peanut oil

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9 Peanut Oil Harold E. Pattee North Carolina State University Raleigh, North Carolina 1. PEANUT ORIGIN AND HISTORY In 1753, Linneaus described the domesticated peanut species as Arachis (derived from the Greek ‘‘arachis,’’ meaning a weed) hypogaea (meaning a underground chamber) or a weed with fruit produced below the soil. The domesticated peanut (A. hypogaea) is believed to have originated in an area covered by southern Bolivia and northern Argentina because of the primitive characteristics associated with the germplasm from this region (1). Subspecies hypogaea var. hypogaea is the pre- dominant peanut type found in this area, and Krapovickas (2) hypothesized that the var. hypogaea may represent the most ancient cultivars because they have the runner habit, branching patterns, similar to related Arachis species, and no floral compound spikes. Additional information now suggests that a second origination event in the area north of Lima on the west coast of Peru could have been involved in the evolution of A. hypogaea. Archeological excavations near Casma at Pampa de la Llamas- Moxeke have recovered peanut shells at a level dated to be approximately 1500 B.C. (3–5), and gold carvings found in ancient tombs just to the north of Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeke (6, 7) closely resemble the reticulation of the cultivated types now grown in the Casma area. Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Sixth Edition, Six Volume Set. Edited by Fereidoon Shahidi. Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 431

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peanut oil

Transcript of peanut oil

Page 1: peanut oil

9Peanut Oil

Harold E. Pattee

North Carolina State University

Raleigh, North Carolina

1. PEANUT ORIGIN AND HISTORY

In 1753, Linneaus described the domesticated peanut species as Arachis (derived

from the Greek ‘‘arachis,’’ meaning a weed) hypogaea (meaning a underground

chamber) or a weed with fruit produced below the soil. The domesticated peanut

(A. hypogaea) is believed to have originated in an area covered by southern Bolivia

and northern Argentina because of the primitive characteristics associated with the

germplasm from this region (1). Subspecies hypogaea var. hypogaea is the pre-

dominant peanut type found in this area, and Krapovickas (2) hypothesized that

the var. hypogaea may represent the most ancient cultivars because they have the

runner habit, branching patterns, similar to related Arachis species, and no floral

compound spikes.

Additional information now suggests that a second origination event in the area

north of Lima on the west coast of Peru could have been involved in the evolution

of A. hypogaea. Archeological excavations near Casma at Pampa de la Llamas-

Moxeke have recovered peanut shells at a level dated to be approximately

1500 B.C. (3–5), and gold carvings found in ancient tombs just to the north of Pampa

de las Llamas-Moxeke (6, 7) closely resemble the reticulation of the cultivated

types now grown in the Casma area.

Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Sixth Edition, Six Volume Set.Edited by Fereidoon Shahidi. Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

431

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As peanut is native to South America, the early Spanish and Portuguese

explorers found the Indians cultivating the peanut along with other food crops. It

was from the tropical and subtropical areas of this hemisphere that the peanut

was disseminated to Europe, to both the coasts of Africa, to Asia, and to the Pacific

Islands (8). The Incas of Peru, who achieved one of the world’s most highly devel-

oped agricultural civilizations, cultivated the peanut throughout the long coastal

regions of Peru. Garcilaso de la Vega describes the peanut as ‘‘another vegetable

which is raised under the ground, called by the Indians ynchic. It is very like mar-

row, and has the taste of almonds.’’ Of its food and medicinal uses: ‘‘If the ynchic is

eaten raw it caused headache, but when toasted it is wholesome, and very good with

treacle; and they make an excellent sweetmeat from it. They also obtain an oil from

the ynchic, which is good for many diseases’’ (8). Just when the peanut was first

purposefully introduced into Europe and into the colonial seaboard of the south-

eastern United States is not documented. However, from this introduction around

the world, the peanut has become a significant agricultural commodity and its oil

a primary ingredient in the culinary process in many countries.

2. GLOBAL

2.1. Peanut Production

The peanut is known by several names throughout the world, such as groundnut and

earth nut, because the seeds develop under the ground. Peanuts are produced on a

significant basis in more than 30 different countries throughout the world. The

worldwide production for 2002 was estimated to be in excess of 31 million metric

tons (MMT) (9). India, China, and the United States were the three largest produ-

cers of peanuts and accounted for over 70% of the world production in 2002. Peanut

production worldwide has undergone significant increases in the last 30 years

(Table 1). In 1972, the average production was 14.4 MMT, 1980 16.0 MMT,

1990 21.6 MMT, and 2000–2002 32.0 MMT. (9, 10). Some of the production

increase was a result of a 22% increase in the area harvested between 1972 and

2002. However, the major factor was the increase in yield from 0.93 MT/ha in

the 1970s to 1.4 MT/ha in 2001/2002. Among the three major producers, India

had a 42% increase in production between the 1970s and 1990s but decreased

16% between the 1990s and 2002. China increased production 179% between

the 1970s and 1990s and another 136% to 2002. The U.S. production increased

15% in the first 20 years and has remained near 1.9 MMT since the 1990s

(9, 10). Total area harvested and production levels in the next tier of eight countries

has averaged approximately 4.63 mha harvested and 4.46 MMT produced across

the 30 years. From the data given in Table 1, the high total area harvested for

this tier of eight countries was 5.38 mha in 1972 with a low of 3.93 mha in

1990. Highest production occurred in 2000 at 5.50 MMT and the lowest in 1990

at 3.46 MMT (Table 1). World exports of peanuts from the producing countries

have only increased 22%, from 1178 MMT in 1972 to 1518 MMT in 2002.

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TABLE 1. Major Countries and World Peanut Production and Utilization (mha or MMT) Across 30 Years.1

Area TotalDomestic Consumption

Total——————————————————————

Year Country Harvested Production Supply Exports Crushed Food Feed; Seed; Waste Total Distribution

1972 China 1878 2092 2092 42 1018 768 264 2050 2092

1972 India 6990 4092 4342 33 3511 532 266 4309 4342

1972 United States 601 1485 1663 236 386 768 78 1232 1663

1972 Argentina 370 440 457 2 331 46 21 398 457

1972 Brazil 506 590 590 78 401 59 52 512 590

1972 Burma 633 390 390 0 228 142 20 390 390

1972 Indonesia 407 483 483 29 91 340 23 454 483

1972 Nigeria 1220 772 797 284 383 100 30 513 797

1972 Senegal 1100 540 540 7 385 45 103 533 540

1972 Sudan 690 568 568 156 91 210 111 412 568

1972 Zaire 451 230 230 0 81 137 12 230 230

1972 World 18121 14421 16263 1178 8569 4873 1270 14712 16263

1980 China 2339 3600 3600 305 1667 1257 371 3295 3600

1980 India 6801 5005 5205 71 4059 325 650 5034 5205

1980 United States 566 1045 1512 228 202 663 232 1097 1512

1980 Argentina 197 243 282 74 147 12 11 170 282

1980 Brazil 235 310 312 37 196 37 42 275 312

1980 Burma 514 431 431 0 319 91 21 431 431

1980 Indonesia 508 791 806 2 47 682 75 804 806

1980 Nigeria 650 530 530 0 204 220 106 530 530

1980 Senegal 1064 521 521 3 258 101 159 518 521

1980 Sudan 894 707 707 133 377 151 46 574 707

1980 Zaire 480 320 320 0 107 185 28 320 320

1980 World 17508 16040 17805 1113 8507 5697 1989 16193 17805

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TABLE 1 (Continued )

