What is Science?

We will not give you any standard definition of science as given by scholars nor the definit ion

given by scientists. Instead we will help you to define science in your own words as you develop an understanding of science.

Human beings are curious by nature. They have a highly developed mind because of which they can observe precisely, correlate observations and predict future happenings on the basis of their observations. This ability has helped human beings to adjust to nature. They explore, interpret and

change the physical world according to their own need and requirement. The process of observing, describing, exploring and using the physical world is nothing hut science.

Science as a Process

Process and processing are the words we often use in our day-to-day conversations. In teaching

profession alone, the word, 'Process' is extensively used, such as, admission process, teaching process, learning process, process of socialization, examination process, and evaluation process

etc. Process in any involve the following activities:

It helps to accomplish a task

Ways of doing work

Planning various stage of an activity, and

Establishing systematic steps for gathering and retaining information.

In science, the way of gathering information, thinking, measuring, solving a problem or in other words the ways of learning science are called the 'processes of science'.

OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING SCIENCE

Education is a process of bringing about changes in an individual in a desired direction. It is a

process of helping a child to develop his potentialities to the maximum and to bring out the best from within the child. To bring about these changes we teach them various subjects at different levels of school. Science as subject is included in the school curriculum from the very beginning.

Before taking any decision about teaching science we should pose certain questions to ourselves,

such as,

Why do we teach them science?

What are the goals and objectives of teaching science?

What changes does science teaching bring about in the behaviour of the students?

Before answering these questions let us first define goals and objectives. A goal is the ultimate target in life which an individual tries to achieve. Goals are basically long

term objectives which require a long period bf time to be achieved. For example, development of scientific attitude, to become a responsible citizen etc. Objectives are short term targets which are

specific and could he achieved in a single day or single hour. For example, acquiring knowledge about some specific things within a pre-specified time limit, would come under the purview of objectives.

Students are potential human resources required to be developed into educated, sound, skilled and efficient citizens who will fulfil the aims of social, economic, political and technologica l

development of the society.

The aim of education is to provide opportunities for personal all-round development of individua ls, to equip them with up to date and sound knowledge of science and technology and make them

capable of using science and technology for the betterment of human society.

Goals/Aims for Science Teaching

Considering the individual teacher and his/her own reason for teaching science it would become impossible for any educational system to provide facilities for each teacher to achieve higher goals,

therefore, goals are decided at the national level. Various commissions and committees on education set up by Government of India after

Science in school Curriculum

Independence emphasized the teaching of science from the primary level. All of them emphasized the teaching of science for:

The development of process skills like observation, classification, measurement, communica t ion etc.

Acquisition and understanding of knowledge, development of problem solving skill, skill of investigation, ability to think logically and to draw conclusions on the basis of

experiments.

Development of ability to reach generalizations and to apply them for solving everyday problems.

Development of understanding of inter-relationships of science and society.

To foster creativity in people, enabling them to carry out innovations in science.

Instructional/General Objectives for Science Teaching

The specific objectives under cognitive, affective and psychomotor domain are clubbed into three,

two and one respectively for the purpose of formulating general instructional objectives for science

teaching. These are as follows. 1. Knowledge 2. Understanding and

3. Application are from the cognitive domain, 4. Interest and

5. Attitude are from the affective domain and 6. Skill are Prom the psychomotor domain.

By now you are familiar with these terms. Let us now discuss these objectives as they are used for instruction purpose along with expected change in behaviour of learners.

Knowledge

Knowledge as you know is the lowest level of cognitive ability. Therefore, the first objective of teaching science is related to acquisition of knowledge by the students. It states: "Students will

acquire the knowledge of facts, concepts, principles, processes and techniques etc." The behaviour specification to demonstrate the achievement of this objective is that pupil will be

able to:

Recall terms, facts, concepts, principles and processes etc.

Recognize facts, terms, concepts, principles and processes etc.

You know that words like 'recall' and 'recognize' are the action words which represent the behaviour of individuals. This overt behaviour can be observed and measured by teacher as well

as by an evaluator or any observer.

The second objective of science teaching is related to the next higher cognitive ability i.e. comprehension or understanding. It states: "To develop the ability to understand facts, concepts, principles, theories and techniques etc."

Behaviour specification of objectives are that pupils

Illustrate terms, facts, concepts, principles etc. by citing examples.

Express the same fact or concept in different ways by way of explanation.

Locate errors in known situation and correct them.

Compare and contrast between related terms and concepts.

Classify objects, facts or any information.

Discriminate between allied substances or concepts.

Identify relationship between various facts and concepts.

Extrapolate for known information.

Translate symbolic statement into verbal statement and vice versa.

Interpret data, charts, graphs etc.

Detect errors in faculty statements.

Verify facts.

Solve numerical problems.

Application

The essence of teaching learning, as you know, is the application of knowledge. You perform

various activities or solve many problems in your daily life. You are able to do this only because you have the knowledge and understanding of the things around yourself. The third objective aims

at using knowledge in new situations. It states: "To develop the ability to apply knowledge of concepts and principles of science in new or unfamiliar situations." Behaviour specification of the objectives are that the pupil will:

Analyze situation or problem

Formulate hypothesis on the basis of observations

Select appropriate methods and material for testing the hypothesis

Give reasons for happenings

Draw inferences, conclusions and generalizations

Predict results or happenings on the basis of known facts

Skills

We know that 'Science learning is science doing', therefore, for learning science, various skills are required for performing activities and acquiring knowledge. Also, type of knowledge acquired by

an individual depends upon the processes applied for acquiring it. The fourth objective of teaching science states: "To develop observational, experimental, manipulative and drawing skills".

To demonstrate the acquisition of skills pupil will :

Handle objects. Material. Instruments. Specimens and apparatus properly

Clean apparatus and instruments carefully

Observe and record relevant data accurately

Measure weight, volume, temperature, pressure and other dimensions accurately

Put articles in proper order and place

Draw and label neat and appropriate diagrams

Make graphs and charts from given data

Improvise apparatus

Dissect neatly

Take precautions

Interest and Appreciation for Science

Why have you studied science? It was because you liked it, you enjoyed studying it, you’re curious nature got satisfied by the answers give11 by science. Now you want to develop the same interest

and appreciation for science among your students. Pupils learn only when they enjoy the subject and appreciate the fruits of science for the development of society. So, our next objective states: "To develop the power of appreciation of the developments in science and to create interests in

learning science."

The behaviour specifications which will be demonstrated by the students on achieving the objectives are that the pupil will be able to:

Show thrill and excitement while performing science experiments.

Feel satisfaction in collecting and exhibiting the materials, ob.jects, specimens and the

pictures showing development of science.

Enjoy performing experiments in chemistry.

Read scientific literature.

Read with interest, about the achievements and sacrifices of great scientists.

Take part in scientific debates, discussions and functions.

Explain interdependence of organism and environment and of organisms themselves.

Collect materials and specimens.

Preserves materials. Leaves: flowers, insect’s stones and minerals etc., properly.

Visit places of scientific interest on his own.

Contribute articles on topics of scientific interest.

Joins scientific lobby clubs.

Improvise models and apparatus.

