isknown to the peasants as the Crickstone,for it was said to cure sufferers from ricketsor crick in the back if they passed ninetimes through the hole in a directionagainst the sun. The Isle of Man possessesa fine sepulchral monument on Meayll Hill.It consist of six T-shaped chamber-tombsarranged in a circle with entrances to thenorth and south. There is also acorridor-tomb, known as King Orry'sGrave, at Laxey, and another with asemicircular fade at Maughold.

Among the megalithic monuments of our

islands the chambered barrows hold animportant place. It is well known that in theneolithic period the dead in certain partsof England were buried under mounds ofnot circular but elongated shape. Thesegraves are commonest in Wiltshire and thesurrounding counties of Dorsetshire,Somersetshire, and Gloucestershire. A fewexist in other counties. Some contain nochamber, while others contain a structureof the megalithic type. It is with these latterthat we have here to deal. Chamberedlong barrows are most frequent inWiltshire, though they do occur in othercounties, as, for example,Buckinghamshire, where the famous Caveof Wayland the Smith is certainly theremains of a barrow of this kind. InDerbyshire and Staffordshire a type ofchambered mound does occur, but itseems uncertain from the descriptiongiven whether it is round or elongated.

[Illustration: FIG. 3. (_a_)--Barrow atStoney Littleton, Somersetshire.(_b_)--Barrow at Rodmarton,Gloucestershire. (_c_)--Chambersof barrow at Uley, Gloucestershire. (After Thurnam, _Archlogia,_ XLII.)]

Turning first to the Wiltshire andGloucestershire group of barrows we findthat they are usually from 120 to 200 feet inlength and from 30 to 60 in breadth. Insome cases there is a wall of drystone-masonry around the foot of themound and outside this a ditch. Themegalithic chambers within the mound areof three types. In the first there is a centralgallery entering the mound at its thickerend and leading to a chamber or series ofchambers (Fig. 3, _a_ and _c_). Where thisgallery enters the mound there is acusp-shaped break in the outline of the

mound as marked by the dry walling, andthe entrance is closed by a stone block.The chambers are formed of large slabsset up on edge. Occasionally there arespaces between successive slabs, andthese are filled up with dry masonry. Theroof is made either by laying large slabsacross the tops of the sides or bycorbelling with smaller slabs as at StoneyLittleton.

In the second type of chambered barrowthere is no central corridor, but chambersare built in opposite pairs on the outsideedge of the mound and opening outwards(Fig. 3, _b_). The two best knownexamples of this are the tumuli of Aveningand of Rodmarton.

In the third type of barrow there is nochamber connected with the outside, butits place is taken by several dolmens--so

small as to be mere cists--within themound.

The burials in these barrows seem to havebeen without exception inhumations. Thebody was placed in the crouched position,either sitting up or reclining. In anuntouched chamber at Rodmarton werefound as many as thirteen bodies, and inthe eastern chamber at Charlton's Abbottthere were twelve. With the bodies laypottery, vases, and implements of flint andbone.

CHAPTER III

MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS INSCOTLAND AND IRELAND

The stone circles of Scotland have beendivided into three types--the WesternScottish, consisting of a rather irregularring or pair of concentric rings; theInverness type, in which a chamberentered by a straight passage is coveredby a round tumulus with a retaining wall ofstone, the whole being surrounded by aregular stone circle; and the Aberdeentype, which is similar to the last, but has a'recumbent' stone between two of theuprights of its outer circle.

The first type occurs in the southerncounties, in the islands of the west andnorth coasts, and also extends into Argyll

and Perthshire. The most famous exampleis the Callernish Circle in the Isle of Lewis.The circle is formed by thirteen stonesfrom 12 to 15 feet high, and its centre ismarked by an upright 17 feet high. Fromthe circle extends a line of four stones tothe east and another to the west. To thesouth runs a line of five uprights andseveral fallen stones, and to the N.N.E.runs a double line, forming as it were anavenue with nine stones on one side andten on the other, but having no entrance tothe circle. Inside the circle, between thecentral stone and the east side of the ring,is what is described as a cruciform gravewith three cells under a low tumulus. Inthis tomb were found fragments of humanbone apparently burnt. It has beensuggested that the tomb is not part of theoriginal structure, but was added later.

The native tradition about this circle as

repeated by Martin in 1700 was that it wasa druidical place of worship, and that thechief druid stood near the central stone toaddress the assembled people. Thistradition seems to have now disappeared.

In the island of Arran, between Brodickand Lamlash, is a damaged circle 21 feet indiameter. At a distance of 60 feet from itscircumference in a direction 35 east ofsouth is a stone 4 feet high. In the centre ofthe circle was found a cist cut in theunderlying rock containing bluish earthand pieces of bone. Above were animplement and some fragments of flint.

On the other side of the island there werestill in 1860 remains of eight circles, five ofsandstone and three of granite, quite closeto one another. The diameter of the largestwas 63 feet, and the highest stone reached18 feet. One of them was a double ring. In

four of them were found cists containingpottery, flint arrow-heads, a piece of abronze pin, and some fragments of bone.Others appear to contain no cists.

