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inant role in the World Bank, the InternationalMonetary Fund, and the World TradeOrganizationwe must bear responsibility forthe social justice travesties that our policies cre-ate. Our corporate practices clearly disruptrather than support justice in some emergingeconomies, and theres no point denying that

multinationals have contributed to labor, envi-ronmental, and human-rights abuses(Danaher, 2001, p. 14). Many countries spendmore on repaying foreign debt than on healthcare and other basic needs. For example, socialservices represent only 34.5 percent of Brazilsgovernment expenditures in contrast to debtrepayments that consumed 75.6 percent of thegovernments revenue. In India social servicesare only 11.9 percent of government expendi-tures, but India pays 33.6 percent of revenuesin debt repayment (CQ Researcher, 200l).

Other countries with different types of gov-ernment and economies need to be supportedto find their own ways rather than necessarilyconforming to ours. This can be encouraged byequitable negotiations about debt relief andprograms that support appropriate, morelocalized responses to economic problems.Foreign countries with entirely different legal,economic, and political systems do not needthe International Monetary Fund to forciblyimpose on them what is a dubious form of cap-italism even in the United States (Johnson,2000, p. 225).

The Use of ViolenceThe United States continues to be one of themost violent nations in the world. We havemuch disagreement about the role of guns inour society, with the percentage of people feel-

BACKGROUNDThe terrorist events on U.S. soil on

September 11, 2001, have led to a multidimen-sional paradigm shift in public thinking, whichrelates in important ways to any policy aboutpeace and social justice. Although the versionof this policy approved by the NASW DelegateAssembly in August 1993 focused on the end of

the cold war, consideration must now be givento a new type of war on U.S. soil, fought by theUnited States and others around the world.

The Role of the Military and aNew Kind of War

Between 1989 and 2001 the U.S. governmentcut defense spending by closing bases; cuttingtroop strength; and eliminating numbers ofplanes, missiles, and ships (Cooper, 2001).Even so, in 1995 military expenses continued torepresent 35 percent of this countrys totalexpenditures (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000)during the same year that social welfare expen-ditures under public programs accounted foronly 20.9 percent of the gross domestic product(U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000).Furthermore, in 2001, before the September ter-rorist attacks, President Bush was focusingfuture military spending on his request for $8.3 billion in 2002 alone to fund a missile defenseprogram (Cooper, 2001). After September 11the military budget obviously soared in newways not experienced since the Gulf War of1991.

Economic Struggles and JusticeThe United States plays a huge part in eco-

nomic policy around the world. As the majorplayer in global capitalismthrough our dom-

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ing it is more important to control gun owner-ship growing from 57 percent in 1993 to 65 per-cent in 1999. At the same time among others inthe same study, those feeling it is most impor-tant, instead, to protect the rights of gun own-ers decreased from 34 percent in 1993 to 30 per-

cent in 1999 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1999).When participants were asked about the pri-mary causes of gun violence in the UnitedStates in a 2000 study, there was a distinct gen-der difference. Only 18 percent of men laid blame on the availability of guns comparedwith 24 percent of women. The way that par-ents raise children was seen as the cause of gunviolence by 51 percent of the men but only 38percent of the women, and the influence ofpopular culture was identified as the reason forgun violence by 23 percent of men and 29 per-cent of women.

In contrast with much of the rest of theworld, a majority of Americans (71 percent) in1999 believed in the death penalty. Again thisvaries by gender and race: 66 percent ofwomen favor this punishment compared with75 percent of men, whereas a more dramatic 39percent of black people were in agreementcompared with 77 percent of white people(Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1999). A more evensplit exists between those who feel that usingthe death penalty for those who have commit-ted murder will deter others from the samecrime: 47 percent opt for deterring and 49 per-cent feel that it does not have much effect(Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1999).

The number of prisoners executed in theUnited States grew steadily from 23 in 1990 to56 in 1995; there was a large jump in 1999 to 98individuals (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000).Some of our violence is explicitly directedtoward children, women, immigrants, and,after September 11, Muslims and people fromthe Middle East. Clearly, both terrorism andstate-supported violence affect people world-wide in negative ways that perpetuate theopposite of peace and social justice.

