Paul Ashall, 2009 Membrane processes. Paul Ashall, 2009 Membrane processes Microfiltration (MF)...
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Transcript of Paul Ashall, 2009 Membrane processes. Paul Ashall, 2009 Membrane processes Microfiltration (MF)...
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Membrane processes
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Membrane processes• Microfiltration (MF)• Ultrafiltration (UF)• Nanofiltration (NF)• Reverse osmosis (RO)• Gas separation/permeation• Pervaporation (PV)• Dialysis• Electrodialysis• Liquid membranes• Etc
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Membrane applications in the pharmaceutical industry
• Ultra pure (UP) water (RO)• Nitrogen from air• Controlled drug delivery (‘Membrane Technology and
Applications’ p13)
• Dehydration of solvents• Waste water treatment• Separation of isomers (e.g. naproxen) (‘Membrane
Technology and Applications’ pp517, 518)• Membrane extraction• Sterile filtration
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Specific industrial applications
Dialysis – hemodialysis (removal of waste metabolites, excess body water and restoration of electrolyte balance in blood)
Microfiltration – sterilization of pharmaceuticals; purification of antibiotics;separation of mammalian cells from a liquid
Ultrafiltration – recovery of vaccines and antibiotics from fermentation broth
etc
Ref. Seader p715
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Paul Ashall, 2009
FEED
RETENTATE
PERMEATE
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Paul Ashall, 2009
• Membrane structure (dense, microporous, asymmetric, composite, membrane support)
Ref. Baker p4
RO (homogeneous dense solution – diffusion membranes)
‘pore’ diam. approx. 0.001 micron
NF ‘pore’ diam. approx. 0.001 micron
UF (pore flow microporous membranes)
pore diam. approx. 0.01 micron
MF (pore flow microporous membranes)
pore diam.approx 1 micron
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Membrane types – isotropic (physical properties do not vary with direction)
• Microporous – pores 0.01 to 10 microns diam.; separation of solutes is a function of molecular size and pore size distribution
• Dense non-porous – driving force is diffusion and solubility
• Electrically charged microporous
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Anisotropic - physical properties that are different in
different directions (asymmetric)
• Thin dense active surface layer supported on thicker porous layer
• Composite – different polymers in layers
• Others – ceramic, metal, liquid
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Asymmetric membranesFlux through a dense polymer film is inversely proportional to the
thickness so it is necessary to make them as thin as possible. Typical asymmetric membranes are 50 to 200 microns thick with a 0.1 to 1 micron ‘skin’.
Thin dense layer
Microporous support
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Membrane materials
• Polymers e.g. cellulose triacetate etc
• Metal membranes
• Ceramic membranes (metal oxide, carbon, glass)
• Liquid membranes
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Membrane fabrication
Isotropic
• Solution casting
• Melt extrusion
• Track etch membranes (Baker fig. 3.4)
• Expanded film membranes (Baker fig. 3.5)
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Paul Ashall, 2009
continued
Anisotropic
• Phase separation (Loeb – Sourirajan method) (see Baker fig. 3.12)
• Interfacial polymerisation
• Solution coated composite membranes
• Plasma deposition of thin films from a gas state (vapor) to a solid state on substrate.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Membrane modules
• Plate and frame - flat sheets stacked into an element
• Tubular (tubes)• Spiral wound designs using flat sheets• Hollow fibre - down to 40 microns diam. and
possibly several metres long ; active layer on outside and a bundle with thousands of closely packed fibres is sealed in a cylinder
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Spiral wound
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Spiral wound module
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Membrane filtration – Buss-SMS-Canzler
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Module designs
• RO – spiral wound
• UF – tubular, capillary, spiral wound
• Gas separation – hollow fibres, spiral wound
• PV – plate and frame
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Operating considerations
• Membrane fouling• Concentration polarisation (the layer of solution
immediately adjacent to the membrane surface becomes depleted in the permeating solute on the feed side of the membrane and enriched in this component on the permeate side, which reduces the permeating components concentration difference across the membrane, thereby lowering the flux and the membrane selectivity)
• Flow mode (cross flow, co-flow, counter flow)
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Module selection criteria
• Cost
• Concentration polarisation
• Resistance to fouling
• Ease of fabrication of membrane material
• ΔP
• Suitability for high pressure operation
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Aspects• Crossflow (as opposed to ‘dead end’) – cross
flow velocity is an important operating parameter
• Sub-micron particles
• Thermodynamic driving force (P, T, c etc) for transport through membrane is activity gradient in membrane
• Flux (kg m-2 h-1)
• Selectivity
• Membrane area
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Characteristics of filtration processes
Process technology
Separation principle
Size range Molecular weight cut off (MWCO)
MF Size 0.1-1μm -
UF Size,charge 1nm-100nm >1000
NF Size, charge, affinity
1nm 200-1000
RO Size, charge, affinity
< 1nm <200
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Process technology
Typical operating pressure (bar)
Feed recovery (%)
Rejected species
MF 0.5-2 90-99.99 Bacteria, cysts, spores
UF 1-5 80-98 Proteins, viruses, endotoxins, pyrogens
NF 3-15 50-95 Sugars, pesticides
RO 10-60 30-90 Salts, sugars
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Models
• Ficks law (solution-diffusion model)Free volume elements (pores) are spaces between polymer
chains caused by thermal motion of polymer molecules. Diffusivities in the membrane depend on size and shape of molecules and structure of polymer.