In the other islands of the west coast fewcircles seem to remain; there are,however, one at Kirkabrost in Skye, andanother at Kingarth in Bute.

At Stromness in Orkney is the famouscircle called the Ring of Brogar. Itoriginally consisted of sixty stones forminga circle 340 feet in diameter, outside whichwas a ditch 29 feet wide. In a direction 60east of south from the centre, and at adistance of 63 chains, is a standing stonecalled the Watchstone, 18 feet high, and 42or 43 chains further on in the same line is asecond stone, the Barnstone, 15 feet high.To the left of this line are two stonesapparently placed at random, and to the

right are the few remaining blocks of theRing of Stenness, somewhere to the northof which was the celebrated pierced blockcalled the "Stone of Odin," destroyed earlyin the last century. At a distance of 42 or 43chains to the north-east of the Barnstonelies the tumulus of Maeshowe. This tumulusconceals a long gallery leading into arectangular chamber. The walls of thislatter are built of horizontal courses ofstones, except at the corners, where thereare tall, vertically-placed slabs. Thechamber has three niches or recesses, oneon each of its closed sides. The roof isformed by corbelling the walls andfinishing off with slabs laid across. If onesits within the chamber and looks in adirect line along the passage one sees theBarnstone.

A series of measurements and alignmentshave been taken to connect the Maeshowe

tumulus with the Ring of Brogar. Thus wehave already seen that the distance fromthe Barnstone to the Watchstone is thesame as from the Barnstone to the tumulus.Moreover, the Watchstone is equidistantfrom the ring and from the tumulus. Again,a line from the Barnstone to the tumuluspasses through the point of themidsummer sunrise and also, on the otherhorizon, through the point of the settingsun ten days before the winter solstice; theline from the Watchstone to the BrogarRing marks the setting of the sun at theBeltane festival in May and its rising tendays before the winter solstice, while theline from Maeshowe to the Watchstone isin the line of the equinoctial rising andsetting. These alignments are the work ofMr. Magnus Spence; readers must choosewhat importance they will assign to them.

The Inverness type of circle is entirely

different from that of which we have beenspeaking. The finest examples were atClava, seven miles from Inverness, wherefifty years ago there were eight still inexistence. One of these is still partlypreserved. It consists of a circle 100 feet indiameter consisting of twelve stones.Within this is a cairn of stones with acircular retaining wall of stone blocks 2 or3 feet high. The cairn originally covered acircular stone chamber 12-1/2 feet indiameter entered by a straight passage onits south-west side. In other words, theInverness monuments are simplychamber-tombs covered with a cairn andsurrounded by a circle.

Around Aberdeen we find the third type ofcircle. It consists of a cist-tomb covered bya low mound, often with a retaining wall ofsmall blocks, but there is no entrancepassage leading into the cist. Outside the

whole is a circle of large upright blockswith this peculiarity, that between the twohighest--generally to the south or slightlyeast of south--lies a long block on its side,occupying the whole interval betweenthem. The uprights nearest this'recumbent' block are the tallest in thecircle, and the size of the rest decreasestowards the north. Of thirty circles knownnear Aberdeen twenty-six still possess the'recumbent' stone, and in others it mayoriginally have existed.

Passing now to monuments of moredefinitely sepulchral type we find that thedolmen is not frequent in Scotland, thoughseveral are known in the lowlands and inpart of Argyllshire.

To the long barrows of England answer inpart at least the chambered cairns of

Caithness and the Orkneys. The bestknown type is a long rectangular hornedcairn (Fig. 4), of which there are two fineexamples near Yarhouse. The largest is240 feet in length. The chamber is circular,and roofed partly by corbelling and partlyby a large slab. In the cairn of Get we havea shorter and wider example of the hornedtype. Another type is circular or elliptical.In a cairn of this sort at Canister an ironknife was found. On the Holm ofPapa-Westra in the Orkneys there is anelliptical cairn of this kind containing along rectangular chamber running alongits major axis with seven small circularniches opening off it. The entrancepassage lies on the minor axis of thebarrow.

[Illustration: FIG. 4. Horned tumulus atGarrywhin, Caithness. (AfterMontelius.)]

The megalithic monuments of Ireland areextremely numerous, and are found inalmost every part of the country. Theyoffer a particular interest from the fact thatthough they are of few different types theydisplay all the stages by which the morecomplex were developed from the moresimple. It must be remembered that most ifnot all the monuments we shall describewere originally covered by mounds ofearth, though in most cases these havedisappeared.

The simple dolmen is found in almost allparts of the country. Its single cover-slab issupported by a varying number ofuprights, sometimes as few as three,oftener four or more. It is of greatimportance to notice the fact that here inIreland, as elsewhere in the megalithicarea, e.g. Sardinia, we have the round and

rectangular dolmens in juxtaposition (Fig.5, _a_ and _c_).

[Illustration: FIG. 5. Type-plans of _(a)_ theround dolmen; _(b)_ the dolmenwith portico; _(c)_ the rectangulardolmen.]