Area TotalDomestic Consumption

Total——————————————————————

Year Country Harvested Production Supply Exports Crushed Food Feed; Seed; Waste Total Distribution

1990 China 2907 6368 6369 448 3250 2209 462 5921 6369

1990 India 8309 7514 7514 45 5999 490 980 7469 7514

1990 United States 732 1634 1964 296 313 916 129 1358 1964

1990 Argentina 198 311 341 110 123 31 30 184 341

1990 Brazil 95 157 172 2 50 95 20 165 172

1990 Burma 554 472 472 10 320 96 46 462 472

1990 Indonesia 600 860 1011 0 45 850 93 988 1011

1990 Nigeria 500 250 260 0 80 100 60 240 260

1990 Senegal 914 703 758 4 480 146 93 719 758

1990 Sudan 540 325 325 20 145 135 25 305 325

1990 Zaire 530 380 380 0 129 229 22 380 380

1990 World 19089 21656 23498 1304 11705 7791 2157 21653 23498

2000 China 4856 14437 14437 450 6800 6047 1140 13987 14437

2000 India 8100 5700 5700 100 4300 500 800 5600 5700

2000 United States 541 1481 2138 239 248 988 166 1402 2138

2000 Argentina 251 395 409 177 142 21 19 182 409

2000 Brazil 102 196 216 3 60 125 18 203 216

2000 Burma 530 640 640 12 390 162 76 628 640

2000 Indonesia 650 1040 1178 0 64 1030 70 1164 1178

2000 Nigeria 1210 1470 1475 0 510 670 290 1470 1475

2000 Senegal 1030 1003 1028 9 420 395 149 964 1028

2000 Sudan 550 370 370 5 210 135 20 365 370

2000 Zaire 491 382 382 0 120 232 30 382 382

2000 World 22644 31120 33225 1387 14174 13886 3021 31081 33225

2002 China 5000 14500 14500 500 6950 5950 1100 14000 14500

2002 India 8100 6700 6700 105 5060 600 935 6595 6700

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TABLE 1 (Continued )

2002 United States 551 1702 2395 293 292 1090 167 1549 2395

2002 Argentina 200 315 335 160 125 21 19 165 335

2002 Brazil 100 195 215 3 60 124 18 202 215

2002 Burma 530 640 640 12 390 162 76 628 640

2002 Indonesia 650 1000 1219 0 62 1075 68 1205 1219

2002 Nigeria 1230 1510 1515 0 528 685 297 1510 1515

2002 Senegal 750 500 523 5 160 252 85 497 523

2002 Sudan 550 370 370 4 211 135 20 366 370

2002 Zaire 500 390 390 0 132 233 25 390 390

2002 World 22507 31837 34155 1518 14901 13971 3056 31928 34155

1Data extracted from http://www.fas.usda.gov/psd/complete_files/OIL-2221000.csv

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However, China alone has increased exports from 42 MMT to 500 MMT during this

same period (Table 1). This increase accounts for nearly one-third of the total world

peanut exports. On the other hand, the African continent countries of Nigeria, Sene-

gal, and Sudan have had a decrease in the exporting of peanuts from a combined

447 MMT in 1972 to 9 MMT in 2002.

2.2. Peanut Utilization

Peanuts are not a crop that can easily be carried over from one year to the next as

noted by a comparison of the production and total consumption values across years

(Table 1). Utilization of the peanut crop can be classified into the general areas of

crushed, food, feed, seed, and waste. In 1972, the primary utilization in 7 of the 11

listed countries was the crushing of peanuts for oil and utilization of the resultant

meal. The United States’ food utilization was more than twice that of the next coun-

try, Indonesia. In the United States, food utilization was nearly twice that of crush-

ing utilization. In 2002, the number of countries having food as the primary

utilization factor had increased to six and the United States and Indonesia were

almost equal in food utilization (Table 1).

2.2.1. Oil Hammons’ (8) review of the origin and early history of the peanut pro-

vides extensive insight into writings of the early Spanish and Portuguese explorers

and the usage of peanuts as an oil source for many purposes. Spanish recognition of

the usefulness of peanut oil is documented by the establishment of an oil mill at

the Mediterranean port of Valencia around 1800 (11). Most authorities credit the

Portuguese with introducing the peanut into African agriculture from Brazil.

West Africa was the primary source of peanut exportation in the nineteenth century.

Brooks (12) provides an overview of the development of the peanut industry in

Africa and peanut exportation from West Africa to other parts of the world. The

first export seems to have been from Gambia to Britain in 1834 involving 213 bas-

kets, but the next year export increased to 47 tons and by the 1840s involved thou-

sands of tons a year. Earliest exports to America were in 1835, and exports to

America dominated the Gambian market from 1837 to 1841. The exportation to

Britain was for crushing, and the dominant reason for American usage was the

pleasing flavor of the roasted peanut.

Development of the European peanut oil industry was stimulated by a worldwide

shortage of fats after the Napoleonic wars, an increase in population, a rise in the

standard of living, and a new working class. As in Britain, French soap and candle-

makers became increasingly dependent on foreign sources of oil supply in the

1830s. Learning of the British peanut imports, French industrialists undertook

experimentation of their own on peanut oil. Jaubert, a Goree trader who had sent

a sample of peanut oil to Marseille in 1833, is credited with initiating the industry

with a shipment of 722 kg of peanuts from West Africa to Marseilles in 1840, when

France reduced the tariff on peanuts (8, 12). Following that shipment, other traders

are reported in 1842 to have brought nearly a 1000 tons of peanuts to Marseilles.

436 PEANUT OIL

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Peanut oil production continued to increase, in Europe, throughout the nineteenth

century. By 1899, 17 factories at Marseilles were crushing about 200,000 tons. An

equal volume was being processed in Britain and other European countries (13).

France continued to be a major peanut importer and oil producer, through the

mid-1970s with 331 MMT crushed in 1972. However, by 1980 and 2000, the

crushed level had dropped to 79 and 8 MMT, respectively (10).

Across the last 30 years, the amount of peanuts crushed for oil worldwide has

increased from 7957 to 14,901 MT. (Table 2). Increases in metric tons crushed in

China and India and the decreases in the South America countries of Argentina and

Brazil account for almost 100% of the changes. The oil produced is virtually all

used within the countries of production. It seems appropriate to note that within

Japan, the industrial use of peanut oil has increased from 4 to 14 MMT between

1990 and 2002. Exporting of peanut oil has decreased nearly 42% from 1972 to

2002. Of the 252 MMT of oil exported worldwide in 2002, four countries, Argen-

tina, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sudan, account for nearly 70%.

2.2.1.1. Oil Extraction Hydraulic pressing, expeller, and/or solvent extraction are

the three general methods for extracting oil from the seed. When hydraulic pressing

is used, it is followed by hot solvent extraction for nearly total recovery of the oil.