Scientific Attitude

We aspire for the development of scientific attitude ill our students. It is the ultimate aim of science teaching. You will also agree that if we teach science properly i.e. through activities performed

under the supervision of teachers or allow children to perform unsupervised activities on their own, then surely they will adopt scientific process for learning their environment. Through guided and

self-learning they will acquire the behaviour and attitude which we call as scientific attitude. Acquiring scientific attitude pupils will demonstrate the following behaviour:-

They will respect the teacher.

They will have a keen desire to know how’s and whys of any event or phenomenon.

They will not ignore any detail even if it is of no direct relevance of the work in hand.

They will record, report and interpret their observations honestly.

They will not accept or reject anything without valid reasons.

They will suspend judgement till it is repeatedly confirmed.

They are unbiased in their approach to problems.

They are willing to consider new ideas and discoveries.

They will admit their mistakes unhesitatingly.

They will develop independent thinking.

They will show a spirit of team work, self-help and self-reliance.

They are prepared to face hazards in their investigation.

National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005

The National Curriculum Framework-2005 recommends hands-on, inquiry-based science curriculum. NCF-2005 also addresses the issues of curriculum load, rote memorization and rigid examination system.

NCF-2005 suggests flexible examination system and time schedule, reducing curriculum load and integration of theory and practical work in teaching-learning of science. NCF-2005 recognises

learner as constructor of knowledge and suggests that learners be provided with learning-experiences which enable them to inquire, solve problems and develop their own concepts. At the primary stage, the child should be engaged in joyfully exploring the world around and

harmonising with it. The main objectives at this stage are to arouse curiosity about the world (natural environment, artifacts and people) and to engage the child in exploratory and hands on

activities. At the upper primary stage science education should provide a gradual transition from environmental studies of the primary stage to elements of science and technology. Science content

at the upper primary stage should not be governed by disciplinary approach. At this stage the child should be engaged in learning the principles of science through familiar experiences, working with

hands to simple technological models. At the secondary stage, students should be engaged in learning science as a composite discipline, in working with hands and tools to design more advanced technological models than at the upper

primary stage. At the higher secondary stage, science should be introduced as a separate discipline, with

emphasis on experiments/technology and problem solving.

Vision and Perspective

To uphold values enshrined in the Constitution of India

To reduce of curriculum load

To ensure quality education for all

To initiate certain systemic changes

Guiding Principles

Connecting knowledge to life outside the School

Ensuring that learning is shifted away from rote methods

Enriching curriculum so that it goes beyond Text Book

Making Examination more flexible and non-threatening

Discuss the aims of education

Building commitment to democratic values of equality, justice, secularism and freedom.

Focus on child as an active learner

Primacy to children’s experience, their voices and participation

Needs for adults to change their perception of children as passive receiver of knowledge

Children can be active participants in the construction of knowledge and every child come

to with pre-knowledge

Children must be encouraged to relate the learning to their immediate environment

Emphasizes that gender, class, creed should not be constraints for the child

Highlights the value of Integration

Designing more challenging activities

Curricular areas, school stages and Assessment

Recommends significant changes in Maths, Natural Sciences, Social Sciences

Overall view to reduce stress, make education more relevant, meaningful

Languages

To implement 3-language formula

Emphasis on mother tongue as medium of instruction

Curriculum should contain multi- lingual proficiency only if mother tongue is considered

as second language

Focus on all skills

Mathematics

Teaching of Mathematics to focus on child’s resources to think and reason, to visua lize

abstractions and to solve problems.

Sciences

Teaching of science to focus on methods and processes that will nurture thinking process,

curiosity and creativity. Social Sciences

Social sciences to be considered from disciplinary perspective with rooms for:

Integrated approach in the treatment of significant themes

Enabling pedagogic practices for promoting thinking process, decision making and critical reflection.

Draws attention on four other areas

a. Art Education: covers music, dance, visual arts and theatre which on interactive approaches not instruction aesthetic awareness and enable children to express themselves in different forms.

b. Health and Physical Education: Health depends upon nutrition and planned physical activities.

c. Education for Peace: As a precondition to snub growing violence and intolerance d. Work and Education: As it can create a social temper and agencies offering work opportunit ies

outside the school should be formally recognized.

Bihar Curriculum Framework, 2008 (BCF) While Bihar Curriculum Framework, 2008 (BCF) also inspired by the NCF 2005. It is mainly

emphasis on the education with the social conditions where children lives are important factor of development of an individual and the society. It basically talks that society can be developed when

the majority of the member attend school level education. School has become value transformation hub. School could maximize the opportunity to transformation of knowledge in a systematic and proper way. BCF 2008 also focuses on the democratic value of equality, justice and secularism,

social value and so on.

Still the aims of education both the NCF and the BCF are more or less similar. So here in this case a question arises if there is a national level curriculum exist then why state level curriculum? For answering this concern we have need to take a slight glance in to the social context (especially

in the context of Bihar). Biharian society have a vast variety of culture, caste and economic class and for the entire society to provide equal opportunity and equal participation by the guidelines

Curriculums’ aims of education, the hierarchy of cast, economic status, cultural diversity, gender, geographical condition & various power group. So the Curriculum is designed to address the challenges which are raised due to social context in

the education both at the planning and implementation level. Bihar is a multicultural and diverse state as like India but having a great differences in basic infrastructure and facilities. For an

example urbanization in the state is only 10.47% in comparison to the national average of 27.78%. So we may say that contextual relevance is a significant reason. Literacy rate of Bihar is very less as compare to the national level. In this way a large number of

students whom come to school. They are the first generation school goers and speaking local languages. Over population, poor condition of infrastructure, floods in north Bihar, extreme gender

discrimination these are the major concerns which need to be tackle with extra effort and attention. According to NCFs’ General aims of education, “It is proposed that within this framework, the

articulation of aims needs to serve two major purposes. Firstly, reflect collective socio-political aspirations of the whole society and second, serves a

significant pedagogical purpose of provide direction to the teacher in choice of content and methods of education. . Aims are stated in two parts only as principles and no elaborate justifications and/or explanations

are provided.”

Mainly it is focuses on two things which are;

A. Values and Ideals: Education should promote in society, as well as help the learner develop a rational commitment to: • Equality – of status and opportunity, • Freedom – of thought, expression, beliefs, faith and worship; as a value in life • Autonomy of mind – as independence of

thinking, based on reason, • Autonomy of action – freedom to choose, ability and freedom to decide and ability and freedom to act, • Care and respect for others – going beyond respecting their

freedom and autonomy, concern about well-being and sensitivity to all members of society, • Justice: social, economic and political.

B. Capabilities of individual human beings • Knowledge base – sufficiently broad knowledge base encompassing all crucial areas of socio-political life, and all basic ways of investigation and

validation of knowledge• Sensitivity to others – Sensitivity to others well beings and feelings coupled with knowledge should form basis of rational commitment to values. ‘Others’ should include all life forms. • Rational/critical attitude: Critical rationality is the only way to autonomy

of thought and action. • Learning to learn – the future needs of development of knowledge, reason, sensitivity and skills cannot be determined in advance. Therefore, ability to learn as new needs

arise in new situations is necessary to function autonomously in a democratic society. • Work and ability to participate in economic processes – choices in life and ability to participate in the democratic processes depends on ability to contribute to the society in its various functions. •

Aesthetic appreciation/creation – appreciation of beauty and art forms is an integral part of human life.

Need of standard in School science

What are standards?