Occasionally one of the end-blocks of thedolmen instead of just closing up the spacebetween the two nearest side-blocks ispushed back between them so as to formwith them a small three-sided porticooutside the chamber, but still under theshelter of the cover-slab (Fig. 5, _b_). Agood example of this exists at Gaulstown,Waterford, where a table-stone weighing 6tons rests on six uprights, three of whichform the little portico just described. Thefamous dolmen of Carrickglass, Sligo, is astill more developed example of this type.Here the chamber is an accurate

rectangle, and the portico is formed byadding two side-slabs outside one of theend-slabs, but still under the cover. Thislast is a remarkable block of limestoneweighing about 70 tons. This form of tombis without doubt a link between the simpledolmen and the corridor-tomb. The porticowas at first built under the slab by pushingan end-stone inwards. Then externalside-stones formed the portico, though stillunder the slab. The next move was toconstruct the portico outside the slab. Theportico then needed a roof, and theaddition of a second cover to provide itcompleted the transition to the simplercorridor-tomb. In many cases the Irishsimple dolmens were surrounded by acircle of upright stones. At Carrowmore,Sligo, there seems to have been averitable cemetery of dolmen-tombs, eachof which has one or more circles around it,the outermost being 120 feet in diameter.

The tombs in these Carrowmore circleswere not always simple dolmens, but oftencorridor-tombs of more or lesscomplicated types. Their excavation hasnot given very definite results. In manycases human bones have been found inconsiderable quantities, sometimes in acalcined condition; but there is no realevidence to show that cremation was theburial rite practised. The calcination ofhuman bones may well have been causedby the lighting of fires in the tomb, eitherat some funeral ceremony, or in even laterdays, when the place was used as a shelterfor peasants. A few poor flints were foundand a little pottery, together with manybones of animals and some pins andborers of bone. The most important findmade, however, was a small conical buttonmade of bone with two holes pierced in itsflat side and meeting in the middle. It is atype which occurs in Europe only at the

period of transition from the age of stoneto that of bronze, and usually in connectionwith megalithic monuments.

[Illustration: FIG. 6. Type-plan of thesimple rectangular corridor-tombor _all couverte_.]

We pass on now to consider the simplestform of corridor-tomb, that in which thereare several cover-slabs, but no separatechamber (Fig. 6). These tombs occur inmost parts of Ireland. At Carrick-a-Dhirra,County Waterford, there is a perfectexample of the most simple type. Thetomb is exactly rectangular and lies eastand west, with a length of 19 feet and abreadth of 7-1/2. At each end is a singleupright, and each long side consists ofseven. The chamber thus formed is roofedby five slabs. The whole was surroundedby a circle of about twenty-six stones, and

no doubt the chamber was originallycovered by a mound. In a somewhatsimilar example at Coolback, Fermanagh,the remains of the elliptical cairn are stillvisible.

But in most cases the plan of thecorridor-tomb is complicated by a kind ofouter lining of blocks which was added toit. Most of the monuments are so damagedthat it is difficult to see what the exact formof this lining was. Whether it merelyconsisted of a line of upright blocks closearound the sides of the chamber orwhether these supported some furtherstructure which covered up the wholechamber it is difficult to say. In some casesthe roof-slab actually covers the outer lineof blocks, and here it seems certain thatthis outer line served simply to reinforcethe chamber walls, the space betweenbeing filled with earth or rubble. However,

at Labbamologa, County Cork, is a tombcalled Leaba Callighe, in which this wascertainly not the case. The length of thewhole monument is about 42 feet. Theslabs cover the inner walls of the chamber,but not the outer lining: this last forms akind of outer shell to the whole monument.It is shaped roughly like a ship, and runs toa point at the east end, thus representingthe bow. The west end is damaged, butmay have been pointed like the east. Thewhole reminds one very forcibly of the_naus_ of the Balearic Isles and the Giants'Graves of Sardinia. Occasionally thecorridor-tomb has a kind of portico at itswest end.

[Illustration: FIG. 7. Type-plan ofwedge-shaped tomb. The roof slabs are two or more in number.]

In Munster the corridor-tomb takes a

peculiar form (Fig. 7). It lies roughly eastand west, and its two long sides are placedat a slight angle to one another in such away that the west end is broader than theeast. In a good example of this atKeamcorravooly, County Cork, there aretwo large capstones and the walls consistof double rows of slabs, the outer beingstill beneath the cover-slabs. On the uppersurface of the covers are several smallcup-shaped hollows, some of which atleast have been produced artificially.

These wedge-shaped structures are ofremarkable interest, for exactly the samebroadening of the west end is found inScandinavia, in the _Hnenbetter_ ofHolland, in the corridor-tombs of Portugal,and in the dolmens of the Deccan in India.

In some Irish tombs the corridor leads to awell-defined chamber. In a curious tomb at

Carrickard, Sligo, the chamber wasrectangular and lay across the end of thecorridor in such a way as to form a T. Thewhole seems to have been covered with anoval mound. In another at Highwood in thesame county a long corridor joins twosmall circular chambers, the total lengthbeing 44 feet. The corridor was oncedivided into four sections by cross-slabs.The cairn which covered this tomb wastriangular in form.