Expeller extraction relies on friction and pressure within the expeller, which causes

the meal to heat, thus facilitating the oil extraction process. This process removes

approximately 50% of the peanut oil. The remaining oil is extracted using hexane,

which is later removed through an evaporation–condensation system. Solvent

extraction involves petroleum hydrocarbons or other solvents. Solvent extraction

is accomplished in closed systems where oil is removed and solvent reclaimed

for reuse. The efficiency of extraction with hexane, 95% ethanol, or absolute etha-

nol on peanut grits has been reported (14). Extracted oil is refined by deacidification

with sodium hydroxide to neutralize the free-fatty acids, washing with water at

about 82�C to remove the sodium hydroxide, and then bleaching with bleaching

clay at about 100�C under reduced pressure. The refined oil is then deodorized

by heating under vacuum and blowing superheated steam through the oil. Deacidi-

fication and deodorization of peanut oil and other edible oils by dense carbon diox-

ide extraction has been investigated (15). The purpose of the refining process is to

remove nontriacylglycerol components, including free fatty acids, nonhydratable

phosphoacylglycerols, sterols, pigments, glucosides, waxes, hydrocarbons, and

other compounds that may be detrimental to the flavor or oxidative stability of

the refined oil (16).

2.2.1.2. Alternative Oil Extraction Techniques and Seed Treatment The com-

plete removal of organic solvents used for extracting seed oils is mandatory if

the oil is to be used for human consumption. Supercritical fluid extraction

has emerged as an attractive separation technique because it does not introduce

any residual organic chemicals. Supercritical CO2 is the most commonly used

supercritical fluid (17). CO2 is relatively low cost, nonflammable, nontoxic, and

GLOBAL 437

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TABLE 2. Major Countries and World Peanut Oil Production and Utilization (MMT) Across 30 Years.1

Oil On TotalDomestic Consumption

Total———————————

Year Country Crushed Production Hand Imports Supply Food Total Exports Distribution

1972 China 1018 254 0 0 254 234 234 20 254

1972 India 3511 1060 0 0 1060 1060 1060 0 1060

1972 United States 386 122 15 0 137 72 72 48 137

1972 Argentina 331 78 2 0 80 0 0 80 80

1972 Brazil 401 112 0 0 112 68 68 44 112

1972 Burma 228 73 0 0 73 73 73 0 73

1972 Indonesia 91 29 0 0 29 29 29 0 29

1972 Nigeria 383 122 0 0 122 11 11 111 122

1972 Senegal 385 128 0 0 128 65 65 63 128

1972 Sudan 91 29 0 0 29 29 29 0 29

1972 Zaire 81 26 0 0 26 22 26 0 26

1972 World 7957 2371 17 401 2789 2325 2337 434 2789

1980 China 1667 417 0 0 417 368 368 49 417

1980 India 4059 1177 0 0 1177 1177 1177 0 1177

1980 United States 202 63 20 0 83 44 44 22 83

1980 Argentina 147 42 0 0 42 0 0 36 42

1980 Brazil 196 62 0 0 62 16 16 46 62

1980 Burma 319 102 0 0 102 102 102 0 102

1980 Indonesia 47 16 0 0 16 16 16 0 16

1980 Nigeria 204 65 0 4 69 69 69 0 69

1980 Senegal 258 83 0 0 83 63 63 20 83

1980 Sudan 377 121 0 0 121 105 105 16 121

1980 Zaire 107 34 0 0 34 33 34 0 34

1980 World 8085 2343 60 319 2722 2410 2411 268 2722

1990 China 3250 813 0 5 818 772 772 46 818

1990 India 5999 1740 0 0 1740 1736 1740 0 1740

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1990 United States 313 97 10 5 112 90 90 11 112

1990 Argentina 123 40 0 0 40 5 5 35 40

1990 Brazil 50 14 8 15 37 15 15 18 37

1990 Burma 320 99 0 0 99 99 99 0 99

1990 Indonesia 45 14 5 0 19 13 13 0 19

1990 Nigeria 80 37 0 0 37 37 37 0 37

1990 Senegal 480 153 9 0 162 53 58 99 162

1990 Sudan 145 47 0 0 47 44 44 3 47

1990 Zaire 129 41 0 0 41 40 41 0 41

1990 World 11389 3242 54 302 3598 3274 3292 259 3598

2000 China 6800 2115 0 10 2125 2110 2110 15 2125

2000 India 4300 1245 0 0 1245 1235 1245 0 1245

2000 United States 248 81 14 36 131 111 111 6 131

2000 Argentina 142 42 0 0 42 1 1 41 42

2000 Brazil 60 16 2 0 18 17 17 1 18

2000 Burma 390 123 0 0 123 123 123 0 123

2000 Indonesia 64 20 0 0 20 20 20 0 20

2000 Nigeria 510 230 0 0 230 195 195 35 230

2000 Senegal 420 160 6 0 166 58 58 102 166

2000 Sudan 210 67 0 0 67 22 22 45 67

2000 Zaire 120 38 0 0 38 37 38 0 38

2000 World 14149 4301 32 258 4591 4239 4250 312 4591

2002 China 6950 2175 0 10 2185 2170 2170 15 2185

2002 India 5060 1465 0 0 1465 1451 1465 0 1465

2002 United States 292 93 14 20 127 111 111 5 127

2002 Argentina 125 39 0 0 39 1 1 38 39

2002 Brazil 60 16 0 0 16 15 15 1 16

2002 Burma 390 123 0 0 123 123 123 0 123

2002 Indonesia 62 19 0 0 19 19 19 0 19

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TABLE 2 (Continued )

Oil On TotalDomestic Consumption

Total———————————

Year Country Crushed Production Hand Imports Supply Food Total Exports Distribution

2002 Nigeria 528 238 0 0 238 208 208 30 238

2002 Senegal 160 58 5 10 73 10 10 60 73

2002 Sudan 211 68 0 0 68 24 24 44 68

2002 Zaire 132 41 0 0 41 40 41 0 41

2002 World 14901 4513 30 219 4762 4476 4491 252 4762s

1Data extracted from http://www.fas.usda.gov/psd/complete_files/OIL-4234000.csv

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easily removed from the oil product by depressurization. However, particle size

does have a significant effect on the extraction rate curves (18–20). CO2 is also

U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved and is generally regarded as a safe

compound.

Food-grade butane in a supercritical, low-pressure, liquefied gas extraction pro-

cedure has also been described for oil extraction from peanuts (21). The extraction

process consists of mixing the liquefied butane with the material to form a slurry.

The liquefied gas and oil are moved to a solvent recovery system where the oil is

removed from the butane. The oil is pumped from the solvent recovery system to a

holding tank, and the butane is then transformed into a gas in the solvent recovery

system and transported back to the butane storage tank for reuse.

Aqueous enzymatic oil extraction is another ecofriendly extraction procedure.

It is based on simultaneous isolation of oil and protein from oilseed by dispersing

finely ground seed in water and separating the dispersion by centrifugation into oil,

solid, and aqueous phases. The presence of certain enzymes during extraction

enhances oil recovery by breaking cell walls and oil bodies (22). For peanuts, a

multistep aqueous extraction process has been described with a recovery of

about 98% (23). More recently, the relatively new technique of enzyme-assisted

aqueous extraction has been applied to peanuts with a reported oil recovery of

86–92% (24).

Microwave treatment, because of its rapid heating of materials, is being explored

in a multitude of crops for enzyme inactivation (25–28), for extraction of natural

products (29), and oil and fat extraction from seeds and food products (30–32).

Microwave treatment of peanut seed prior to press extraction increased oil recovery

approximately 10% at an optimum treatment time of 30 seconds (30). However,

free fatty acid content initially increased with exposure time as well as peroxide

value (30). Research on use of microwave treatment in blanching of peanuts indi-

cated an influence on oil stability depending on treatment conditions (33).