e.g. RO, PV• Darcys law (pore flow model)Pores are large and fixed and connected.e.g. UF, MF • NF membranes are intermediate between UF and RO
membranes
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Darcys law
Ji = Di (ciom – cilm)/l
where l is membrane thickness, ciom is concentration of i on feed side of membrane, cilm is concentration of i on permeate side of membrane.
J flux
D diffusivity
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Paul Ashall, 2009
• Fick's first law relates the diffusive flux to the concentration field, by postulating that the flux goes from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration, with a magnitude that is proportional to the concentration gradient (spatial derivative). In one (spatial) dimension, this is
where J = -D(dc/dx)• J is the diffusion flux in dimensions of mol m-2s-1(g cm-2 s-1) . J
measures the amount of substance that will flow through a small area during a small time interval.
• D is the diffusion coefficient or diffusivity in dimensions of m2s-
1(cm2s-1)• c (for ideal mixtures) is the concentration in mol m-3
• x is the position, m• dc/dx is concentration gradient
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Simple model (liquid flow through a pore using Poiseuilles
law)J = Δp ε d2
32 μ lJ = flux (flow per unit membrane area)l = pore lengthd = pore diam.Δp = pressure difference across pore μ = liquid viscosityε = porosity (π d2 N/4, where N is number of pores per cm2)J/Δp – permeance
Typical pore diameter: MF – 1micron; UF – 0.01 micron
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Mechanisms for transport through membranes
• Bulk flow
• Diffusion
• Solution-diffusion (dense membranes – RO, PV, gas permeation)
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Paul Ashall, 2009
continued
• Dense membranes: transport by a solution-diffusion mechanism. The driving force for transport is the activity (concentration) gradient in the membrane. For liquids, in contrast to gases, the driving force cant be changed over a wide range by increasing the upstream pressure since pressure has little effect on activity in the liquid phase.
• In PV one side of the membrane is exposed to feed liquid at atmospheric pressure and vacuum is used to form vapour on the permeate side. This lowers the partial pressure of the permeating species and provides an activity driving force for permeation.
• In RO the permeate is nearly pure water at 1 atm. and very high pressure is applied to the feed solution to make the activity of the water slightly greater than that in the permeate. This provides an activity gradient across the membrane even though the concentration of water in the product is higher than that in the feed.
• Microporous membranes: pores interconnected
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Separation of liquids
• Porous membranes
• Asymmetric membranes/dense polymer membranes
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Paul Ashall, 2009
continued• With porous membranes separation may depend just
on differences in diffusivity.• With dense membranes permeation of liquids occurs
by a solution-diffusion mechanism. Selectivity depends on the solubility ratio as well as the diffusivity ratio and these ratios are dependent on the chemical structure of the polymer and the liquids. The driving force for transport is the activity gradient in the membrane, but in contrast to gas separation, the driving force cannot be changed over a wide range by increasing the upstream pressure, since pressure has little effect on activity in the liquid phase.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Microporous membranes
- are characterised by• Porosity (ε)• Tortuosity (τ) (measure of path length compared
to pore diameter)• Average pore diameter (d)
Ref. Baker p 68 – Fig 2.30
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Microporous membranes
• Screen filters (see Baker fig. 2.31) – separation of particles at membrane surface.