Standards spell out what students are expected to learn in each grade and each subject. Each state

Department of Education creates standards for schools within the state. These standards become the basis for the way teachers are trained, what they teach and what is on state standardized tests

that students take.

Why are standards important?

Without standards, districts and schools don’t have goals to shoot for. By matching what is taught

in the classroom to the standards in each subject area, students (and their parents and teachers) will know what teachers should be teaching, what students should be learning and what they will be tested on.

Benefits of standards

National standards would raise the level of expectations for all. If all schools across the country had the same standards, all students would be expected to achieve at the same level, no matter

what state they live in. If students in Mississippi were required to know the same things as students in New York, for example, they would be prepared to attend universities throughout the country.

National standards would assure that all American students meet international levels of

achievement. We know that American students fall behind in math and science compared to their peers in other countries. With national standards, it would be clear what students need to know to

compete internationally. National standards would make it easier for students to adjust to a new school when they move

from one state to another. In an increasingly mobile population, it would be easier for students

who currently face differing standards and different tests in each state.

Science and Environment

Relating science education with the environment of a child has been the prime concern of educationists. The environment of a child includes natural and social environment, artifacts and

people. In science we learn about the environmental phenomena of both natural and man-made

interventions affecting the environment. We can say that science education is mainly of the environment and for the environment. Therefore, every effort should be made to integrate science with learning the environment. The science curriculum should address issues and concerns related

to environment such as climate change, acid rain, growth of water eutrophication and various types of pollution, etc. through teaching- learning of science at all stages.

Students will be attracted towards science when they realise its significance to society and relevance to their lives. Science teacher should aim to enlighten the young minds with the wonders of science.

Students should be made to realise the significance of discoveries, inventions and principles of physical science through their everyday experiences. They should be engaged to construct the

knowledge of physical science through an interdisciplinary approach appreciating its relation and impact on the social and natural environment. They can recognize the importance of science/physics/chemistry by doing activities related to their everyday life.

Science & Technology

Science and technology are linked to each other. Discoveries in science have paved the way for

the evolution of new technologies. At the same time technology has been instrumental in the development of science. The Development of microscope by the Dutch tradesman, A.V. Leeuwenhoek brought about

frantic activity that intertwined optical principles with astronomical and biological understanding and it led to further technological developments of the telescope and microscope.

Gains in the theoretical knowledge about the telescope led to significant gains in the understanding of its design and optical properties. These have contributed to the development of very large telescopes which revolutionized our understanding of universe.

Thus, science influences technology by providing knowledge and methodology, but on the other hand technology also influences science by providing equipment. This shows interdependence of

science and technology. Science & Society

Applications of science and technology have led to the remarkable improvement in the quality of human life. It has provided the humankind with comfort and leisure on the one hand and equipped

it with the skills needed for problem solving and decision-making on the other hand. It has changed the outlook of the individual, the group or the society on different beliefs, myths, taboos and superstitions. People have started working with logical thinking, objectivity and open-mindedness.

Modern society recognizes the diversity in social and political thinking and believes in coexistence.

It has started thinking for the welfare of our future generations and talks about sustainab le development. Society also shows its concerns for use of scientific knowledge for peace.

Science & Value Thus, science offers many opportunities of value inculcation for students. The following values

can be developed through teaching- learning of science:

Patience: In waiting for results of experiments.

Perseverance: In doing the experiments again and again until result is achieved.

Cooperation: Willingness to work with others, and share equipment and materials.

Honesty: In gathering and recording data.

Integrity: Whose work can be relied upon?

Concern for life: Caring for health and hygiene and others.

Preservation of environment: Keeping surroundings clean, caring for plants and animals,

switching off the light when not in use. Scientific problem solving

Problem solving means that an individual has learned the skills and acquired relevant information necessary to solve problems that are not only curricular, but also related to everyday life. Various skills required for problem solving can be enhanced by providing opportunities to students to ask

questions, think aloud, look for alternative explanations and procedures, isolate and control variables, keep record, apply reasoning and analogy, make models, and apply process skills in

teaching- learning of science. Students can explore such potentiality while working on the problem. They feel a sense of achievement on getting success and develop self-confidence. In order to provide opportunities of problem solving we need to inculcate the following abilit ies

among the learners:

Flexible and divergent thinking;

Decision-making and generating self-confidence;

Accepting/rejecting hypothesis;

correlating between various quantities/phenomena;

checking the validity of results;

expressing the task in terms of goals;

searching for innovative practices;

Science Teacher

Science teachers may consider following points to engage students in problem solving activities.

Help students to recognize problems by presenting appropriate situations and asking probing questions.

Encourage students to pose problem in the form of queries/questions.

Give chance to students to devise their own thinking strategies and avoid giving solution to problems right in the beginning.

Provide suggestive (not prescriptive) hints to students so as to raise their level of performance.

Interact in a friendly manner with students during teaching- learning process to get an idea of

their thinking process and provide help if need be.

Encourage peer interactions.

Provide opportunity to students to acquire procedural knowledge i.e. instead of stressing on the

term/formula, let the students also learn the logic of the formula used.

Help students to develop the habit of using different resources, i.e. textbook, reference books,

class notes, periodicals, magazines, internet, etc.

Present learning tasks in a challenging way.

Invite problems and pose problems in a variety of learning activities such as doing activit ies

and experiments, field experiences, interacting with the experts of the subjects, reading and viewing content through different media.

Design innovative, conceptual, numerical, graphical and diagrammatic types of problems.

Design problems to generate cognitive conflict.

Involve every learner in the teaching- learning process.

Give adequate time to students to collect enough data relevant to the problem and revise or

modify their hypothesis.

While checking answer sheets of students discuss your observation and provide constructive

feedback.

Discussion and argumentation should be encouraged in science classes.

Be open-minded.

Need for Planning for teaching and learning in science

Teaching occupies the central core of your life as a teacher. The teaching includes instruction in

classroom tutorials, laboratory, workshop, and excursions etc. Teaching is a process involving teacher, students and a set of activities designed primarily to bring desirable changes in the

behaviour of the students. It is a very important question whether you should plan for your teaching or you can do without it. The obvious answer to this is that planning is important. By planning, a teacher is able to emphasize the different aspects of the subject. Otherwise it is just possible that

one aspect may be over emphasized and some other aspect may be just touched upon and another one may be completely ignored. You should plan your teaching work because;

you can present material in a logical, systematic and effective yay;

you can obtain adequate coverage of the subject matter;

you can achieve the instructional objectives in a stipulated time;

you can achieve economy of time and effort;

it helps in maximum development of children with minimum of resources;

it fosters self-confidence and pride in our work.

Advantages of Planning

Planning is necessary for enabling the teacher (you) to organize and select science materials

suitable for your teaching. Good planning has the following advantages.

it facilitates verbal learning by the use of appropriate teaching aids and strategies of

teaching;

it provides opportunity for relating subject structure to teaching structure;

it helps to plan varied learning activities catering to individual differences; and

it brings orderliness and development in thinking about teaching; etc.

Lesson Plan

A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction for one class. A daily

lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class instruction. Details will vary depending on the preference of the teacher, subject being covered, and the need and/or curiosity of children. There

may be requirements mandated by the school system regarding the plan.