2.2.1.3. Oil Extraction By-Product The byproduct of peanut oil production is

peanut meal, and depending on the methods used, the oil content remaining in

the meal range from about 7% to 1%. Human consumption of peanut meal is neg-

ligible except in India and Argentina (Table 3). The primary use of peanut meal is

animal feed. When peanut meal is used for human or animal consumption, careful

consideration should be given to the quality of the meal. Various oilseeds, edible nuts,

grains, and their derived products are subject to mycotoxin contamination (34),

and these mycotoxins may have a detrimental effect on both human and animal

health (35). Worldwide regulations for mycotoxins have been published (36).

Mycotoxins are generally associated with the protein fraction and are not found

in refined oil because of the processing procedures. Unrefined or lightly refined

oil may contain mycotoxins because of the fine residue particles contained therein.

Meal from edible-grade peanuts with low oil content may be processed into flour

for human consumption. When poor-quality grades are used, poor extraction effi-

ciencies or lack of hygienic conditions exist, and the residue should be used as a

fertilizer.

GLOBAL 441

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TABLE 3. Major Countries and World Peanut Meal Production and Utilization (MMT) Across 30 Years.1

On TotalDomestic Consumption

Total————————————

Year Country Crushed Hand Production Imports Supply Exports Food Feed: Waste Total Distribution

1972 China 1018 0 407 0 407 0 0 366 407 407

1972 India 3511 0 1373 0 1373 869 0 504 504 1373

1972 United States 386 1 163 0 164 0 0 161 161 164

1972 Argentina 331 5 136 0 141 85 0 44 44 141

1972 Brazil 401 0 154 0 154 80 0 74 74 154

1972 Burma 228 0 88 0 88 0 0 88 88 88

1972 Indonesia 91 0 35 0 35 0 0 35 35 35

1972 Nigeria 383 6 147 0 153 137 0 16 16 153

1972 Senegal 385 0 148 0 148 135 0 13 13 148

1972 Sudan 91 20 35 0 55 50 0 5 5 55

1972 Zaire 81 0 31 0 31 0 0 31 31 31

1972 World 8098 33 3158 1030 4221 1431 13 2710 2774 4221

1980 China 1667 0 667 0 667 3 0 598 664 667

1980 India 4059 0 1705 0 1705 394 0 1311 1311 1705

1980 United States 202 4 85 0 89 0 0 85 85 89

1980 Argentina 147 7 57 0 64 42 0 8 8 64

1980 Brazil 196 0 72 0 72 46 0 26 26 72

1980 Burma 319 0 121 0 121 0 0 121 121 121

1980 Indonesia 47 0 18 0 18 0 0 18 18 18

1980 Nigeria 204 0 79 0 79 0 0 79 79 79

1980 Senegal 258 0 95 0 95 49 0 46 46 95

1980 Sudan 377 0 145 0 145 75 0 70 70 145

1980 Zaire 107 0 41 0 41 0 0 41 41 41

1980 World 7813 16 3181 488 3685 549 0 3050 3116 3685

1990 China 3250 0 1300 0 1300 160 0 1028 1140 1300

1990 India 5999 0 2520 0 2520 175 5 2340 2345 2520

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1990 United States 313 6 136 0 142 35 0 103 103 142

1990 Argentina 123 0 48 0 48 38 3 7 10 48

1990 Brazil 50 0 20 0 20 3 0 17 17 20

1990 Burma 320 0 105 0 105 10 0 95 95 105

1990 France 0 0 0 253 253 3 0 250 250 253

1990 Indonesia 45 16 17 132 165 0 0 145 145 165

1990 Nigeria 80 0 28 0 28 0 0 28 28 28

1990 Senegal 480 34 183 0 217 166 0 22 22 217

1990 Sudan 145 0 56 0 56 52 0 4 4 56

1990 Zaire 129 0 50 0 50 0 0 50 50 50

1990 World 11350 61 4518 717 5296 626 8 4478 4610 5296

2000 China 6800 0 2660 0 2660 15 0 2645 2645 2660

2000 India 4300 0 1810 0 1810 20 10 1780 1790 1810

2000 United States 248 2 104 0 106 5 0 99 99 106

2000 Argentina 142 5 62 0 67 50 3 5 15 67

2000 Brazil 60 0 24 0 24 1 0 23 23 24

2000 Burma 390 0 123 0 123 10 0 113 113 123

2000 Indonesia 64 8 24 7 39 0 0 33 33 39

2000 Nigeria 510 0 163 0 163 0 0 163 163 163

2000 Senegal 420 3 190 0 193 144 0 44 44 193

2000 Sudan 210 0 81 0 81 76 0 5 5 81

2000 Zaire 120 0 46 0 46 0 0 46 46 46

2000 World 14139 22 5254 255 5531 274 35 5204 5239 5531

2002 China 6950 0 2719 0 2719 10 0 2709 2709 2719

2002 India 5060 0 2128 0 2128 50 10 2068 2078 2128

2002 United States 292 2 127 0 129 5 0 122 122 129

2002 Argentina 125 0 55 0 55 47 3 5 8 55

2002 Brazil 60 0 24 0 24 1 0 23 23 24

2002 Burma 390 0 123 0 123 10 0 113 113 123

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TABLE 3 (Continued )

On TotalDomestic Consumption

Total————————————

Year Country Crushed Hand Production Imports Supply Exports Food Feed: Waste Total Distribution

2002 Indonesia 62 5 23 0 28 0 0 26 26 28

2002 Nigeria 528 0 169 0 169 0 0 169 169 169

2002 Senegal 160 5 68 0 73 63 0 10 10 73

2002 Sudan 211 0 81 0 81 75 0 6 6 81

2002 Zaire 132 0 51 0 51 0 0 51 51 51

2002 World 14901 17 5502 244 5763 222 37 5495 5532 5763

1Data extracted from http://www.fas.usda.gov/psd/complete_files/OIL-0813200.csv

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3. ENVIRONMENTAL AND GENOTYPE EFFECTSON THE COMPOSITION PEANUTS

Major factors that influence the oil and other composition components of the peanut

include cultivar and maturity (37) as well as the environmental production condi-

tions of light, temperature, water stress, soil constituents, atmospheric constituents,

herbicides and insecticides, physical damage, and pest attack (38). In the four major

U.S. market-types (runner, virginia, valencia, and spanish), total oil content varies

from 44% to 56% (37, 39, 40). Information on the environmental and genotypic

effects on oil and fatty acid composition in peanuts is available (40, 41). The effects

of production environment on oil composition of varieties grown in Australia (42),

India (43, 44), and the United States (45–49) have been reported. In maturity stu-

dies, the total oil (as a percentage of dry weight) increased significantly and then

decreased slightly (50, 51). The most rapid changes in oil percentage occurred in

early maturity stages and corresponded to the time of very rapid increases in seed

dry weight (45, 51–54). As the peanut oil content increases across maturity, there is

a concurrent change in fatty acid composition (45). Mature seeds contain more stea-

ric and oleic acids and less arachidic, behenic, and lignoceric acids than immature

seeds. The oleic/linoleic (O/L) ratio also increases with maturity (41, 45). Develop-

ment of new high oleic acid peanut cultivars will be discussed in the next section.