• Depth filters (see Baker fig. 2.34) – separation of particles in interior of the membrane by a capture mechanism; mechanisms are sieving and adsorption (inertial capture, Brownian diffusion, electrostatic adsorption)
Ref. Baker pp 69, 73
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Filtration
• Microfiltration (bacteria – potable water, 0.5 – 5 microns). Pore size specified.
• Ultrafiltration (macromolecules, molecular mass 1000 – 106, 0.5 – 10-3 microns). Cut-off mol. wt. specified.
• Nanofiltration (low molecular weight, non-volatile organics from water e.g. sugars). Cut off mol. wt. specified.
• Reverse osmosis (salts)• Crossflow operation (as opposed to ‘dead end’ filtration)
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Membrane types
• Dense
• High porosity
• Narrow pore size distribution
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Ultrafiltration(UF)Uses a finely porous membrane to separate water and
microsolutes from macromolecules and colloids.Membrane pore diameter 0.001 – 0.1 μm.Nominal ‘cut off’ molecular weight rating assigned to
membrane.Membrane performance affected by:• Concentration polarisation• Membrane fouling• Membrane cleaning• Operating pressure
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Spiral wound UF module
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Paul Ashall, 2009
UF
Membrane materials (Loeb- Sourirajan process)• Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)• PVC/PAN copolymers• Polysulphone (PS)• PVDF (polyvinylidene difluoride)• PES (polyethersulfone)• Cellulose acetate (CA)
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Paul Ashall, 2009
UF
Modules
• Tubular
• Plate and frame
• Spiral wound
• Capillary hollow fibre
UF applications
• Protein concentration
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Microfiltration (MF)
Porous membrane; particle diameter 0.1 – 10 μm
Microfiltration lies between UF and conventional filtration.
In-line or crossflow operation.
Screen filters/depth filters (see Baker fig. 7.3, p 279)
Challenge tests developed for pore diameter and pore size.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
MF
Membrane materials
• Cellulose acetate/cellulose nitrate
• PAN – PVC
• PVDF
• PS
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Paul Ashall, 2009
MF
Modules
• Plate and frame
• Cartridge filters (see Baker figs. 7.11/7.13, p288, 290)
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Paul Ashall, 2009
MF operation
• Fouling
• Backflushing
• Constant flux operation
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Paul Ashall, 2009
MF uses
• Sterile filtration of pharmaceuticals (0.22 μm rated filter)
• Drinking water treatment
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Reverse osmosisMiscible solutions of different concentration separated
by a membrane that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute. Diffusion of solvent occurs from less concentrated to a more concentrated solution where solvent activity is lower (osmosis).
Osmotic pressure is pressure required to equalise solvent activities.
If P > osmotic pressure is applied to more concentrated solution, solvent will diffuse from concentrated solution to dilute solution through membrane (reverse osmosis).
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Reverse osmosis
The permeate is nearly pure water at ~ 1atm. and very high pressure is applied to the feed solution to make the activity of the water slightly greater than that in the permeate. This provides an activity gradient across the membrane even though the concentration of water in the product is higher than that in the feed.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Reverse osmosis
Permeate is pure water at 1 atm. and room temperature and feed solution is at high P.
No phase change.Polymeric membranes used e.g. cellulose
acetate20 – 50 atm. operating pressure.Concentration polarisation at membrane
surface.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
RO
F
R
PP1 P2
P1 » P2
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Model
• Flux equations
• Salt rejection coefficient –
R = [1- csl/cso]100
csl is salt concentration on permeate side
cso is salt concentration on feed side of membrane
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Water flux
Jw = cwDwvw (ΔP – Δπ) RT zor Jw = A (ΔP – Δπ)
Dw is diffusivity in membrane, cm2 s-1 ( 10-6)cw is average water conc. in membrane, g cm-3 (~ 0.2)vw is partial molar volume of water, cm3g-1
ΔP pressure difference across membraneR gas constantT temperatureΔπ osmotic pressure differencez membrane thicknessA is water permeability constantNote: (ΔP – Δπ) is approx. 50 atm.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Salt flux
Js = Ds Ss (Δcs) zor Js = B(cso – csl) = Bcso
Ds diffusivity (10-9 cm2/s)Ss solubility coefficient of solute (= 0.035 mol/cm3.atm for sodium chloride)Δcs difference in solution concentration on feed side and permeate side of
membrane - (cso – csl) B salt permeability constant
Note: selectivity increases as P increases
Ref. Baker pp 34, 195
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Jw increases with ΔP and selectivity increases also since Js does not depend on ΔP.
