Department of Culture and Communication Institutionen för kultur och kommunikation (IKK) ENGLISH for Student Teachers 61-90hp

Pedagogical Grammar

Lecture Notes

Nigel Musk

Pedagogical GrammarPedagogical Grammar

English for Teachers 61English for Teachers 61--90hp90hpDepartment of Culture & CommunicationDepartment of Culture & CommunicationDepartment of Culture & CommunicationDepartment of Culture & Communication

Linköping UniversityLinköping University

Nigel MuskNigel Musk

Presentation Practice & ProductionPresentation Practice & ProductionPresentation, Practice & Production Presentation, Practice & Production (PPP)(PPP)

PresentationPresentation – explicit focus on single point of

f ti d t digrammar or function understanding

Controlled PracticeControlled Practice – use and ‘automatise’ the Controlled PracticeControlled Practice – use and automatise the

newly grasped rule or pattern

Production (‘free stage’)Production (‘free stage’) – reproduce the target

language more freely in communication

(Sh h d h 2005 14)(Shehadeh 2005:14)

‘F ’ P d i S‘F ’ P d i S‘Free’ Production Stage‘Free’ Production StageThe irony is that the goal of the final P – free production – is often not achieved. How can pproduction be free if students are required to produce forms that have been specified in advance?forms that have been specified in advance?(J. Willis 1996: 135)

2 common outcomes:2 common outcomes: focus on form (=practice stage) focus on form ( practice stage)

focus on meaning (often without using item to be d d)reproduced)

Traditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar Teaching Traditional Grammar Teaching vs Taskvs Task--based Learning 1based Learning 1

Traditional approachTraditional approach

“form based” form-based

sequencing language structures to be presented and practised

focus on form before practice stage

teacher control initially strict and then gradually relaxed in practice

stages

success in terms of target forms (with acceptable level of accuracy) success in terms of target forms (with acceptable level of accuracy)

assumes a direct correlation between “input” and “intake”

Traditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar Teaching Traditional Grammar Teaching vs Taskvs Task--based Learning 2based Learning 2

DilemmasDilemmas

It’s difficult to focus on both form and meaning in practice stages It s difficult to focus on both form and meaning in practice stages

It’s rare for learners to incorporate newly ‘learnt’ structures into their

spontaneous language production (Willis & Willis 2007a: 18)

SLA research shows that learners do not acquire structures in an

orderly progression

Effective learning is constrained by natural developmental processes Effective learning is constrained by natural developmental processes.

(Willis & Willis 2007b: 173)

Traditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar Teaching Traditional Grammar Teaching vs Taskvs Task--based Learning 3based Learning 3

TaskTask--based approachbased approach “task-based”

sequencing communicative tasks to be carried out in target language

focus on meaning, interaction & communication (rather than form)

learner control - freedom to use any available language resources

(language structures are not prescribed beforehand)

success in terms of completing the task (but learners may disregard

any target norms in the process)

assumes language acquisition is driven by purposeful communication,

whereby learners create a meaning system in which they can operate

efficiently

Traditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar Teaching Traditional Grammar Teaching vs Taskvs Task--based Learning 4based Learning 4

DilemmasDilemmas

without encouraging any focus on form, the learners’ language system may not

develop towards the target norm (fossilisation)

how to provide focus on both meaning and formp g

Challenge for taskChallenge for task--based approaches:based approaches:

to devise a methodology which affords learners the freedom to engage

natural learning processes in the creation of a meaning system, but

which also provides them with incentives to ‘restructure’ their system in

the light of language input. (Willis & Willis 2007b: 174)

Traditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar Teaching Traditional Grammar Teaching vs Taskvs Task--based Learning 5based Learning 5

TaskTask--based approaches to accuracybased approaches to accuracy

acknowledge the need to focus on language form and accuracy within acknowledge the need to focus on language form and accuracy within

the task-based cycle (Skehan 1996)

dd ft l h i d t th t k address accuracy after learners have carried out the task

Why after?Why after?

helps learners make sense of the language they have experienced

within a relevant communicative contextwithin a relevant communicative context

highlighting salient language for future use; i.e. noticing learning

i ti ti ti t fi d t i increases motivation – more receptive to find ways to express meaning

Wh I T kWh I T k??What Is a TaskWhat Is a Task??