International CooperationAlthough the terrorist attacks of September

11 have led to unprecedented outreach forinternational cooperation, this has not been

done primarily through the United Nations,which represents the most appropriate format.

Poverty, violence, racism, sexism, homopho- bia, and environmental degradation are prob-lems throughout the world. Patterns of con-sumption in the United States directly relate to

many of these problems, and, as a country, weneed to take responsibility for the results of ourlifestyle. We must accept the fact that the eco-nomic situation we enjoy and the privileges itgives us are at the expense of two-thirds of thepeople of the world. Our world has finiteresources, and what we have is related to thefact that the majority of people do not haveenough (Isasi-Diaz, 1999, p. 220).

ISSUE STATEMENT Beyond the destruction and trauma of war is

the continual drain on human and materialresourcesthe diversion of energies and goodsand services to meet military needs while thesocial welfare of millions of people in theUnited States and abroad goes unmet. Warsalso sap the nations resources, resulting in thepollution of the earth and the atmosphere andposing a threat to the worlds public health.Already we are faced with epidemic-scaleinternational health threats associated withAIDS and starvation. Groups at high risk ofthreats to health and survival, such as children,elderly people, people with disabilities, andwomen, inevitably suffer most from war andviolence. In addition to the physical, social, andeconomic consequences, the arms race, theintroduction of chemical and biological war-fare, and the threat of nuclear war pose uniquepsychological consequences worldwide.

In a world economy with a single nationmore powerful than all the others, militaryapproaches predictably run the risk of increas-ing violence rather than paving the way forpeace. Although the strengths and weaknessesof U.S. culture are highly visible and broadcastaround the world, resentments inevitably arecreated by the wide discrepancies in basic

needs such as food, shelter, and a livable wage.This, in turn, creates a dramatic risk for all ofus, regardless of ideology or politics. Given itswealth and power, the United States will be aprime recipient in the foreseeable future of all

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of the more expectable forms of blowback, par-ticularly terrorist attacks against Americans inand out of the armed forces anywhere on earth,including within the United States (Johnson,2000, p. 223). Of course responding to terror-ism, especially against civilians and on our

own shores, in ways that do not maim and killis a tremendous challenge, but it appears to bea vital step for establishing and maintainingpeace.

Issues of social justice have special meaningfor women, particularly in a world in whicheducation, the vote, work outside the home,and rights within marriage and the family arenot assured for significant numbers of women.Women in many countries, though, includingthose countries in which the roles of womenare strictly limited, tend to have a strong inter-est in working for peace, especially through

nonviolent strategies, because of their concernfor human life, especially for children, but alsofor themselves and other women (Brock-Utne,1985, p. 37). It is imperative that the UnitedStates ratify the Convention to End Discrimi-nation of All Women (CEDAW). Because socialwork historically has been a female-dominatedprofession, in terms of the majority of bothworkers and clients, it is not surprising thatmembers of this profession feel passionatelyabout peace and social justice.

Racism, negative attitudes toward immi-grants, and generalizations about members ofcertain ethnic and religious groups are not newto the United States. Indigenous people withinthe United States and Africans who were brought here under slavery also sufferedimmensely. Violence, persecution, and discrim-ination, both historic and present, are realitiesexperienced by gay, lesbian, bisexual, andtransgender populations, as well as by women,children, and other disenfranchised popula-tions. Chinese people were excluded from ourshores for many years, people of Japanesedescent were put in internment camps at the beginning of World War II, European Jewswere denied entry as refugees from fascism,and Haitian refugees were accepted and thensent back during the 1970s and 1980s. Theevents of September 11 have opened up a newand similarly intolerable series of acts againstMuslims and people of Middle Eastern descent

that require diligence and determination to bring to an end. True peace and social justicecan never be attained for one group withoutapplying it to everyone.

POLICY STATEMENT In spite of the challenges of terrorism, we

need to reduce the use of violence in our lan-guage and as a solution to domestic and inter-national problems. Waging drug wars thatdo not include real treatment and carrying outthe war on crime with its increased andinequitable use of lengthy incarceration andincreased capital punishmentwhich have not been shown to reduce crime and are meted outdisproportionately against certain racial andethnic groupsare both counterproductive topeace and social justice.