Oil content and fatty acid composition have been studied in aboriginal varieties

of Arachis hypogaea subsp. hypogaea and subsp. fastigiata. These varieties are

important because they contain germplasm that can be used to increase the varia-

bility in the genetic base of the cultivated varieties (55, 56). The A. hypogaea subsp.

hypogaea var. hypogaea cultivars were higher in oleic acid concentration than the

A. hypogaea subsp. fastigiata var. fastigiata, var. aequatoriana, and var. peruviana

cultivars in sources from Peru (57) and Bolivia (58). Similar results were also

obtained from Mexican landrace lines of A. hypogaea subsp. hypogaea var. hirsuta

(59). In contrast, a survey of 16 wild species of Arachis found that the wild species

had higher levels of linoleic acid in comparison with the Arachis hypogaea geno-

types (60)

4. MODIFICATION OF OIL CHARACTERISTICS THROUGHBREEDING

Modification of fatty acid composition has been a particular goal of breeding pro-

grams because oil quality, fatty acid composition, and protein composition are

highly heritable traits. One of the keys to successful progress in a breeding program

is the availability of rapid, efficient screening systems. Some of the methods for

rapid screening are measurement of the iodine value (IV) by the oil’ refractive index

(61), estimation of the seed oil content by its specific gravity (62), and estimation of

seed fatty acid composition by use of a small tissue fraction and analysis through

direct transmethylation (63), which improves on the individual seed analysis meth-

od (64). Methods of peanut improvement through breeding programs have been

MODIFICATION OF OIL CHARACTERISTICS THROUGH BREEDING 445

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discussed in detail (65–68). Most peanut genotypes have 36–67% oleic acid (O),

15–46% linoleic acid (L), and O/L ratios between 1.19 and 4.46 (69–72). While

surveying peanut genotypes for oil quality, it was found that two closely related

experimental lines had 80% oleic acid and 2% linoleic acid (O/L ¼ 40) with an

IV of 74 (71). This naturally occurring mutation may have resulted from a mutation

of aspartate at position 150 to asparagine in the cDNA that reduced oleoyl-PC desa-

turase activity (73). Initial oxidative stability studies were done comparing

extracted oil from the experimental high-oleic line with that of an isogenic sister

line with normal fatty acid composition (74). The results indicated that the high-

oleic peanut oil had a greater oxidative stability than the normal-oleic oil. These

experimental lines have been used in breeding programs to develop cultivars

with high O/L ratios (75–79). Cultivars having these high O/L ratios do not have

significant differences in oil content (80) nor do they have significant differences in

color, aroma, flavor, or texture (81, 82). It is characteristic of these high oleic acid

lines to have a linoleic acid content of 4% or less. High oleic roasted peanut seed

have a more stable roasted peanut attribute after 6 weeks storage at 22�C, and their

estimated shelf life is approximately two times longer than that of seed from a nor-

mal-oleic variety Florunner (83). Comparison of flavor stability in high-oleic and

normal oleic roasted peanut seed during storage at low relative humidity (84)

or �20�C (85) indicated that the high-oleic sources had better flavor quality and

stability. Use of high oleic oil in roasting of peanuts resulted in slight increases

in shelf life as measured by oxidative stability index (OSI) and peroxide value

(86). The OSI decreased over storage time, but the differential between high-oleic

and normal roasting oils was maintained throughout the storage period. The stabi-

lity of high-oleic peanut, sesame, and soybean blends in comparison with normal-

oleic peanut, sesame, and soybean blends has also been investigated (87), as has the

effect of the high-oleic trait on roasted peanut flavor heritability (79, 88).

5. OIL COLOR

Color is an important quality parameter of edible oil, both in the refining process

and in the marketplace. It is frequently monitored in the product line according to

some commercial standards to maintain a consistent quality. Each oil has its own

characteristic color primarily because of naturally occurring polyphenolic pig-

ments, gossypol, chlorophyll, and carotenoids (89). Therefore, oil color is often

specified according to both market and trade rules established by various associa-

tions. Peanut oil of the first grade for cooking should not exceed 2 Lovibond red

with fixed Lovibond yellow 20 according to Chinese national standard GB5525-

85, and for salad use, it should be no more than 1.5 Lovibond red with fixed Lovi-

bond yellow 15 (90). The Lovibond method, American Oil Chemists’ Society

(AOCS) Method Cc 13e-92 (91), is practiced primarily outside the United States

and Canada (90), and AOCS Method Cc 13e-45 or Wesson method is used through-

out the Americas (92). Introduction of automated colorimeters made possible the

replacement of the manually operated visual color instrument. An international

446 PEANUT OIL

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collaborative study was conducted to establish a broad-scale correlation between an

automated colorimeter (Tintometer Model PFX 990 (The Tintometer Ltd)) and the

official visual colorimeter (Tinometer Model AF710) (93). The automated col-

orimeter was concluded to be an appropriate alternative. Recently, digital image

analysis has been proposed as an alternative method to the visual Lovibond method

(90). The light yellow color of peanut oil is caused by ß-carotene and lutein (94). As

peanuts mature, a distinct lightening of the oil color can be observed (95). This

lightening of oil color has been suggested as a method to assess maturity (96). How-

ever, because peanut oil color is affected by factors, such as water stress and rate

of curing in addition to maturity (97), this method was replaced by other maturity

evaluation methods (98, 99).

6. PEANUT OIL EVALUATION AND COMPOSITION

Crude peanut oil has a nutlike flavor, which is removed by refining (14). Flavor

quality ballots for oil quality have been described (100) and incorporate separate

ballots for grading and flavor intensity. The flavor quality ballot only describes

the flavor characteristics and does not include the suspected cause or process of

any off-odors (101). Lexicons of roasted peanut flavor terms are available, and

the origins of these flavor terms have been discussed (102). Although there is no

U.S. standard of identity per se, peanut oil must be suitable for human consumption

and conform to the identity characteristics defined by the Codex Alimentarius

Commission (103). The various chemical and physical characteristics for peanut

oil are given in Table 4.

Heat of fusion, or latent heat, is the quantity of heat required to change 1 g of

solid to a liquid with no temperature change. This latent heat increases with increas-

ing molecular weight. Heat of combustion is the amount of heat produced by com-

bustion of 1 kg of oil (104). The heat of combustion increases with the chain length

of the fatty acids for both monoacylglycerols and triacylglycerols (107).

The Hehner value expresses the percentage of water-insoluble fatty acids plus

unsaponifiable matter in an oil or fat (105). This method is of greatest value in test-

ing butterfat purify. Like most vegetable oils, peanut oil has a higher Hehner value

than butterfat (108). Lipids with soluble fatty acids will have lower Hehner values

than those with a greater proportion of high-molecular-weight fatty acids. The IV,

or Wijs iodine number, is the number of grams of iodine absorbed under standard

conditions by 100 g of fat. Peanut oil’s IV of 82–107 indicates it is more saturated

than corn, cottonseed, or linseed oil but is less saturated than coconut, palm, or

butter oil (37). Oil from the high oleic peanut varieties has an IV usually between

73 and 77 (41).