Definition 3Definition 3

A language learning task is:

rehearsalrationaleA language learning task is:

an activityactivationrationale

that has a non-linguistic purpose or goal

with a clear outcome

(Nunan 2004: 20)

and that uses any or all of the four language skills in its

accomplishmentaccomplishment

by conveying meaning in a way that reflects real-world language use

(Shehadeh 2005: 18-19)

S l i T iS l i T iSelecting TopicsSelecting TopicsCriteria for selectionCriteria for selection

feature in textbooks feature in textbooks

typical in exams/oral tests

feature elsewhere in the school curriculum, e.g. geography, history

of topical or seasonal interest

figure in casual conversation, e.g. breaks, mealtimes, on holiday

what learners might want to talk/write about outside class, e.g. with

foreigners, on web-based chat sites(Willis & Willis 2007a: 64)

T f T k 1T f T k 1Types of Task 1Types of Task 1 listinglisting

ordering & sortingordering & sortingg gg g

matchingmatching

d li ith comparingcomparing

problem solvingproblem solving

dealing with your chosen topic

sharing personal experiencessharing personal experiences

j t & ti t kj t & ti t k projects & creative tasksprojects & creative tasks

(Willis & Willis 2007a: 108)(Willis & Willis 2007a: 108)

T f T k 2T f T k 2Types of Task 2Types of Task 2ListingListing

brainstormingbrainstorming e g how to reduce your ecological footprint brainstormingbrainstorming e.g. how to reduce your ecological footprint,

strategies for improving your English

factfact--findingfinding e.g. about things / people / nature

gamesgames

–– quizzesquizzes e.g. creating quizzes (full response or true/false)

guessing gamesguessing games e g 20 questions (animal vegetable or mineral)–– guessing gamesguessing games e.g. 20 questions (animal, vegetable or mineral)

(Willis & Willis 2007a: 66 8)(Willis & Willis 2007a: 66-8)

T f T k 3T f T k 3Types of Task 3Types of Task 3Ordering & SortingOrdering & Sorting

sequencingsequencing e g jumbled story order of a process sequencingsequencing e.g. jumbled story, order of a process

rankingranking e.g. holiday destinations (according to criteria)

classifyingclassifying e.g. the stuff we carry around with us, food

gamesgames e.g. “odd one out”, what do these things have in gamesgames e.g. odd one out , what do these things have in

common?

(Willis & Willis 2007a: 72-8)

T f T k 4T f T k 4Types of Task 4Types of Task 4MatchingMatching

listening & matchinglistening & matching listening & matchinglistening & matching

e.g. identity parade, personal photos, buildings, house plans, maps

reading & matchingreading & matching

e.g. short texts (paragraphs) to pictures or headings, best summary of

longer text, directions to routes on a map

(Willis & Willis 2007a: 85-9)

T f T kT f T kTypes of Task 5Types of Task 5

ComparingComparing

comparison taskscomparison tasks

e.g. morning/bedtime routines (quickest/earliest/latest?), g g (q ),

household chores, favourite holiday experiences

games (similarities & differences)games (similarities & differences)

e.g. find things in common (time limit), “spot the difference” g g ( ), p(Willis & Willis 2007a: 90-3)

T f T k 6T f T k 6Types of Task 6Types of Task 6Problem SolvingProblem Solving

advice & recommendationsadvice & recommendations

e.g. global issues (people smuggling), environmental issues (nuclear power),

teenage issues (smoking), social issues (STDs), school issues (bullying)g ( g), ( ), ( y g)

predictionprediction

e g guessing content (e g ending) of a reading passage/recording using cuese.g. guessing content (e.g. ending) of a reading passage/recording using cues

games & puzzlesgames & puzzles

l i l l ji t k ( i t th diff t i f ti )e.g. logical puzzles, jigsaw tasks (piece together different information)