Developing a lesson plan

While there are many formats for a lesson plan, most lesson plans contain some or all of these elements, typically in this order:

Title of the lesson

Time required to complete the lesson

List of required materials

List of objectives, which may be behavioral objectives (what the student can do at lesson

completion) or knowledge objectives (what the student knows at lesson completion)

The set (or lead-in, or bridge-in) that focuses students on the lesson's skills or concepts—these

include showing pictures or models, asking leading questions, or reviewing previous lessons

An instructional component that describes the sequence of events that make up the lesson,

including the teacher's instructional input and guided practice the students use to try new skills or work with new ideas

Independent practice that allows students to extend skills or knowledge on their own

A summary, where the teacher wraps up the discussion and answers questions

An evaluation component, a test for mastery of the instructed skills or concepts—such as a set of questions to answer or a set of instructions to follow

Analysis component the teacher uses to reflect on the lesson itself —such as what worked, what needs improving

A continuity component reviews and reflects on content from the previous lesson

A well-developed lesson plan

A well-developed lesson plan reflects the interests and needs of students. It incorporates best

practices for the educational field. The lesson plan correlates with the teacher's philosophy of education, which is what the teacher feels is the purpose of educating the students.

Secondary English program lesson plans, for example, usually center around four topics. They

are literary theme, elements of language and composition, literary history, and literary genre. A broad, thematic lesson plan is preferable, because it allows a teacher to create various research,

writing, speaking, and reading assignments. It helps an instructor teach different literature genres and incorporate videotapes, films, and television programs.

Also, it facilitates teaching literature and English together. Similarly, history lesson plans focus on

content (historical accuracy and background information), analytic thinking, scaffolding, and the practicality of lesson structure and meeting of educational goals. School requirements and a

teacher's personal tastes, in that order, determine the exact requirements for a lesson plan.

Unit plans follow much the same format as a lesson plan, but cover an entire unit of work, which may span several days or weeks. Modern constructivist teaching styles may not require individua l

lesson plans. The unit plan may include specific objectives and timelines, but lesson plans can be more fluid as they adapt to student needs and learning styles.

What is the difference between a unit plan and a lesson plan?

For example this lesson plan says duration is 2 weeks (180 hours + 3 hours of homework) to teach amphibians for grade 6. Five students are reading below grade level and one student is withdrawn.

I don't live in the States but isn't the time allotted to teach is a max. Of 45-60 mins. (3 times a week).

That sounds like a Unit plan. A lesson plan is actually smaller and focuses on a specific topic within the Unit. It may take only a day, but usually no longer than a week.

The time depends on your state and the subject. Districts within the state set students schedules up

differently. I am assuming that this 6th grade class is not in an Elementary school. So the school may have the class every day on the week for the whole year for 45 minutes a day. They could also have class for 90 minutes a day for half the year. This is called block scheduling because

students go to class for a "block" of time, or they could have the class every other day for the whole year for 45 minutes. It really depends on what the subject is and how much time the state requires

per year for that subject. But as long as the students have had a set amount of time in the specific area it’s okay.

Science Curriculum

Curriculum

It is perhaps best thought of as sum total of all deliberately planned set of activities which facilitate learning and which are designed to implement specific educational aims. It is a plan to explain

what concepts are to be transacted and what knowledge, skills and attitudes are to be deliberately fostered. It includes statements of criteria for selection of content, and choice of methods for

transaction of content as well as evaluation. It is concerned with

the general objectives of education at a particular stage or class;

subject-wise learning objectives and content;

course of studies and time allocation;

teaching- learning experiences;

teaching- learning aids and materials; and

evaluation of learning and feedback to learners.

In reference to the discussion given above, it would mean that curriculum core and syllabus put together form the curriculum. Thus, curriculum is a plan to develop capabilities that are likely to help achieve the chosen aims.

The curriculum should provide experiences that build the knowledge and provide capabilities of thinking rationally, to understand the world through various disciplines, fosters aesthetic appreciation and sensitivity towards others to work and to participate in economic process. It

provides the vision of capabilities and values that every individual must have. It also gives a socio-political and cultural vision for society. In other words, curriculum is a complete plan for

implementation of educational aims.

Syllabus It is a document that gives details of the content of subjects to be transacted and the skills, knowledge and the attitude which are to be deliberately fostered together with the stage-specific

objectives. In India, NCERT develops exemplar syllabus for all stages of school education. States can adopt/adapt NCERT syllabus or can develop their own syllabus on the basis of NCF.

It will be interesting to know how the content to be transacted is chosen. To choose the content to be transacted, the requirements and challenges being faced by the country are considered. The challenge before our country is that of quality education.

It demands that the education available to all children in different regions and sections of society be of comparable quality. Therefore, selection of knowledge to be included in each subject requires

careful examination in terms of socio-economic and cultural conditions and educational goals. Quality in education includes a concern for quality of life and all its dimensions viz. concern for peace, protection of environment and positive attitude towards required social change, universa l

human rights and changes in pedagogy. Education must provide the means and opportunities to enhance the child’s creative expression and capacity for aesthetic appreciation.

Textbook The textbook as a part of teaching- learning materials, is a tool to engage the learner. The teacher

in classroom practices can use a variety of activities, concrete learning materials along with textbooks. When we come to decisions regarding approaches of teaching- learning, learning

materials and concrete examples to be used, we have to consider learning needs of the learners. These concrete decisions can be made only for specific classrooms and children as the actual learning happens only in the child’s mind and depends totally on what has been learnt earlier.

Therefore, the reinterpretation of the content, approaches, and materials are completely within the sphere of practical decisions to be made by the teacher.

A textbook may not necessarily cover the entire syllabus of one class/ stage and it may not necessarily be for the whole year. Any good textbook should lead the child to interact with the environment, peers and other people rather than be self-contained. A textbook should function as

a guide to construct understanding through active engagement with text, ideas, things, environment, and people rather than transferring knowledge as a finished product.

Strategies for learning subject matter content in Physical Science

What is constructivism?

Constructivism is basically a theory -- based on observation and scientific study -- about how people learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something

new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators

of our own knowledge. To do this, we must ask questions, explore, and assess what we know. In the classroom, the constructivist view of learning can point towards a number of different

teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging students to use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge and then to reflect

on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure she understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then build on them.

Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is helping them

gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the constructivist classroom ideally become "expert learners." This gives them ever-broadening tools to keep learning. With a well-planned classroom environment, the students learn HOW TO LEARN.

You might look at it as a spiral. When they continuously reflect on their experiences, students find their ideas gaining in complexity and power, and they develop increasingly strong abilities to

integrate new information. One of the teacher's main roles becomes to encourage this learning and reflection process.

Difference between traditional and Constructivist approach

Traditional Constructivist

Curriculum begins with the

parts of the whole. Emphasizes basic skills.

Curriculum emphasizes big concepts,

beginning with the whole and expanding to include the parts.

Strict adherence to fixed

curriculum is highly valued.

Pursuit of student questions and interests is

valued.

Materials are primarily

textbooks and workbooks.

Materials include primary sources of

material and manipulative materials.

Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive, building on what the

student already knows.

Teachers disseminate information to students;

students are recipients of knowledge.

Teachers have a dialogue with students, helping students construct their own

knowledge.

Teacher's role is directive,

rooted in authority.

Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in

negotiation.

Assessment is through testing,

correct answers.

Assessment includes student works,

observations, and points of view, as well as tests. Process is as important as product.

Knowledge is seen as inert. Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever

changing with our experiences.