Peroxide value is the measure of reactive oxygen content of a fat in terms

of milliequivalents per 1000-g fat, following AOCS method Cd 8-53 or AOAC

Method 965.33 (109). Elevated peroxide values indicate that lipid oxidation has

taken place (110). Free fatty acids can serve as substrates for lipoxygenase and per-

oxidase (111), both of which are inactivated during heating (112). Once the cell

PEANUT OIL EVALUATION AND COMPOSITION 447

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structure is disrupted, lipoxygenase reacts with linoleic, linolenic, or arachidonic

acid [either as the free acid, triacylglycerols, or methyl or ethyl esters (113)] to

form hydroperoxides. Hydroperoxides can undergo further decomposition to

form pentanal and hexanal, both of which are detectable by headspace analysis

(114). These oxidation products are correlated with reduced flavor scores (100)

and cardboard and painty defects (100). Although the peroxide value is used as

an indicator of oil oxidation, the Kreis test was found to be a better predictor of

oxidation than the peroxide value for peanut oil (115).

The Plenske value and Reichert–Meissel values are indicators of steam-volatile

water-soluble (butyric, caproic, and caprylic) or water-insoluble (capric and

lauric) fatty acids, respectively (37). These tests were designed for detecting

TABLE 4. Characteristics of Peanut Oil.

Characteristic Value Reference

Acetyl value 8.5–9.5 37

Acid value (maximum)

Refined 0.6 mg KOH/g oil 103

Cold Pressed 4 mg KOH/g oil 103

Calculated gums (phospatides x 32) 0.35% 104

Color (Lovibond, maximum) Yellow 16–25; 2.0 red 37

Color (visual) Light yellow 37

Flavor and odor

Refined Bland 14

Cold Pressed Shall be characteristic of the natural product 103

Free from foreign and rancid odor or taste

Heat of fusion (unhydrogenated) 21.7 cal/g 37

Heating value 40.4 mJ/kg 104

Hehner value 95–96 105

Insoluble Impurities (% maximum) 0.05 103

Iodine no. (Wijs) 86–107 103

Kinematic viscosity (21.1�C) 70.7cSt 104

Melting point 0–3�C 106

Melting point of the fatty acids 22–30�C 106

Moisture and volatiles 0.23% 106

Peroxide value (maximum)

Refined 10 meq peroxides O2/kg oil 103

Cold Pressed 15 meq peroxides O2/kg oil 103

Polenske value 0.5 37

Refractive index (nD40�C) 1.46–1.465 103

Reichert-Meisl value 0.5 37

Saponification number 187–196 103

Smoke point (minimum) ~226.4�C 14

Specific gravity (20�C) 0.912–0.920 103

Specific heat (Cp, liquid oil) 0.4914 þ 0.004 T (�C) 107

Surface tension 35.6 mN/m 104

Thiocyanogen value 0.5 37

Titer 26–32�C 37

Unsaponifiable lipids 0.40% 104

448 PEANUT OIL

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low-molecular-weight fatty acids in oil and adulteration in butterfat (106). Butterfat

has a Reichert–Meissel value of 17–34.5 (110).

The thiocyanogen value (TV) is a measure of the amount of the reagent absorbed

by 1 g of fat. GLC methods have largely displaced this method for determining the

content of oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids when IV’s are determined (116).

Methods for calculating fat composition using the IV and TV have been discussed

(110).

For soap making, the melting point of the fatty acids (titer value) is an important

parameter (117). The titer value for peanut oil is lower than that for cottonseed oil

(30–37�C), cocoa butter, and animal fats and oils (118) but is higher than that for

corn (14–20�C) and/or linseed oil (19–21�C) (37).

The unsaponifiable matter is largely sterols and methylsterols (119, 120).

Detailed compositional analysis of the unsaponifiable fraction will be discussed

under the sterol subheading.

Before the development of gas chromatography and high-pressure liquid chro-

matography, the presence of peanut oil (as an olive oil adulterant) could be detected

because peanut oil contains about 5% arachidic acid. Arachidic acid is insoluble in

cold alcohol unlike stearic and palmitic acids (110). Methods for the detection of

arachidic acid include the Bellier, Evers, Evers–Bellier, and Renard tests (110,

121). Arachidic acid is predominant in the lecithin and cephalic fractions of peanut

oil (122). Detection methods for toxic oils as an adulterant in edible oils such as

peanut oil have been reviewed (123, 124).

Advances in instrumentation have brought about proposals of new methods for

oil content and quality measurements. Near-infrared transmittance spectroscopy has

been used as a nondestructive method for the determination of oil content in pea-

nuts (125). Fourier-transform infrared methodology has been applied as a quality

control method in determining peanut oil in high fat products such as peanut butter

(126) and monitoring changes in peanut oil and other oils under oxidative condi-

tions (127). Although Fourier-transform–Raman spectroscopy has been applied to

the classification of fats and oils including peanut oil (128), differential scanning

calorimetry has been used to follow changes in the thermal characteristics of frying

oils such as peanut oil (129).

6.1. Fatty Acids

Peanut oil is composed of mixed acylglycerol of approximately 80% unsaturated

and 20% saturated fatty acids (37). In mature peanuts, the oil is 96% triacylglycerol

(130) with the main fatty acids being palmitic, oleic, and linoleic (40). Other fatty

acids found in peanut oil are arachidic, 11-eicosensoic, behemic, and lignoceric

acids. The long-chain fatty acids are usually found at about or slightly less than

2%. The percent of free fatty acids in peanut oil varies between 0.02% and 0.6%

(131). Lipase hydrolysis of triacylglycerols into free fatty acids and glycerol occurs

before germination (132) and during adverse storage (97). Consequently, high free

fatty acid values indicate poor handling, immaturity, mold growth, or other factors

that lead to triacylglycerol hydrolysis (133).

PEANUT OIL EVALUATION AND COMPOSITION 449

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With maturation, the percentage of oleic acid increases while linoleic acid per-

centage decreases slightly (41, 45). Oxidative stability of peanut oil is highly cor-

related with the ratio of oleic acid to linoleic acid (134); thus, oil stability is

correlated with maturity. Cooler production climates lower the O/L ratio, resulting

in oil with a shorter shelf life. Other environmental conditions, such as drought

(135), and dry-land farming (45) will also lower the O/L ratio, and selecting soils

with a more basic pH and increasing iron while avoiding overfertilization will

increase the O/L ratio (136). Application of growth regulators has been shown to

reduce the O/L ratio (137, 138), decrease the eicosenoic acid content (137), and

increase oil yield (139). Herbicides have been shown to have a slight effect on

the oleic and linoleic acid content (137, 140). Fatty acid composition of peanut

oil can also be widely influenced by cultivar source (141, 142). Varietal variations

in fatty acid composition are summarized in Table 5 and by Young (143). It is

again important to indicate that in high oleic acid peanut cultivars, the general char-

acteristic is a linoleic acid content of 4% or less (41).

6.2. Triacylglycerol Structure

Interest in the triacylglycerol structure of peanut oil arose from observations that

peanut oil showed atherogenic effects in rabbits and other animals (144–147).

This atherogenicity has been attributed to the triacylglycerol structure of peanut

oil (148–150) because treatment of peanut oil with a base, to bring about randomi-

zation, reduced the atherogenicity to that of corn oil (151). However, the results of

the Kritchevsky studies (148, 149, 151) have been questioned (40) on the basis that

they did not include other vegetable oils for comparison and a lack of data for

appropriate statistical analysis. More recent studies (152–155) have shown that pea-

nut oil and peanut product-based diets produce a reduction in total and LDL cho-

lesterol.

Various studies have identified anywhere from 18 to 84 different triacylglycerol

species in peanut oil (149, 150, 156, 157). Although many different triacylglycerol

species have been identified, the data are conclusive concerning a nonrandom dis-

tribution of fatty acids in the sn-1, -2, -3 positions of the triacylglycerols. As the

TABLE 5. Reported Fatty Acid Composition Ranges of Peanut Oil.