In the county of Meath, in the parish ofLough Crew, is a remarkable series ofstone cairns extending for three milesalong the Slieve-na-Callighe Hills. Thesecairns conceal chamber-tombs. The cairnsthemselves are roughly circular, and thelargest have a circle of upright blocksround the base. The chambers are built ofupright slabs and are roofed bycorbelling. Cairn H covered a corridor

leading to a chamber and opening off oneach side into a side-chamber, the wholegroup thus being cruciform. In thesechambers were found human remains andobjects of flint, bone, earthenware, amber,glass, bronze, and iron. Cairn L had acentral corridor from which opened offseven chambers in a very irregularfashion. Cairn T consisted of a corridorleading to a fine octagonal chamber withsmall chambers off it on three sides.

The chief interest of these tombs lies in theremarkable designs engraved on some ofthe stones of the passages and chambers.They are fairly deeply cut with a rathersharp implement, probably a metal chisel.They are arranged in the most arbitraryway on the stones and are often crowdedtogether in masses. There is no attempt todepict scenes of any kind, nor is there,indeed, any example of animal life. In fact,

the designs seem to be purely ornamental.The most frequent elements of design arecup-shaped hollows, concentric circles orovals, star-shaped figures, circles withemanating rays, spirals, chevrons,reticulated figures, parallel straight orcurved lines. There seems to be no clue asto the meaning of these designs. They mayhave been merely ornamental, though thisis hardly likely.

At New Grange, near Drogheda, there is asimilar series of tumuli, one of which hasbecome famous (Fig. 8). It consists of ahuge mound of stones 280 feet in diametersurrounded by a circle of upright blocks.Access to the corridor is gained from thesouth-east side. This corridor leads to achamber with three divisions, so thatcorridor and chambers together form across with a long shaft. The walls areformed of rough slabs set upright. In the

passage the roof is of slabs laid rightacross, but the roof of the chamber isformed by corbelling. On the floor of eachdivision of the chamber was found a stonebasin.

[Illustration: Figure 8. Corridor-tomb atNew Grange, Ireland (Coffey,_Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_,1892.)]

Around the edge of the mound runs anenclosure wall of stones lying on theground edge to edge. A few of these aresculptured. The finest is a great stonewhich lies in front of the entrance andshows a well-arranged design of spiralsand lozenges. There are also engravingson one of the stones of the chambers.These designs are in general more skilfulthan those of Lough Crew. They consistmainly of chevrons, lozenges, spirals, and

triangles.

The monuments we have so far describedare all tombs. Ireland also possessesseveral stone circles. The largest aresituated round Lough Gur, 10 or 12 milessouth of Limerick. There was at one time afine circle west of Lough Gur atRockbarton, but it is now destroyed. Onthe eastern edge of the lough is a doubleconcentric ring of stones, the diameter ofthe inner circle being about 100 feet. Therings are 6 feet apart, and the spacebetween them is filled up with earth. In1869 an excavation was made within thecircle and revealed some human remains,mostly those of children from six to eightyears old.

Further north is a remarkable group ofmonuments known as the Carrigalla

circles. The first is a plain circle (L) 33 or34 feet in diameter, composed oftwenty-eight stones. The space withinthem is filled up with earth to form a raisedplatform. At a distance of 75 feet are twoconcentric circles, diameters 155 and 184feet respectively, made of stones 5 or 6feet high. The space between the twocircles is filled with earth. Within these is athird concentric circle about 48 feet indiameter made of stones of the same size.This group of three concentric circles wewill call M. The line joining the centres of Land M runs in a direction of 29 or 30west of north and passes through a stone(N) 8 feet high standing on the top of aridge 2500 feet away. There are two otherstones more to the west (O and P) in such aposition that the line joining them (41west of north) passes through the centre ofM, from which they are distant 860 and1450 feet respectively. Further, a line

through the centre of L and a greatstanding stone (Q) 2480 feet from it in adirection 10 east of south passes throughthe highest point in the district, 1615 feetaway and 492 feet in height.

Mr. Lewis compares this group ofmonuments with that of Stanton Drew inSomersetshire. In both a line joining thecentre of two circles passes through asingle stone in a northerly direction, andthere is in both a fixed line from the centreof the larger circle. Captain BoyleSomerville, R.N., finds that the line 29 or30 west of north would mark the setting ofCapella in B.C. 1600, or Arcturus 500 B.C.;he adds that the direction 41 west of northwould suit Capella in 2500 B.C. or Castorin 2000 B.C.

On the west side of Lough Gur is anothergroup of monuments. There is in the first

place a circle 55 feet in diameter. On a line35 east of north from this is a stone 10 feethigh, and the same line produced strikes aprominent hill-top. Somewhere to thesouth-west of this circle, perhaps with itscentre in the line just described, lay asecond circle between 150 and 170 feet indiameter, destroyed in 1870. Three otherstones mentioned by early writers asbeing near the circles have nowdisappeared. The direction 35 east ofnorth is the same as that of the King-stonewith regard to the Rollright Circle inOxfordshire. This line, allowing a height of3 for the horizon, would, according to SirNorman Lockyer, have struck the risingpoints of Capella in 1700 B.C. and Arcturusin 500 B.C.