Students work primarily alone. Students work primarily in groups.

Strategies for teaching and learning

Learning by exposition

Exposition is the delivery of information from teacher or subject expert to learner. It’s as simple

as that.

Exposition is essentially a one-way process, although it may include some modest Q&A or discussion. The strategy is top-down and teacher-centered because it is the person designing and/or

delivering who determines what information is to be delivered and how (and sometimes also where and when).

Exposition can take place in the context of an event, such as a lecture, a seminar or a presentation, face-to-face or online. It can also take the form of content, using text, images, animation, audio or

video. Historically content like this was delivered using books, tapes, CDs and DVDs, although it is more likely these days to be consumed online or downloaded for delivery on portable platforms

such as iPods and e-book readers.

Because of the absence of interaction, exposition requires less design than, say, highly-participative face-to-face workshops and self-paced tutorials. However, careful planning is still going to be a great help to the reader, listener or viewer:

making clear what is the most important information and what is just nice to know;

using story-telling and anecdotes to bring abstract concepts to life; making the most appropriate use of media elements – text, images, animation, audio and

video;

paring down the volume of content to reduce wasted time and minimize the risk of overload; modularizing the content so it can be easily random-accessed and reviewed.

Choose exposition as a strategy when you need to control what information is delivered and to

whom, and when you feel confident that the target audience will happily be able to work with this information without a great deal of support. If you judge the situation right, then you’ll save an awful lot of money not having to run workshops or create interactive online materials.

Discovery Learning

Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing

knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned. Students interact with the world by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or

performing experiments.

As a result, students may be more likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their

own (in contrast to a transmissionist model). Models that are based upon discovery learning model include: guided discovery, problem-based learning, simulation-based learning, case-based learning, incidental learning, among others.

The theory is closely related to work by Jean Piaget and Seymour Papert. PROPONENTS OF THIS THEORY BELIEVE THAT DISCOVERY LEARNING:

encourages active engagement promotes motivation

promotes autonomy, responsibility, independence develops creativity and problem solving skills.

tailors learning experiences CRITICS BELIEVE THAT DISCOVERY LEARNING:

creates cognitive overload may result in potential misconceptions

makes it difficult for teachers to detect problems and misconceptions

Inductive and deductive method

Inductive method

The inductive teaching method or process goes from the specific to the general and may be based on specific experiments or experimental learning exercises. Deductive teaching method progresses

from general concept to the specific use or application.

Inductive teaching is a constructivist model of teaching that is more student-centered. In

inductive teaching first provide examples, then have students practice and figure out the rule themselves. This method of teaching is more experiential and based on a guided discovery learning

philosophy.

For example, if the structure to be presented is the comparative form, the teacher would begin

the lesson by drawing a figure on the board and saying, "This is Jim. He is tall." Then, the teacher would draw another taller figure next to the first saying, "This is Bill. He is taller than Jim." The teacher would then provide many examples using students and items from the classroom, famous

people, or anything within the normal daily life of the students, to create an understanding of the use of the structure. The students repeat after the teacher, after each of the different examples, and

eventually practice the structures meaningfully in groups or pairs. With this approach, the teachers role is to provide meaningful contexts to encourage demonstration of the rule, while the students evolve the rules from the examples of its use and continued practice.

Deductive method of teaching

Deductive teaching is a more traditional form of teaching. In deductive teaching you typic ally provide information (lecture), share specific examples of the concept or skill being taught. This is

a more teacher- centered model of teaching that is rule driven. Some of the positives of this method are that it is timesaving and gets to the point of the lesson easily.

For example, if the structure to be presented is present perfect, the teacher would begin the

lesson by saying, "Today we are going to learn how to use the present perfect structure". Then, the rules of the present perfect structure would be outlined and the students would complete exercises, in a number of ways, to practice using the structure.In this approach, the teacher is the center of

the class and is responsible for all of the presentation and explanation of the new material.

To conclude, we can say that inductive method is a predecessor of deductive method. Any loss

of time due to slowness of this method is made up through the quick and time saving process of deduction. Deduction is a process particularly suitable for a final statement and induction is most

suitable for exploration of new fields. Probability in induction is raised to certainty in deduction. The happy combination of the two is most appropriate and desirable.

Guided discovery

Guided discovery, has many similarities with instruction in that it is very much a structured and

facilitated process, but it follows a very different sequence of events. While instruction moves from theory to practice, from the general to the specific, guided discovery starts with the specific and moves to the general. It is an inductive process – it leads the learner

towards insights and generalisations, rather than providing them on a plate. Because this process is much less certain and predictable, guided discovery rarely has specific learning objectives –

every learner will take out of the process something unique and personal. What they take out will depend not only on the insights they gain from the particular learning experience, but also to a great deal on their prior knowledge and previous life experience.

Guided discovery can take many forms – experiments in a laboratory, simulations, scenarios, case studies or team-building activities. In each of these cases, the learner is presented, alone or in a

group, with a task to accomplish. Having undertaken that task, the learner is then encouraged to reflect on the experience – what went well, what less well? How could the successes be repeated and the failures avoided? The conclusions can be taken forward to further exercises and then

hopefully applied to real-world tasks. Guided discovery can also take place in a more informal, on-job setting. A good example is

coaching. The coach helps the learner to reflect on their real-world experiences, gain insights and make new generalisations that can be tested out on future tasks. The coach’s job is not so much to give advice but to challenge, support and encourage the learner as they come to their own

conclusions. Job rotation and job enrichment, both of which seek to provide the employee with new job challenges, can also be regarded as examples of guided discovery.

Cognitive apprenticeship

A cognitive apprenticeship is much like a trade apprenticeship, with learning that occurs as experts

and novices interact socially while focused on completing a task; the focus, as implied in the name, is on developing cognitive skills through participating in authentic learning experiences.

Learning in a cognitive apprenticeship occurs through legitimate peripheral participation, a process in which newcomers enter on the periphery and gradually move toward full participation. It is not

a technique or strategy, as it tends to happen quite naturally on its own. Legitimate peripheral participation is perhaps easiest to understand through a workplace example of traditiona l

apprenticeship.

In cognitive apprenticeships, the activity being taught is modeled in real world situations

In the cognitive stage, learners develop declarative understanding of the skill

In the associative stage, mistakes and misinterpretations learned in the cognitive stage are detected and eliminated while associations between the critical elements involved in the skill are strengthened.

Finally, in the autonomous stage, the learner’s skill becomes honed and perfected until it is executed at an expert level.

Learning by Scaffolding

Scaffolding is an instructional technique, associated with the zone of proximal development, in

which a teacher provides individualized support by incrementally improving a learner’s ability to

build on prior knowledge. Scaffolding can be used in a variety of content areas and across age and

grade levels.

Scaffolding in the classroom

When using scaffolding as an instructional technique, the teacher provides tasks that enable the

learner to build on prior knowledge and internalize new concepts. According to Judy Olson and

Jennifer Platt, the teacher must provide assisted activities that are just one level beyond that of

what the learner can do in order to assist the learner through the zone of proximal development.

Once learners demonstrate task mastery, the support is decreased and learners gain responsibility

for their own growth.

In order to provide young learners with an understanding of how to link old information or

familiar situations with new knowledge, the instructor must guide learners through verbal and

nonverbal communication and model behaviors. Research on the practice of using scaffolding in

early childhood development shows that parents and teachers can facilitate this advancement

through the zone of proximal development by providing activities and tasks that:

Motivate or enlist the child’s interest related to the task.