Fatty Acid Percentage

Reference 102 135 141

Palmitic 8.0–14.0 7.4–12.5 5.3–10.4

Stearic 1.0–4.5 2.7–4.9 2.2–4.4

Oleic 35.0–69 41.3–67.4 52.8–82.2

Linoleic 12.0–43.0 13.9–35.4 2.9–27.1

Arachidic 1.0–2.0 1.2–1.9 1.1–1.8

Eicosenoic 0.7–1.7 0.7–1.4 0.7–2.4

Behenic 1.5–4.5 2.1–3.6 2.2–3.9

Lignoceric 0.5–2.5 0.9–1.7 1.0–1.9

450 PEANUT OIL

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composition of the peanut oil changes, so does the spatial arrangement of the tri-

acylglycerols (158). The predominate triacylglycerol species are OOL, OOO, OLL,

POL, and POO (O ¼ oleic, L ¼ linoleic, P ¼ palmitic) (157). Oleic acid is present

in high concentration at all three positions, and linoleic acid is found primarily in

the sn-2 position. The shorter chain length saturated fatty acids, palmitic and stea-

ric, are mainly located in the sn-1 position and less in the sn-3 position. The longer

chain length saturated fatty acids, arachidic, behenic, and lignoceric, are located in

the sn-3 position. Eicosenoic acid is also frequently located in the sn-3 position

(156, 157, 159). Peanuts are grown under many different environmental conditions,

and such environmental differences can also influence the composition of the pea-

nut oil and the triacylglycerol species (160). Because peanut triacylglycerol struc-

ture and composition and total oil composition are affected by environmental

factors and diverse genetic background (158), their atherogenic potency (148)

and oxidative stability (74) may also be affected by these conditions.

6.3. Phospholipids

The phospholipid content of peanut oil can vary from 0.6% to 2% depending on the

maturity of the peanuts from which the oil is extracted (161). The major phospho-

lipids of peanut oil are phosphatidic acid (PA), phosphatidylcholine (PC), phospha-

tidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylglycerol (PG), and phosphatidylinositol (PI).

The composition of the phospholipid fraction is influenced by maturity and by

the postharvest stresses to which the peanuts are subjected (162). The concentra-

tions of PA, PE, PC, and PG were higher in immature seed, and PI was lower,

when compared with mature seed. The concentration of all phospholipids except

PG increased when peanuts were subjected to a curing temperature of 40�C.

When the peanuts were frozen before curing, a significant increase was observed

in PA and PG, whereas PC and PE decreased in comparison with the controls. Oxi-

dative stability of peanut oil has been postulated for some time to be caused by con-

stituents in addition to the linoleic acid content and tocopherol content (163). More

recently, it has been reported that phospholipids act in a synergistic manner with

tocopherols in lengthening the onset of the induction period of lipid oxidation

(164, 165). The degree of unsaturation of the acyl fatty acid chain has an added

effect on the length of the induction period (164). PE and PI appeared to be

more effective than PC in increasing oil stability (164). The usually high concen-

tration of PC in raw peanut oil contributes to the efficiency of the degumming pro-

cess during refining (166). A critical concentration of PC is needed to ensure that a

gum is formed for the removal of the phospholipids.

6.4. Tocopherols

Tocopherols are considered a moderate antioxidant in the peanut oil. The Codex

Alimentaris standard for tocopherols in peanut oil (103) indicates a range of

48–373 mg/kg for alpha-tocopherol, 0–140 mg/kg for beta-tocopherol, 88–389

mg/kg for gamma-tocopherol, and 0–22 mg/kg for delta-tocopherol. Total tocopherol

PEANUT OIL EVALUATION AND COMPOSITION 451

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content ranges from 130 to 1300 mg/kg. Tocotrienols should not be detectable in

peanut oil. Tocopherol content in the oil can be affected by variety, production loca-

tion within the United States, maturity, and temperature of seed storage (37). Sto-

rage of peanut seed at 38�C vs. 22�C reduced alpha-tocopherol content by about

25%. A multiyear study on oil composition of peanuts exported from Argentina,

China, and the United States found tocopherol content to be the highest in the

U.S. source and lowest in the China source (167). Alpha- and gamma-tocopherols

were found to be the most abundant forms. Tocopherol form influences the antioxi-

dant capacity. Gamma- and delta-tocopherols were found to be significantly better

antioxidants than alpha-tocopherol, in that either of the first two would protect oil

approximately twice as long as a similar concentration of the latter (168). In unpro-

cessed expeller-pressed peanut oil, the tocopherol content did not affect antioxidant

activity when the oil was stored at 2% relative humidity (RH) vs. 91% RH (169).

Total tocopherol content in oil may be reduced during the degumming and the

bleaching processes by 20% and 60%, respectively (170). Peanut oil tocopherols

are also lost during frying when peanut oil is used as a cooking oil (171). Tocophe-

rols are also known as vitamin E; thus, peanut oil can serve as a good source for this

vitamin particularly when the oil is unrefined. The vitamins found in peanuts are

given in Table 6.

TABLE 6. Vitamin Content of Peanuts (Units per 100 g Dry

Weight) (37).

Constituent Units

Fat soluble

Vitamin A 26 I.U.

Carotene (provitamin A) Trace (<1 ug)

Vitamin D ND

Vitamin E 26.3 –59.4 mg/100-g oil

Alpha-tocopherol 11.9 –25.3 mg/100-g oil

Beta-tocopherol 10.4 –34.2 mg/100-g oil

Delta tocopherol 0.58 –2.50 mg/100-g oil

Vitamin K ND

Water soluble

B-Complex

Vitamin B1—Thiamine 0.99 mg

Vitamin B2—Riboflavin 0.14 mg

Vitamin B6—Pyridoxine 0.30 mg

Vitamin B12—Cyanocobalamin ND

Niacin—Nicotinic acid 12.8–16.7 mg

Choline 165–174 mg

Folic acid 0.28 mg

Inositol 180 mg

Biotin 0.034 mg

Pantothenic acid 2.715 mg

Vitamin C 5.8 mg

ND–Nondetectable.

452 PEANUT OIL

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6.5. Sterols

Sterols are a minor constituent of peanut oil, varying from 0.09% to 0.3% (172).

Refining can remove nearly 61% of the sterol content. The Codex Alimentaris stan-

dards for desmethysterols in peanut oil (103) are given in Table 7. Detailed analyzes

of the unsaponifiable lipid fraction from peanut oil can be found in the literature.

Analysis of the unsaponifiable fraction of Nigerian peanut oil indicated the total

fraction to be about 0.4%, and when subdivided by TLC, the fractions were sterols

60%, hydrocarbons 27%, the remainder aliphatic alcohols, and other minor compo-

nents (119, 120). Beta-sitosterol comprised 64% and campesterol 15% of the sterol

fraction. The major triterpene alcohols included 24-methylenecycloartanol at 46%

and cycloartanol at 33%. A more recent report on the separation of the unsaponifi-

able components of Madagascar peanut oil (173) indicated that the sterol fraction

was composed of 72% beta-sitosterol and about 17% campesterol. The 4-alpha-

methylsterol fraction was primarily composed of citrostadienol (20%), obtusifoliol

(17%), gramstisterol (15%), and cycloeucalenol (14%). The triterpene alcohol frac-

tion was composed of 14-methyl-cycloeucalenol (42%), cycloartenol (22%),

cycloartanol (15%), and lupeol (10%). Use of peanut oil as frying oil also results

in the loss of phytosterols (174). The major sterol component, beta-sitosterol, has

recently been shown to inhibit cancer growth (175) and may offer protection from

colon, prostate, and breast cancer.