To the south of the destroyed circle isanother about 150 to 155 feet in diameter,with stones of over 5 feet in height set

close together. Earth is piled up outsidethem to form a bank 30 feet wide. There isan entrance 3 feet wide in a direction 59east of north from the centre of the circle.There is said to have been at one time acromlech 100 feet wide due south of thecircle and connected with it by a pavedway. Sir Norman Lockyer thinks that theposition of the doorway is connected withobservation of the sun's rising in May.Moreover, the tallest stone of the circle, 9feet high, is 30 east of north from thecentre, a direction which according to himpoints to the rising of Capella in 1950 B.C.and Arcturus in 280 B.C.

CHAPTER IV

THE SCANDINAVIANMEGALITHIC AREA

In Scandinavia megalithic monumentsabound. They have been studied withunusual care from quite an early date inthe history of archlogy, and classified inthe order of their development. Theearliest type appears to be the simpledolmen with either four or five sides and avery rough cover-slab. This and the upperpart of the sides remained uncovered bythe mound of earth which was alwaysheaped round the tomb. In later times thedolmen became more regularlyrectangular in shape, and only itsroof-block appeared above the mound.Contemporary with this later form ofdolmen were several other types of tomb.

One was simply the earlier dolmen withone side open and in front of it a sort ofportico or elementary corridor formed bytwo upright slabs with no roofing (cf. theIrish type, Fig. 5, _b_). This quicklydeveloped into the true corridor-tomb,which had at first a small round chamberwith one or two cover-slabs, a shortcorridor, and a round or rectangularmound. Later types have an oval chamber(Fig. 9) with from one to four cover-slabsor a rectangular chamber with a longcorridor and a circular mound. Finally wereach a type where thin slabs are used inthe construction, and the moundcompletely covers the cap-stones: here thecorridor leads out from one of the shortends of the rectangular chamber.

The earliest of these types in point of viewof development, the true dolmen, iscommon both in Denmark and in South

Sweden; only one example exists inNorway. In Sweden it is never found farfrom the sea-coast.

[Illustration: FIG. 9. Corridor-tomb,Ottagden, Sweden. (Montelius,_Orient und Europa_.)]

The corridor-tomb is also frequent inDenmark and Sweden, though it isunknown in Norway. In Sweden it is, likeall megalithic monuments, confined to thesouth of the country. Of the early transitiontype with elementary corridor there arefine examples at Herrestrup in Denmarkand Torebo in Sweden. A tomb at Sjol inSweden where the corridor, consisting ofonly two uprights, is covered in with tworoof-slabs instead of being left open,shows very clearly the transition to thecorridor-tomb proper, in which theentrance passage consists of at least four

uprights, two on each side. Of this thereare numerous fine examples. A tomb ofthis type at Broholm in Denmark has aroughly circular chamber separated fromthe corridor by a kind of threshold-stone.Another at Tyfta in Sweden is remarkablefor its curious construction, the uprightsbeing set rather apart from one anotherand the spaces between filled up with drymasonry of small stones. Possibly therewere not sufficient large blocks at hand toconstruct a tomb of the required size.

The still later type consisting of arectangular chamber with a long corridorleading out of one of its long sides oftenattains to very imposing dimensions. InWestgothland, a province of Sweden,there are fine examples with walls oflimestone and often roofs of granite visibleabove the surface of the mound. Thelargest of these tombs is that of Karleby

near Falking. In another at AxevallaHeath were found nineteen bodies seatedround the wall of the chamber, each in aseparate small cist of stone slabs. Theposition of the bodies in the Scandinaviangraves is rather variable, both theoutstretched and the contracted posturebeing used. It is usual to find many bodiesin the same tomb, often as many as twentyor thirty: in that of Borreby on the island ofSeeland were found seventy skeletons, allof children of from two to eighteen years ofage.

In Denmark these rectangular tombsoccasionally have one or more small roundniches. In 1837 a large tomb wasexcavated at Lundh on Jtland, which hada circular niche opposite to the entrance.The niche had a threshold-stone, and thetwo uprights of the main chamber whichlay on either side of this had been crudely

engraved with designs, among which werea man, an animal, and a circle with a pairof diameters marked. Little was found inthe chamber, and only some bones and apot in the niche.

In Denmark often occur mounds whichcontain two or more tombs, usually of thesame form, each with its separate entrancepassage. At the entrance of the chamberthere is sometimes a well-workedframework into which fitted a door of stoneor wood.

The late type in which the corridor leadsout of one of the narrow ends of thechamber is represented in both Swedenand Denmark. From this may be derivedthe rather unusual types in which thecorridor has become indistinguishablefrom the chamber or forms a sort ofantechamber to it. An example of the

former type at Knyttkr in Sweden is widerat one end than at the other, and has anouter coating of stone slabs. It resemblesvery closely the wedge-shaped tombs ofMunster (cf. Fig. 7):

In Germany megalithic monuments are notinfrequent, but they are practicallyconfined to the northern part of thecountry. They extend as far east asKigsberg and as far west as the bordersof Holland. They are very frequent inHolstein, Mecklenburg, and Hanover.There are even examples in PrussianSaxony, but in South Germany they ceaseentirely. Keller in one edition of his _LakeDwellings_ figures two supposed dolmensnorth of Lake Pffikon in Switzerland, butwe have no details with regard to them.