Simplify the task to make it more manageable and achievable for a child.

Provide some direction in order to help the child focus on achieving the goal.

Clearly indicate differences between the child’s work and the standard or desired solution.

Reduce frustration and risk.

Model and clearly define the expectations of the activity to be performed.2

In the educational setting, scaffolds may include models, cues, prompts, hints, partial solutions,

think-aloud modeling, and direct instruction.

Eight characteristics of scaffolding

Jamie McKenzie suggests that there are eight characteristics of scaffolding instruction. In order to

engage in scaffolding effectively, teachers:

Provide clear direction and reduce students’ confusion. Prior to assigning instruction that involves

scaffolding, a teacher must try to anticipate any problems that might arise and write step-by-step

instructions for how learners must complete tasks.

Clarify purpose. Scaffolding does not leave the learner wondering why they are engaging in

activities. The teacher explains the purpose of the lesson and why this is important. This type of

guided instruction allows learners to understand how they are building on prior knowledge.

Keep students on task. Students are aware of the direction in which the lesson is heading, and they

can make choices about how to proceed with the learning process.

Offer assessment to clarify expectations. Teachers who create scaffolded lessons set forth clear

expectations from the beginning of the activity using exemplars, rubrics.

Point students to worthy sources. Teachers supply resources for research and learning to decrease

confusion, frustration, and wasted time.

Reduce uncertainty, surprise, and disappointment. A well-prepared activity or lesson is tested or

evaluated completely before implementation to reduce problems and maximize learning potential.

Deliver efficiency. Little time is wasted in the scaffolded lesson, and all learning goals are achieved

efficiently.

Create momentum. The goal of scaffolding is to inspire learners to want to learn more and increase

their knowledge and understanding

PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD

Problem solving method may be defined as a planned attack upon a difficulty for the purpose of

finding a solution. This involves reflective thinking for the purpose of arriving at a rational

solution.

Learning of science is not merely acquisition of scientific facts. By learning science pupils are expected to have mastery of the product and process of science. When the pupils are confronted

with problems of life they should be able to solve them properly. This ability is an outcome of learning science. If science is taught by using this method pupil will develop these traits.

Phases in problem solving

In the class room situation, problem solving can be viewed in two phases

o A way of thinking

o A way of teaching

Stages in problem solving

Problem survey:-Analyzing a problem situation for details to be studied. Problem description:-Providing a clear statement of the problem to be studied. Problem discussion:-Making sure that the students understand what is involved in

the problem. Problem limitation:- isolating those parts of the problem that can be attacked profitably.

Planning for action:-Preparing suitable hypothesis for investigation. Further analysis and limitation:-Tentative testing of hypothesis to identify those most likely

to yield a solution.

Merits

1. Children get training in the art of problem solving in actual life situations. This method inculcates the problem solving attitude

2. It helps thinking and reasoning power of the pupils.

3. It develops the power of the critical judgment as pupils have to think a lot, for arriving at correct solution through practice.

4. It is also helpful in making the students resourceful and self reliant.

5. Pupils have efficient opportunities to express themselves while discussions are going on.

6. Pupils get training in co operation and fellow feeding.

7. It inculcates the habit of open-mindedness and tolerance.

8. Learning by doing and learning by observing the concrete situations make the teaching-learning process more meaningful.

9. The teacher taught relations are strengthened. Teacher is a friend, philosopher and guide.

10. The pupil gets valuable social experiences.

Demerits

1. It is difficult on the part of the teacher to organize the content of science according to needs

of the pupils.

2. It is a time consuming method.

3. This method is not proper for immature pupils because they cannot follow and relevant material of science properly.

4. Textbooks and written materials on these lines are not easily available.

5. There is dearth of trained and competent teachers who can put this method in to practice.

HEURISTIC METHOD

The name of this method is derived from the Greek word ‘Heurisco’ which means ‘I discover or I find’. Henry Edward Armstrong, Professor of Chemistry at the Imperial College, London was the

advocate of this method. According to him, the real spirit of heuristic method is placing the student in the position of original investigator which means involving his ‘finding out instead of being

merely told about things’. Laboratory work is essential for every pupil. A sheet instruct ion concerning the problem is given to every pupil and he is expected to take observations or conduct experiments in accordance with the instructions. He records his observations in his notebook. From

these observations he has to draw his own conclusions or inferences. Thus he is introduced to reasoning from his own observations or experiments.

Principles underlying Heuristic method

1. The principle of activity

2. The principle of logical thinking

3. The principle of proceeding from the known to the unknown.

4. The principle of purposeful experience

5. The principle of self-thinking and self-study

Merits of the method

1. The maxim learning by doing is involved.

2. Power of observation and reasoning and drawing inference are developed.

3. The student becomes research becomes research minded.

4. Problem of home-task is solved.

5. The student develops himself the power of critical examination.

6. This method gives training in scientific method.

7. The knowledge is gained by self-activity and hence I =t retained for a longer time.

Demerits

1. It is a very long and slow process and a hence a prescribed course cannot be covered

within a specific period.

2. The experts who have to provide instructions for each topic are not available.

3. The students are immature and it is difficult for them to draw conclusions.

4. It is very costly and hence impossible for such countries as are not economically strong because well-equipped laboratories are required for the purpose.

5. As no textbook is written on heuristic lines, the teacher has to work hard to arrange

problems for learners.

CO OPERATIVE and COLLABORATIVE LEARNING

Cooperative learning, as the name suggests, stands for a learning process or learning strategy I which students are provided with opportunities to learn by themselves in a group in cooperative

way. They share all the information among themselves and help each other in gaining the required knowledge, understanding the application of one or other aspects of the content material or course

units included their syllabus. Cooperative and Collaborative Learning is a learning situation that involves two or more individuals who are attempting to have a shared educational experience. In these environments,

students are able to learn from each other, utilize each other's skill sets and resources, and share experiences that may benefit the entire group. As a theory, it suggests that learners who are

educated in a group setting and cooperate in order to achieve a set of common goals are more likely to be successful in doing so, while those who work autonomously are more likely to exhibit competitive behaviors.

Cooperative and Collaborative Learning benefits not only the academic, but also the learner’s social persona, since it emphasizes on teamwork and team spirit. In a classroom this means higher

levels of achievement, potential cross-ethnic friendships, life-long interaction, enhanced communication and cognitive skills, and critical thinking.

Definition

Co-operative learning is defined as teaching- learning strategy in which the students of a class encage themselves in a variety useful learning activities in co-operative and non-competit ive environment by forming a number of teams, each consists a small number of students of different

levels of ability for their understanding of a subject.

The 5 Basic Principles of Cooperative and Collaborative Theory

1. Interpersonal and collaborative skills

Students learn how to work together and support each other. Instructors should encourage

brainstorming, reflection, and participation.

2. Face-to-face interaction

With face-to-face interaction learning becomes dynamic. Students discuss their ideas and make oral summarizations, while comprehending the value of individual differences and critical thinking.

3. Beneficial interdependence

Students learn the value of collaboration for the successful completion of a task, and the

usefulness of team roles, and effective representation.