7. USES

Peanut oil is used mainly for edible purposes in the preparation of shortening, mar-

garines, and mayonnaise, as a cooking and frying oil and as a salad oil. As indicated

previously, the primary use of edible peanuts outside North America is the produc-

tion of peanut oil (Tables 1, 2), and the oil may be hydrogenated into vanaspati, an

Indian analogue to margarine (176). Because of the high smoke point (229.4�C),

TABLE 7. Codex Alimentarius Standard Levels

of Desmethylsterols in Peanut Oil (102).

Constituent % Total Sterols

Cholesterol ND–3.8

Brassicasterol ND–0.2

Campesterol 12.0–19.8

Stigmasterol 5.4–13.2

Beta-sitosterol 47.4–69.0

Delta-5-avenasterol 5.0–18.8

Delta-7-stigmastenol ND–5.1

Delta-7-avenasterol ND–5.5

Others ND–1.4

Total sterols (mg/kg) 900–2900

ND—Nondetectable, defined as � 0.05%.

USES 453

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refined peanut oil is often used in deep-fat frying (14), but hydrolysis of acylglycer-

ols into free fatty acids during frying leads to a decrease in smoke point (107). For

both frying and as a salad oil, peanut oil is considered to be superior to soybean oil

and develops fewer flavor defects with long-term use (177). Peanut oil is considered

to be superior in the manufacture of pourable dressings because of its ability to hold

solids in suspension longer (178). However, because peanut oil solidifies at 0–3�C,

it does not meet the definition for salad oil, which must remain clear after 5.5 hours

of immersion in an ice bath at 0�C (179). A nonedible use of peanut oil as a diesel

fuel has been investigated (180–183), but it is more expensive than conventional

No. 2 diesel fuel and has the added drawbacks of lower heating value, greater sur-

face tension, greater viscosity, and greater density (104).

7.1. Peanut Oil as a Protectant

In developing countries, there is a need for economical and locally available mate-

rials that can be used as a protectant, particularly as a seed protectant. In Nigeria,

peanut oil is recommended for control of rice weevils (Sitophilus oryzae L.) (184)

and as a protectant of maize from damage by the maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais

Motsch.) (185). Protection can last up to 180 days. Control of Sitophilus granaries

L. with peanut oil was effective for up to 90 days of storage for wheat (186). The

use of peanut oil for the control of Callosobruchus maculates (F) in cowpea grain

has been reported (187) and its mode of action investigated (188, 189). Applications

of the method have been reported from Gambia (190), Senegal (191), Nigeria, and

Colombia, South America (192). In India, peanut oil is used as a protectant against

Callosobruchus chinensis L. in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) (193). In Sahel, pea-

nut oil is used for protecting leguminous tree seeds against seed beetles (194). Other

protectant applications are its use as a protectant against infestations of Cryptolestes

pusillus and Rhyzopertha dominica in stored grains, such as maize and sorghum

(195). Application of peanut oil to apples as a postharvest treatment has been shown

to reduce superficial scald (196). Peanut oil has also been evaluated for control of

the parasitic tracheal mite [Acarapis woodi (Rennie)] in colonies of the honeybee

[Apis mellifera (L.)] (197).

8. DIETARY ASPECTS

Dietary aspects of high fat content products such as peanuts and peanut products

and of peanut oil are often in question. One point is the high atherogenic potential

of peanut oil, which has been attributed to its triacylglycerol structure (148–150),

because treatment of the oil with a base to bring about randomization reduced the

atherogenicity to that of corn oil (151). Another study has suggested that the lectin

in peanut oil may significantly contribute to its atherogenic properties (198). Con-

tinued human epidemiological studies have shown a 30–50% reduction in cardio-

vascular disease in individuals who ate nuts, including peanuts, four to five times a

week (199–201). Another human subjects study found that the use of high oleic

454 PEANUT OIL

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acid peanuts as the fat source in a low-fat–high-monounsaturate diet produced sig-

nificant positive changes in blood lipids in postmenpausal women, including reduc-

tion of total cholesterol from 264 to 238 mg/dl (202). Additional evidence for the

benefits of a diet high in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats and low in satu-

rated fat on body function is found in a recent study in which the subjects consumed

one of five diets: a low-fat diet, one including olive oil, one including peanuts and

peanut butter, one including peanut oil, and a typical American diet. Results indi-

cated that the diet including peanuts and peanut butter, the one including peanut oil,

and the diet including olive oil (all low in saturated fat and cholesterol, and high in

monounsaturated fat) lowered total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol. Further, each

of these three diets lowered triacylglycerol levels, but they did not lower the

beneficial HDL cholesterol (203, 204). Peanut oil because of its beta-sitosterol

may inhibit cancer growth (175) and may offer protection from colon, prostate,

and breast cancer. Snacking on peanuts or peanut products has a satiety effect

that enables individuals to control hunger without leading to a weight gain (205).

9. ALLERGENICITY

The allergenicity of peanuts is well documented (206). Because peanuts are among

the most potent allergenic foods, based on the prevalence of peanut allergy and the

frequency of reported severe adverse reactions (207–209), peanut oil has been the

most thoroughly studied (210). It has been shown that the most peanut-allergic indi-

viduals can safely consume refined peanut oil, whereas unrefined oil can provoke

reactions in some of the same individuals. However, some other studies report cases

of allergic individuals reacting to peanut oil that presumably had been refined (211,

212). This has led to a debate about the safety of refined oils and specifically

whether to label each oil individually because of the potential risk of allergenicity.

It has been suggested that the discrepancy between these observations was caused

by processing differences (210). It was further suggested that there needs to be a

standardized and validated methodology for measuring the protein content and

immunoreactivity of the residual protein in the peanut oil. Such a standard metho-

dology can then be used to maintain process specifications. Thresholds of reactivity

to allergens also need to be established to assess fully the risk from very small

amounts. It has been questioned whether high oleic acid peanuts differ in their aller-

genic properties from normal peanuts. Investigation of this question concluded that

a high content of oleic fatty acid has no effect on peanut allergenicity (213).

REFERENCES

1. H. T. Stalker and C. E. Simpson, in H. E. Pattee and H. T. Stalker, ed., Advances in Peanut

Science, Am. Peanut Res. & Educ. Soc., Stillwater, Oklahoma, 1995, p. 15.

2. A. Krapovickas (English translation), in P. J. Ucko and I. S. Falk, eds., The Domestica-

tion and Exploitation of Plants and Animals, Gerald Duckworth Co. Ltd., London, U.K.,

1969, pp. 424–441.

REFERENCES 455

Page 26: peanut oil

3. D. J. Banks, Am. J. Bot., 74, 724 (Abstr) (1987).

4. D. J. Banks, Am. J. Bot., 75, 158 (Abstr) (1988).

5. D. J. Banks, T. Pozorski, S. Pozorski, and C. B. Donnan, Am. Peanut Res. Educ. Soc., 25,

34 (Abstr) (1993).

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