(Willi & Willi 2007 93 9)(Willis & Willis 2007a: 93-9)

T f T kT f T kTypes of Task 7Types of Task 7

Sharing Personal ExperiencesSharing Personal Experiences

story telling, anecdotes & reminiscences story telling, anecdotes & reminiscences

e.g. interesting experience/story about a pet, most memorable g g p y p ,

childhood experience, most frightening experience, most

embarassing moment funniest things that has happened to youembarassing moment, funniest things that has happened to you,

memorable holiday

(Willis & Willis 2007a: 105-7)

T f T k 8T f T k 8Types of Task 8Types of Task 8Projects & Creative TasksProjects & Creative Tasks

Possible outcomesPossible outcomes (Willis & Willis 2007a: 100)

TaskTask--Based LearningBased Learning

(J. Willis 1996: 155)

L A l i 1L A l i 1Language Analysis 1Language Analysis 1

1. Focus on meaning

2. Focus on form

L A l i 2L A l i 2Language Analysis 2Language Analysis 2

1. Focus on Meaning1. Focus on Meaning

through contextualised examples from the task through contextualised examples from the task

through new but closely related examples/contexts

Importance of the recognisable context/examples as regards the Importance of the recognisable context/examples as regards the

meaningfulness of the language focusmeaningfulness of the language focus

Guided examinationGuided examination – pupils ‘find out’ ways of expressing specific

meanings for themselves (relationship between form & meaning)meanings for themselves (relationship between form & meaning)

– functions, e.g. asking/granting permission, agreeing/disagreeing

notions e g tense (f t re past) probabilit abilit obligation– notions, e.g. tense (future, past), probability, ability, obligation

L A l i 3L A l i 3Language Analysis 3Language Analysis 32. Focus on Form2. Focus on Form Guided examinationGuided examination – pupils ‘find out’ important aspects of Guided examinationGuided examination pupils find out important aspects of

form for themselves, e.g. how questions are formed, do

something/have something done simple/progressive formssomething/have something done, simple/progressive forms

Compare/contrast Compare/contrast – with Swedish or other structures in English

(esp where only one equivalent in Swedish)(esp. where only one equivalent in Swedish)

Clear modelClear model – in a textually & visually accessible format which

b d f t blcan be used as reference, e.g. tables

L P i 1L P i 1Language Practice 1Language Practice 1 Recycle examples/text from the task

Recall exercises:– gap-filling exercises

grammaticisation – remove grammatical markers for pupils– grammaticisation remove grammatical markers for pupils to restore

jumbled sentences – words in the wrong order to be put– jumbled sentences words in the wrong order to be put back in the right order

progressive deletion – delete words step by step from a– progressive deletion delete words step by step from a (model) sentence for pupils to restore from memory

dictogloss – recreating a previously unfamiliar text– dictogloss recreating a previously unfamiliar text

L P i 2L P i 2Language Practice 2Language Practice 2

DictoglossDictoglossS 1S 1 d l d ( i f 10 li ) Step 1Step 1 – read aloud a text (maximum of 10 lines) at

conversational pace; pupils just listen

Step 2 Step 2 – read it aloud again; pupils can now jot down

words & phraseswords & phrases

Step 3Step 3 – read it aloud again; pupils just listen

Step 4Step 4 – students now work in pairs to try & recreate

the text in writingthe text in writing

D i i T k 1D i i T k 1Designing Tasks 1Designing Tasks 1Task parametersTask parametersTask parametersTask parameters

1.1. OutcomeOutcome: open or closed?vague or precise? Interim goals: linguistic clues?Format specified: written?tabular? spoken? Audience for end-product?C l ti i t l ? 22 St ti i t f t kSt ti i t f t kCompletion point clear? 2.2. Starting points for taskStarting points for task:

a text? a visual? a casestudy? a teacher story?learner experience?learner experience?web research? Input andtiming of priming stage