4. Individual responsibility

Collaboration aside, students should sense their responsibility towards the group and

comprehend the value of their contribution for the successful completion of a task. Slacking, hiding behind someone else’ work and simply following instructions won’t work.

5. Group interaction processing

Groups should learn how to interact and then evaluate their effectiveness and skills. Instructors should give students the time to reflect on the group’s collaboration level, i.e. if everyone

participated, if they supported and listened to each other, if everything went smoothly, etc.

Cooperative Learning Approaches:

1. STAD (Student-Teams-Achievement-Division)

2. The Jigsaw classroom

3. Learning together

4. Group investigation

5. Co operative scripting

Merits

1. Cooperative learning groups are more or less permanent depending on the conditions in the given classroom.

2. Teacher has to set the stage, tone and hopefully, a satisfying and rewarding environment.

3. It develops conceptual achievement and critical thinking.

4. Cooperative relationship is established.

Demerits

1. Difficulty in selecting the learning task.

2. Evaluation in terms of outcome and procedures is difficult. 3. Heterogeneity of the group.

Heterogeneous groups Heterogeneous groups in educational settings include students from a wide range of instructiona l levels. The practice of assigning mixed groups of students to shared classrooms stems from the education precept that positive interdependence develops when students of varying achievement

work together and help each other reach educational goals. Heterogeneous groups contrast directly with homogeneous groups, in which all students perform at roughly the same instructional level.

EXAMPLES OF HETEROGENEOUS GROUPS

A teacher may deliberately pair low-, medium-, and high-level readers (as measured by reading

assessments) together in a heterogeneous group to read and analyze a given text together. This type of cooperative group can improve outcomes for all of the students as the advanced readers

can tutor their lower performing peers. Rather than putting gifted students, average students, and special-needs students in separate classrooms, school administrators may divide students into classes with a relatively even

distribution of abilities and needs. Teachers may then further divide the group during instructiona l periods using either the heterogeneous or homogeneous model.

ADVANTAGES OF HETEROGENEOUS GROUPING

For students of lesser ability, being included in a heterogeneous group rather than pigeonholed into a homogeneous group reduces their risk of being stigmatized. And labels that classify academic

skill can become self-fulfilling prophecies as teachers may lower expectations for students in special-needs classrooms. They may not challenge those students to perform well and may rely on limited curriculum that

restricts exposure to concepts some students could, in fact, learn. A heterogeneous group gives advanced students a chance to mentor their peers. All members of the group may interact more to help each other understand the concepts being taught.

DISADVANTAGES OF HETEROGENEOUS GROUPING

Students, parents, and teachers may prefer to work in a homogeneous group or be part of a homogeneous classroom. They may see an educational advantage or just feel more comfortable working with peers of similar ability.

Advanced students in a heterogeneous group may at times feel forced into a leadership role they do not want. Rather than learning new concepts at their own speed, they must slow down to assist

other students or curtail their own study to proceed at the rate of the whole class. Students of lesser abilities may fall behind in a heterogeneous group and end up criticized for slowing the rate of the whole class or group. In a study group or work group, unmotivated or

academically challenged students may end up ignored rather than assisted by their peers.

MANAGEMENT OF A HETEROGENEOUS CLASSROOM

Teachers need to remain aware and recognize when a heterogeneous grouping does not function properly for a student at any level. Teachers should support advanced students by supplying

additional academic challenges and help students who fall behind get the assistance they need to catch up. And students in the middle of a heterogeneous group face the risk of getting lost in the shuffle as the teacher concentrates on the special needs of students at either end of the spectrum.

CONCEPT AND IMPORTANCE OF EVALUATION AND AGSESSMENT Practically, all our school evaluation activities are limited to the area of scholastic attainment rather than the total growth of the child. This is just a part of the evaluation process, which is called 'assessment'

Assessment Assessment is an attempt to measure not the pupil as a whole, nor his "worth' but some particular

abilities like knowledge of some science content, skill of handling the apparatus, setting up the experiments, performing the experiments, collecting and analyzing the data (observations) and

concluding etc. Assessment declares the students merely as pass, fail or categorizes them into Ist, 2nd or 3rd, divisions. It is very important and also very useful if done objectively. Divisions and percentage

& of marks help students to get admission in higher classes, if there are no admission tests and to get jobs if there can be no recruitment test or interviews.

Evaluation Evaluation on the other hand, carries a very wide meaning compared to assessment. The term 'Evaluation' stands for assessment in all the educational outcomes and outputs that are brought

about as a result of the teaching learning process. Evaluation is used to assess the change in the

total behaviour of the child related with all the three domains (cognitive, affective and psychomotor). Evaluation also assesses the child's progress in science curriculum as well as co-

curricular activities like science projects. Innovative experiments, science excursions and science fairs etc.).

Evaluation has its own importance as compared to assessment. Evaluation may be considered as a comprehensive a d continuous system of assessment that may help in knowing whether the extent to which the identified objectives have been achieved, and the expected behavioural changes have

taken place in the learners in order to set them on the right path of learning. This evaluation may help science teachers to assess their methods of teaching, and the school principals in bringing

desirable reforms in the overall educational and administrative set up. Evaluation, thus may work as a bridge connecting the objectives of teaching science and the ways and means of achieving objectives in the forms of learning experiences, teaching methods and

learning environment (availability of all science material needed for experiments and demonstrations and its use, use of environmental and local resources, school science clubs, the

freedom to work on various science projects, frequent science excursions etc.). Evaluation and Assessment in Science

Evaluation in Science

Evaluation in science assesses all the teaching- learning outcomes in terms of overall behavioura l

changes related to science content (facts, concepts, laws, principles, theories, formulas etc.), and science processes (observing, classifying using numbers, measuring, using space-time relationships, communicating, predicting, inferring, defining operationally, formula t ing

hypotheses, interpreting data, controlling variables and experimenting). Not only does evaluation assess the desired science knowledge, but it also assesses its comprehension, application, analysis,

synthesis and evaluation. Evaluation not just assesses the cognitive domain objectives, but it also assesses affective domain objectives - receiving (attending), responding, valuing, organisations, and characterization by a

value or value complex. Evaluation not just assesses the curricular abilities in science, but it also assesses science based co-curricular abilities in the child. Evaluation, thus has made the process of

testing and assessment as continuous and comprehensive. The purposes of evaluation is therefore, to assess the overall development of the child.

Assessment in Science

Assessment usually measures how much science content (concepts and skill) has been achieved

by a child out of the identified content he/she was supposed to achieve in a particular class. This content is generally knowledge, but state education boards in class X and XI1 examination, and the progressive schools also in other classes have also started including comprehension

(understanding) and application oriented content as well. The assessment will be more objective and useful if emphasis is given to the following purposes

to be achieved: 1. Providing feedback to each pupil about his/her progress in science. 2. Giving feedback to the teacher about the effectiveness of his/her science teaching.

3. Providing information to prepare individuals for further science education and employment opportunities.

4. Motivating children to develop interest in science.

TECHNIQUES OF ASSESSMENT

Evaluation of Learners' Progress

A good assessment Programme depends upon the appropriate and accurate evidence that we get about pupil's growth. This is possible through the use of various types of quality instruments of

assessment. There are a number of tools (instruments) and techniques which can be employed for assessment of pupils in science theory and practical. An 'assessment tool' is an instrument or any device which facilitates assessment work. An

'assessment tool' may be a question paper (science theory or practical), a unit test, or an oral test (viva in science practical). An 'assessment technique' is a process of gathering information or

evidence in which one or more than one assessment tools may be used. For example, examina tion is a technique in wbich a question paper (in science theory) and a question paper cum-viva (in science practical) are used as tools for collecting information.