Economic and Military IssuesAlthough we have recently gone through a

new military buildup and actions against terror-ist groups and the countries that harbor them,the United States needs to emphasize economicsupport rather than Western dominance in itsforeign policy language and actions. The wel-fare of all people and the balanced economicand social development of nations should be thegoals of U.S. foreign policy.

Whenever possible, the United States mustfoster cooperation in its foreign policy ratherthan unilateral military action. A long-rangegoal should be reduction of military spendingand diversion of the subsequent savings tosocial needs. At such a time, it will be impor-tant that the government support economicconversion from war production to peacefulpursuits, with special assistance for personnelmoving from military to civilian life.

In addition, the United States should workthrough peaceful efforts for the abolition ofnuclear testing by all nations and the eventualelimination of nuclear weapons worldwide.Similarly, this country needs to support the

abolition of all chemical and biological war-fare, urge all countries to cease production ofsuch compounds and to destroy any existingstockpiles, and support a U.N.-sponsoredmultinational treaty calling for strong sanc-

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tions against any countries that possess bio-chemical weapons.

International CooperationEven in the face of overt terrorist attacks on

the United States, it is still vital that we work increative ways with other nations and interna-tional organizations to reduce violence againstinnocent civilians. Indeed, finding constructiveand nonviolent means to deal with internation-al conflicts must be a priority.

Full participation with such organizations asthe United Nations, the World HealthOrganization, and the World Court are criticalfirst steps in such an effort. In addition, theUnited States should endeavor to decrease thenumbers of refugees by providing economic andsocial assistance rather than military shipmentsto other nations. Refugees must be granted asy-lum if they are faced with violence and death.

By recognizing the equal worth of allhumans and the equal loss in terms of thedeath of any innocent person, concepts such asasylum should not be based on race, ethnicity,or country of origin. The United States shouldratify and support implementation of the 1948Universal Declaration of Human Rights andrelated U.N. treaties. This declaration statesthat each person has the right to a standard ofliving that is adequate for his or her health andwell-being. Human rights principles hold upthe vision of a free, just, and peaceful worldand set minimum standards for how individu-als and institutions everywhere should treatpeople (Mittal & Rosset, 1999, p. 164).

The United States should support each coun-trys right to political and economic self-deter-mination, in compliance with international lawand U.N. conventions on human rights; to non-intervention; and to control over its own natur-al resources. In considering the tragic and grow-ing phenomena of world poverty and hunger,internationally coordinated efforts must includeredistribution of global resources (such as tech-nology transfer, reduction of Third World debt burden, and reduction of overconsumption pat-terns of the West), improvement of womens sta-tus, and population stabilization.

The United States needs to stimulate andsupport the use of government funds, free of

military or political purposes, to promotesocial and economic development and protec-tion of the environment and to meet basichuman needs in education, housing, health,and welfare services. Whenever possible suchprograms should be funded and coordinated

through the United Nations and emphasizehuman values and their contribution to humanwelfare.

Social Works RoleSocial workers have consistently advocated

for a just and peaceful world. Social justice iscentral to the professions values and specifi-cally emphasized in its Code of Ethicsas socialwork professionals are instructed to promotepolicies that safeguard the rights of and con-firm equity and social justice for all people(NASW, 1999, p. 7). Social workers similarlyare encouraged to learn other languages, become informed about all aspects of other cul-tures, and apply the professions values towork with clients of all races, ethnicities, andsexual orientations.

On more macro levels, social workers fre-quently work with existing organizations witha world focus, such as the United Nations, aswell as participate in grassroots organizationsthat address peace, human rights, freedom,environmental issues, participation, humandiversity, and the special needs of children andwomen. Furthermore, as a global profession,social work promotes internships, travel, andinternational work opportunities that allowpractitioners to join with others in the strugglefor a more peaceful and equitable world. It iscritical for social workers to hold social welfarepositions in multilateral and bilateral pro-grams of technical assistance such as commu-nity development. Additional training needs to be provided to prepare qualified social work-ers for international service. NASWsInternational Committee should be strong andactive, and NASW should build strong connec-tions with the International Federation ofSocial Workers.

The United States needs to continue usingqualified professional social workers to servethe armed forces and military dependents toensure that a high priority is given to human

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