(Willis & Willis(Willis & Willis 2007a: 157)

D i i T k 2D i i T k 2Designing Tasks 2Designing Tasks 2Task parametersTask parameters 44 Control of agenda and taskControl of agenda and taskTask parametersTask parameters 4.4. Control of agenda and taskControl of agenda and task

structurestructure: explicit steps,formats supplied?Time limits / deadlines /

3.3. PrePre--task preparationtask preparation: with or without planning

Time limits / deadlines /word limits? Mid-taskinterventions? Degree of reference or written support?time? Priming stage:

timing, input; free orguided planning? Teacher-l d l l d? W itt

reference or written support?

5.5. Interaction patterns andInteraction patterns andled or learner-led? Writtenpreparation: in note formor in full?

ppparticipant rolesparticipant roles: individuals, pairs, groups,teacher with whole class?Roles of chair-person / writer / spokesperson / languageconsultant / editor? One-way

i f i fl ?(Willis & Willis or two-way information flow?Long or short turns?

(Willis & Willis 2007a: 157)

D i i T k 3D i i T k 3Designing Tasks 3Designing Tasks 3Task parametersTask parametersTask parametersTask parameters

6.6. Pressure on language productionPressure on language production: ‘pushing output’ to achieve accuracy – prestige language (planned– prestige language (planned,rehearsed, public) versus informallanguage (spontaneous, exploratory,private) Recording and transcribing

7.7. PostPost--task activitiestask activities: follow up tasks to recycleprivate). Recording and transcribing

learner interactions; scaffoldingteacher feedback – negative andpositive to encourage

follow-up tasks to recycle texts. Plus / minus report?Audiences for report?Repetition of tasks?pos e o e cou age

experimentation and complexity.Repetition of tasks? (time-lag?) Form-focusedlanguage work?Evaluation?Evaluation?

(Willis & Willis 2007a: 157)

Bibli h 1Bibli h 1Bibliography 1Bibliography 1Edwards, Corony & Willis, Jane (eds.) (2005) Teachers Exploring Tasks inEdwards, Corony & Willis, Jane (eds.) (2005) Teachers Exploring Tasks in

English Language Teaching. Basingstoke, Hants.: Palgrave Macmillan

Ltd

Nunan, David (1989) Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Ca b dge Ca b dge U e s y ess

Shehadeh, Ali (2005) “Task-based Language Learning and Teaching:

Theories and Applications.” In Teachers Exploring Tasks in EnglishTheories and Applications. In Teachers Exploring Tasks in English

Language Teaching. ed. by Edwards, C. & Willis, J. Basingstoke, U.K.:

Palgrave Macmillan Ltd, 13-30g ,

Skehan, Peter (1996) “A framework for the implementation of task based

instruction.” Applied Linguistics 17, (1) 38–62instruction. Applied Linguistics 17, (1) 38 62

Bibli h 2Bibli h 2Bibliography 2Bibliography 2Willis, Jane (1996) A Framework for Task-based Learning. Harlow, U.K.:Willis, Jane (1996) A Framework for Task based Learning. Harlow, U.K.:

Addison Wesley Longman (Pearson Education) Ltd.

Willis Dave & Willis Jane (2007a) Doing Task-based Teaching Oxford:Willis, Dave & Willis, Jane (2007a) Doing Task based Teaching. Oxford:

Oxford University Press

Willis Dave & Willis Jane (2007b) “Task-based language learning ” InWillis, Dave & Willis, Jane (2007b) Task-based language learning. In

The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other

Languages. ed. by Carter, R. & Nunan, D. Cambridge: CambridgeLanguages. ed. by Carter, R. & Nunan, D. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 173-9

D & J Willis’s website about taskD & J Willis’s website about task--based learning:based learning:D. & J. Willis s website about taskD. & J. Willis s website about task based learning:based learning:

http://www.daveandjane.demon.co.uk/ELT/