Theory As a science teacher you are to learn some skills of constructing a good science theory question

paper. As a paper setter you should note the following points in order to frame a good question paper. 1. The question paper should cover, as far as possible, the whole range of topics mentioned in the

prescribed syllabus. The coverage should not only be comprehensive but also well balanced by spreading questions on all significant topics and sub-topics prescribed for study

2. No question or part of question should be set which is outside the syllabus 3. About half of the questions should be set to test higher abilities such as comprehension, application of knowledge and development of skills (numerical and diagrams). For this purpose,

the questions should be in the context of new situations rather than to ask routine or stereo-type questions.

4. Wherever possible, the maximum length of expected answers should be prescribed. Terms like 'Write short notes on .............. .' 'Discuss ............... ' or

'What do you know about .............. .' should be avoided, as they do not provide clear direction to the students regarding the scope and length of the answers.

5. The language of the questions should be simple and within easy grasp of the students. It should also be clear-cut and specific in regard to what is required of the student. The wording of a question or any part of it must not admit of more than one possible answer.

CONSTRUCTION AND ADMINISTRATION OF TEST

As a teacher you are to construct and administer tests. Then you are to mark the tests and analyze the data (marks obtained by the students). When administering the tests, care should be taken to avoid copying by students. For this, invigilators have to be strong and tactful. Another way to

reduce copying is to use objective type items and change the order of questions in every paper. You learned the qualities of a good question paper. Taking these into consideration, when you set

science theory question paper, follow the correct steps in test construction and use the criteria of a good test.

Wen setting a science Theory Question Paper you should follow the following steps in test Construction, and the criteria of a good test.

(a) Steps in Test Construction

1. Designing of Test i) Identify the content (unit and sub-unit) to be tested. Give weightage (marks) to each unit

or subunit. ii) Identify abilities [Knowledge (K), Comprehension (C), Application (A), and Skill (S)

Analysis (An), and Synthesis (Sn)] a11d decide weightage (marks) for each ability]. iii) Identify various types of test items [very short answer (VSA), Objective (O), Short - Answer (SA) and Long Answer (LA)] decide number of items of each type and weightage

(marks) to each type of test items.

2. Blueprinting the Test: The blue print is a table which depicts the Design. i) Allocation of marks by content areas.

ii) Allocation of marks by abilities to be tested. iii) Allocation of marks to question types.

Set up a question paper with the help of any one of these samples. This will give you some

Framing Questions: The Blueprint is the guide for framing questions. It involves the technical competence of the teacher as indicated in the Blueprint. Each question should be framed to test a

particular objective (content to be tested is translated in objectives, desirably in terms, of behavioural objectives) using the relevant content of the unit or sub-unit.

Criteria of Test

When framing a test (question paper) the following criteria of a test should be taken into

consideration: 1. Validity: A test is said to be valid if it actually tests what it intend to test.

2. Acceptability: The test should be acceptable to the candidates, because a task which is not acceptable is unlikely to evoke the most helpful and informative responses from the candidates. 3. Reliability: A test is said to be reliable when even on administering several times, the same

result would be given by a particular pupil or a group of pupils. You will construct a good test (question paper) if you take these criteria (validity, acceptability

and reliability) into consideration. DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL MEASURES IN SCIENCE

Diagnostic teaching is the “process of diagnosing student abilities, needs and objectives and

prescribing requisite learning activities”. Through diagnostic teaching, the teacher monitors the

understanding and performance of students before teaching the lesson, while teaching, and after

teaching the lesson. Diagnostic teaching can inform teachers of the effectiveness of their lessons

with individuals, small groups of students, or whole classes, depending on the instruments used.

Within a diagnostic teaching perspective, assessment and instruction are interacting and

continuous processes, with assessment providing feedback to the teacher on the efficacy of prior

instruction, and new instruction building on the learning that students demonstrate.

Teachers may evaluate student learning on the spot, or collect data at different points in time and compare progress over units of instruction. Moment-by-moment assessments allow teachers to tap into students’ developing understandings about reading and students’ use of

strategic processing to understand and remember text, and enable teachers to correct misconceptions immediately.

Observations recorded over time allow teachers to identify patterns of development and document learning gains. Both “on-the-run” assessments and systematic records of teachers’ observations of students’ learning over time can supplement the more quantitative and summative

assessments that the ministry or school mandates and are more likely than end-of-term assessments to develop teachers’ capacity to improve the quality and appropriateness of instruction.

Diagnostic assessments are themselves educative for teachers. By introducing the concept of diagnostic teaching and the monitoring techniques to support such instruction, teachers will be better able to recognize reading as a developmental process and target instruction to meet the needs

of individuals and groups. As students progress toward reading proficiency, they gain control over different components of the reading process. Yet, not all students will be at the same level of

proficiency or need the same instruction. Students progress through overlapping stages in a developmental sequence that leads to

proficiency in reading. Starting with “visual-cue” word recognition, wherein students memorize

the configuration of words, to increasing awareness of phonology and the way sounds map onto letters in an alphabetic language, students gradually consolidate their use of larger letter patterns

to recognize words effortlessly and automatically. At the “automatic word recognition” stage, students are able to orally read text fluently, with speed and prosody. As students become fluent

readers, they are likely to devote more attention to comprehension, routinely using background knowledge and strategic processing to understand and remember text.

By the time students reach “reading proficiency,” their reading comprehension equals or surpasses what they can glean from listening to lecture presentations. Nonetheless, not all students’ progress through these stages at the same rate, and in any given classroom, there will

be students who need different kinds of support from their teachers. For example, some students may be able to decode words but only slowly and with great effort.

Others may be fluent word callers but lack vocabulary and the ability to read strategica lly for comprehension. Thus, students’ vocabulary, background knowledge, fluency, interest and motivation, as well as the ability to accurately identify words, all influence their reading

comprehension.

When you teach science in a class. You ask some questions before you introduce the topics. These questions test previous knowledge for the lesson. Unless children have this previous knowledge, they will not understand what will be taught in the lesson.

Thus. Questioning is a type of Verbal Diagnostic Test before the lesson. This test assesses what the children do not know. So before starting the lesson, the teacher teaches some precursor material

so that children will be able to answer the unanswered questions. After this he starts lesson, and children do not have too many problems in understanding the lesson. Teaching of this precursor material is a type of Remedial Measuring. So teachers always do diagnostic testing and remedial

measuring when they teach science in the class.

But it is not always possible to do justice to the lesson by simple informal questioning. The teacher needs structured evidence. Tests (Verbal or Written) are given to the children. This Test is called Diagnostic Test. Analyzing the responses of the children on the test, the teacher knows where the

children are lacking. For that he takes necessary Remedial Measures. For example when children come to the class IX after passing class VIII, the science teacher has

to know whether his students have the previous knowledge for class IX, which the children learned in science in middle or upper primary classes (VI, VII, VIII). To find this out, the class IX children Should be given a diagnostic Test, which covers the previous knowledge for IX-X science classes,

which was to be learned in VI-VIII science classes. This will help IX and X class science teachers to take some remedial measures.