The true dolmen is extremely rare inGermany, and only occurs in small groups

in particular localities. The corridor-tombwith a distinct chamber is also veryexceptional, especially east of the Elbe.The most usual type of megalithic tomb isthat known as the _Hnenbett_ or_Riesenbett_. The latter name meansGiants' Bed, and it seems probable that theformer should be similarly translated,despite the suggested connection with theHuns, for a word _Hnen_ has been in usein North Germany for several centurieswith the meaning of giants. A _Hnenbett_consists of a rectangular (rarely oval orround) hill of earth covering a megalithictomb. This is a simple elongated rectanglein shape, made of upright blocks androofed with two or more cover-slabs. Thegreat _Hnenbett_ or Grewismhlen inMecklenburg has a mound measuring 150feet by 36 with a height of 5 feet. On theedge of the mound are arrangedforty-eight tall upright blocks of stone.

The _Hnenbetter_ of the Altmark areamong the best known and explored. Herethe corridors are usually about 20 feetlong, though in rare cases they reach alength of 40 feet. Each is filled with cleansand up to two-thirds of its height, and onthis lie the bodies and their funeraldeposit. The bodies must have been laidflat, though not necessarily in an extendedposition, as there was not room above thesand for them to have been seated upright.Various implements of flint have beenfound in the tombs together with stonehammers and vases of pottery. There is nocertain instance of the finding of metal.

A book printed by John Picardt atAmsterdam in 1660 contains quaintpictures of giants and dwarfs engaged inthe building of a megalithic monument

which is clearly a _Hnenbett_. Accordingto tradition the giants, after employing thelabour of the dwarfs, proceeded to devourthem. _Hnenbetter_ similar to thoseshown in Picardt's illustrations are still tobe seen in Holland, but only in the north,where over fifty are known. They are ofelongated rectangular form, built ofupright blocks, and roofed with from twoto ten cover-slabs. They all widen slightlytowards the west end. The most perfectexample still remaining is that ofTinaarloo, and the largest is that of Borger,which contains forty-five blocks, of whichten are cap-stones. Several _Hnenbetter_have been excavated. In them are foundpottery vases, flint celts, axes andhammers of grey granite, basalt, and jade.

Belgium possesses several true dolmens,of which the best known is that called LaPierre du Diable on the right bank of the

Meuse. Near Lttich are two simplecorridor-tombs, each with a round hole inone of the end-slabs and a small porticooutside it.

CHAPTER V

FRANCE, SPAIN, ANDPORTUGAL

France contains large numbers ofmegalithic monuments. Of dolmens andcorridor-tombs no less than 4458 havebeen recorded. In the east and south-eastthey are rare, but they abound over a widestrip running from the Breton coasts of theEnglish Channel to the Mediterraneanshores of Hault and Card. In 1901Mortillef counted 6192 menhirs, includingthose which formed parts of _alignements_and cromlechs. Several of these attain to agreat size. That to Locmariaquer(Morbihan), now unfortunately fallen andbroken, measured over 60 feet in height,being thus not much shorter than theEgyptian obelisk which stands in the Place

de la Concorde in Paris.

Passing now to combinations of menhirs ingroups, we must first mention theremarkable _alignements_ of Brittany, ofwhich the most famous are those ofCarnac. They run east and west over adistance of 3300 yards, but the line isbroken at two points in such a way that thewhole forms three groups. The mostwesterly, that of Mec, consists of elevenlines of menhirs and a cromlech, the totalnumber of stones standing being 1169, thetallest of which is 13 feet in height. Thecentral group, that of Kermario, consists of982 stones arranged in ten straight lines,while the most easterly, that of Kerlescan,is formed by 579 menhirs, 39 of which forma rectangular enclosure.

There are other _alignements_ in Brittany,of which the most important is that of

Erdeven, comprising 1129 stonesarranged in ten lines. Outside Brittany_alignements_ are unusual, but a fineexample, now ruined, is said to haveexisted at Saint Pantaln north of Autun. Inthe fields around it are found largequantities of polished stone axes withknives, scrapers, and arrow-heads of flint.

We have already noticed the cromlechswhich form part of the _alignements_ ofBrittany. There are other examples inFrance. At Er-Lanic are two circlestouching one another, the lower of which iscovered by the sea even at low tide.Excavations carried out within the circlesbrought to light rough pottery and axes ofpolished stone. Two fine circles at Can deCeyrac (Gard) have diameters of about100 yards, and are formed of stones about3 feet high. Each has a short entranceavenue which narrows as it approaches the

circle, and in the centre of each rises atrilithon of rough stones.

Of the definitely sepulchral monuments thedolmen is common in all parts of theFrench megalithic area. It will suffice tomention the magnificent example knownas the Table des Marchands atLocmariaquer. Perhaps the most typicalstructure in France is the corridor-tomb inwhich the chamber is indistinguishablefrom the passage, and the whole forms along rectangular area. This is the _allcouverte_ in the narrower sense. In thedepartment of Oise occurs a special typeof this in which one of the end-slabs has ahole pierced in its centre and is precededby a small portico consisting of twouprights supporting a roof-slab (Fig 10). Aremarkable example in Brittany known asLes Pierres Plates turns at a sharp angle inthe middle, and is thus elbow-shaped.

[Illustration: FIG. 10. _All couverte_,called La Pierre aux Fs, Oise,France. (_Compte rendu du CongrPristorique de France_.)]

In the north of France the _all_ is oftenmerely cut out in the surface of the groundand has no roof at all. It is sometimespaved with slabs and divided into twopartitions by an upright with a hole in itscentre. Tombs of this kind often containfrom forty to eighty skeletons, some ofwhich are in the contracted position. Theskulls are in some cases trepanned, i.e.small round pieces of the bone have beencut out of them; such pieces are sometimesfound separate in the graves. No objects ofmetal occur in these North French tombs.

There are many fine examples in Brittanyof the corridor-tomb with distinct

chamber. The best known lies on theisland of Gavr'inis (Morbihan). It iscovered by a tumulus nearly 200 feet indiameter. The circular chamber, 6 feet inheight, is roofed by a huge blockmeasuring 13 feet by 10. The corridorwhich leads out to the edge of the moundis 40 feet in length. Twenty-two of theupright blocks used in this tomb arealmost entirely covered with engraveddesigns. These are massed together withvery little order, the main object havingbeen apparently to cover the wholesurface of the stone with ornament. Thedesigns consist of spirals, concentriccircles and semicircles, chevrons, rows ofstrokes, and triangles, and bear aconsiderable resemblance to those ofLough Crew and New Grange in Ireland.

Another tomb in the same district, that ofManer-Hroeck, was intact when

discovered in 1863. It contained within itschamber a hoard of 101 axes of fibroliteand jadeite, 50 pebbles of a kind ofturquoise known as _calla_, pieces ofpottery, flints, and a peculiarly fine celt ofjadeite together with a flat ring-shapedclub-head of the same stone. The tomb wasconcealed by a huge oval mound morethan 100 yards in length. The famous MontS. Michel is an artificial mound containinga central megalithic chamber and severalsmaller cists, some of which held crematedbodies.

[Illustration: FIG. 11. Chambered mound atFontenay-le-Marmion, Normandy.(After Montelius, _Orient und Europa_.)]

A very remarkable mound in Calvados(Fig. 11) was found to contain no less thantwelve circular corbelled chambers, eachwith a separate entrance passage. The

megalithic tombs of Brittany all belong tothe late neolithic period, and contain toolsand arrow-heads of flint, small ornamentsof gold, _calla_, and pottery whichincludes among its forms the bell-shapedcup.

In Central and South France the _allscouvertes_ are mostly of asemi-subterranean type, i.e. they are cut inthe ground and merely roofed with slabsof stone. The most famous is that of theGrotte des Fs near Arles (Fig. 12), inwhich a passage (_a_) with a staircase atone end and two niches (_b b_) in its sidesleads into a narrow rectangular chamber(_c_). The total length is nearly 80 feet.Another tomb of the same type, La Grottedu Castellet, contained over a hundredskeletons, together with thirty-three flintarrow or spear-heads, one of which wasstuck fast in a human vertebra, a

bell-shaped cup, axes of polished stone,beads and pendants of various materials,114 pieces of _calla_, and a small plaqueof gold.

On the plateau of Ger near the town of Daxare large numbers of mounds, some ofwhich contain cremated bodies in urns andothers megalithic tombs. Bertrand saw inthis a cemetery of two different peoplesliving side by side. But it has since beenshown that the cremation mounds belongto a much later period than those whichcontain megalithic graves. In these last theskeletons were found seated around thewalls of the chamber accompanied byobjects of flint and other stone, beads of_calla_, and small gold ornaments.

[Illustration: FIG. 12. Plan and section of LaGrotte des Fs, Arles, France(_Matiaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_,

1873).]

[Illustration: FIG. 13. The so-calleddolmen-deity, from the tombs ofthe Petit Morin. (After de Baye.)]

France has also its rock-hewn tombs, for inthe valley of the Petit-Morin is a series ofsuch graves. A trench leads down to theentrance, which is closed by a slab. Thechamber itself is completely underground.In the shallower tombs were either tworows of bodies with a passage between orseparate layers parted by slabs or strata ofsand. In the deeper were seldom morethan eight bodies, in the extended orcontracted position, with tools andweapons of flint, pots, and beads of amberand of _calla_. On the walls were roughsculptures of human figures (Fig. 13), towhich we shall have to return later.

The Channel Islands possess megalithicmonuments not unlike those of Brittany.They are corridor-tombs covered with amound and often surrounded by a circle ofstones. Within the chamber, which isusually round, lies, under a layer of shells,a mass of mingled human and animalbones. The bodies had been buried in thesitting position, and with them lay objectsof stone and bone, but none of metal.

The Spanish Peninsula abounds inmegalithic monuments. With the exceptionof a few menhirs, whose purpose isuncertain, all are sepulchral. Dolmens andcorridor-tombs are numerous in manyparts, especially in the north-eastprovinces, in Galicia, in Andalusia, and,above all, in Portugal. There is a finedolmen in the Vall Gorguina in North-EastSpain. The cover-slab, measuring 10 feet

by 8, is supported by seven roughuprights with considerable spacesbetween them. In the same region is aruined dolmen surrounded by a circlenearly 90 feet in circumference, consistingof seven large stones, some of whichappear to be partly worked. Circles arealso found round dolmens in Andalusia.Portugal abounds in fine dolmens both ofthe round and rectangular types. At FonteCoberta on the Douro stands a magnificentdolmen known locally as the Moors' House.In the name of the field, Fonte Coberta,there is doubtless an allusion to the beliefthat the dolmens conceal springs of water,a belief also held in parts of Ireland.

At Eguilaz in the Basque provinces is a finecorridor-tomb, in which a passage 20 feetlong, roofed with flat slabs, leads to arectangular chamber 13 feet by 15 with animmense cover-slab nearly 20 feet in

length: the whole was covered with amound of earth. The chamber containedhuman bones and "lanceheads of stoneand bronze." A famous tomb of a similartype exists at Marcella in Algarve. Thechamber is a fine circle of upright slabs. Itis paved with stones, and part of its area isdivided into two or perhaps threerectangular compartments. A couple oforthostatic slabs form a sort of neck joiningthe circle to the passage, which narrows asit leads away from the circle, and wasprobably divided into two sections by adoorway whose side-posts still remain.

In South-East Spain the brothers Siret havefound corridor-tombs in which thechamber is cut in the rock surface androofed with slabs; the entrance passagebecomes a slope or a staircase. Here wehave a parallel to the Giants' Graves ofSardinia, which are built usually of stone

blocks on the surface, but occasionally arecut in the solid rock. Other tombs in thesame district show the common megalithicconstruction consisting of a base course ofupright slabs surmounted by severalcourses of horizontal masonry (Fig. 14).The chamber is usually round, and mayhave two or more niches in itscircumference. It is roofed by thesuccessive overlapping or corbelling ofthe upper courses. The vault thus formed isfurther supported by a pillar of wood orstone set in the centre of the chamber. Onthe walls of some of the chambers thereare traces of rough painting in red. Thewhole tomb is covered with a circularmound. In the best known example at LosMillares there are remains of asemicircular fade in front of the entrance,as in many other megalithic monuments.

[Illustration: FIG. 14. Corridor-tomb at Los

Millares, Spain. (After Siret.)]

The finest, however, of all the Spanishmonuments is the corridor-tomb ofAntequera in Andalusia. It consists of ashort passage leading into a longrectangular chamber roofed with fourslabs. Within it on its axial line are threestone pillars placed directly under thethree meeting-points of the four slabs, butquite unnecessary for their support. Thewhole tomb is covered with a low moundof earth. In the great upright slab whichforms the inner end of the chamber is acircular hole rather above the centre.

It is not the plan of this tomb, but the size,that compels the admiration of thebeholder. He stands, as it were, within avast cave lighted only from its narrow end,the roof far above his head. The roughsurface of the blocks lends colour to the

feeling that this is the work of Nature andnot of man. Here, even if not inStonehenge, he will pause to marvel at thepatient energy of the men of old who puttogether such colossal masses of stone.

Among the corridor-tombs of Spain mustbe mentioned a wedge-shaped type whichbears a close resemblance to those ofMunster in Ireland (cf. Fig. 7). In Alemtejo,south of Cape de Sines, are several ofthese, usually about 6 feet in length, with aslight portico at one end.

A further point of similarity with the Irishmonuments is seen in the corridor-tombsof Monte Abrahain Portugal, where thechamber walls seem to have beenreinforced by an outer lining of slabs.Remains of eighty human bodies werefound in this tomb, together with objects ofstone and bone, including a small conical

button similar to that of Carrowmore inIreland.

The Spanish Peninsula also possessesrock-hewn tombs. At Palmella, nearLisbon, is a circular example about 12 feetin diameter preceded by a bell-shapedpassage which slopes slightly downwards.Another circular chamber in the samegroup has a much longer passage, whichbulges out into two small roundedantechambers. These tombs have beenexcavated and yielded some potteryvases, together with objects of copper andbeads of a peculiar precious stone called_calla_. All the finds made in themegalithic remains of Spain and Portugalpoint to the period of transition from theage of stone to that of metal.

The Balearic Islands contain remarkablemegalithic monuments. Those known as

the _talayots_ are towers having a circularor rarely a square base and slopingslightly inwards as they rise. The largest is50 feet in diameter. The stones, which arerather large and occasionally trimmed, arelaid flat, not on edge. A doorway just largeenough to be entered with comfort leadsthrough the thickness of the wall into around chamber roofed by corbelling, withthe assistance sometimes of one or morepillars. From analogy with the _nuraghi_ ofSardinia, which they resemble ratherclosely, it seems probable that the_talayots_ are fortified dwellings, perhapsonly used in time of danger (Fig. 15).

[Illustration: Fig. 15. Section and plan ofthe Talayot of Sa Aquila, Majorca.(After Cartailhac.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 16. Nau d'Es Tudons, planand section. (After Cartailhac