csl = (Js/Jw) ρw
where ρw is density of water (g cm-3)
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Membrane materials
• Asymmetric cellulose acetate• Polyamides• Sulphonated polysulphones• Substituted PVA• Interfacial composite membranes• Composite membranes• Nanofiltration membranes (lower pressure, lower
rejection; used for lower feed solution concentrations)
Ref. Baker p203
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Paul Ashall, 2009
RO modules
• Hollow fibre modules (skin on outside, bundle in sealed metal cylinder and water collected from fibre lumens; individual fibres characterised by outside and inside diameters)
• Spiral wound modules (flat sheets with porous spacer sheets, through which product drains, and sealed edges; a plastic screen is placed on top as a feed distributor and ‘sandwich’ is rolled in a spiral around a small perforated drain pipe) (see McCabe fig. 26.19)
• Tubular membranes
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Operational issues
• Membrane fouling• Pre-treatment of feed solutions• Membrane cleaning• Concentration polarisation (higher conc. of solute at
membrane surface than in bulk solution – reduces water flux because the increase in osmotic pressure reduces driving force for water transport and solute rejection decreases because of lower water flux and greater salt conc. at membrane surface increases solute flux) (Baker ch. 4)
• > 99% salt rejection
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Example
See McCabe p893
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Applications
• UP water (spec. Baker pp 226, 227)
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Dialysis
A process for selectively removing low mol. wt. solutes from solution by allowing them to diffuse into a region of lower concentration through thin porous membranes. There is little or no pressure difference across the membrane and the flux of each solute is proportional to the concentration difference. Solutes of high mol. wt. are mostly retained in the feed solution, because their diffusivity is low and because diffusion in small pores is greatly hindered when the molecules are almost as large as the pores.
Uses thin porous membranes.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Electrodialysis
Ions removed using ion selective membranes across which an electric field is applied.
Used to produce potable water from brackish water. Uses an array of alternate cation and anion permeable membranes.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Pervaporation (PV)
In pervaporation, one side of the dense membrane is exposed to the feed liquid at atmospheric pressure and vacuum is used to form a vapour phase on the permeate side. This lowers the partial pressure of the permeating species and provides an activity driving force for permeation.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
PV
The phase change occurs in the membrane and the heat of vapourisation is supplied by the sensible heat of the liquid conducted through the thin dense layer. The decrease in temperature of the liquid as it passes through the separator lowers the rate of permeation and this usually limits the application of PV to removal of small amounts of feed, typically 2 to 5 % for 1-stage separation. If a greater removal is needed, several stages are used in series with intermediate heaters.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Pervaporation (PV)
• Hydrophilic membranes (polyvinylalcohol - PVA) e.g. ethanol/water
• Hydrophobic membranes (organophilic) e.g. poly dimethyl siloxane - PDMS
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Paul Ashall, 2009
PV
• Composite membrane (dense layer + porous supporting layer)
Ref. Baker p366
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Modules
• Plate & frame (Sulzer/GFT)
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Paul Ashall, 2009
PV
• Solution –diffusion mechanism
• Selectivity dependent on chemical structure of polymer and liquids
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Paul Ashall, 2009
PV
Activity driving force is provided by difference in pressure between feed and permeate side of membrane.
Component flux is proportional to concentration and diffusivity in dense membrane layer.
Flux is inversely proportional to membrane thickness.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Models
• Solution – diffusion model
• Experimental evidence (ref. Baker pp 43 – 48)
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Paul Ashall, 2009
continued
Ji = PiG (pio – pil)
lJi – flux, g/cm2sPi
G – gas separation permeability coefficient, g cm. cm-2 s-1. cmHg-1 (= DiKiG)
KiG is gas phase sorption coefficient
(= miρmγioG/ γiom ρisat)
where mi is molecular weight of i (g/mol), ρm is molar density of membrane (mol/cm3), γio
G is activity of i in gas phase at feed side of membrane, γiom is activity of i in membrane at feed interface, ρisat is saturation vapour pressure of i.
l – membrane thickness
pio – partial v.p. i on feed side of membranepil – partial v.p. i on permeate side
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Paul Ashall, 2009
PV selectivity
β = (cil/cjl)
(cio/cjo)
cio conc. i on feed side of membrane
cil conc. i on permeate side of membrane
cjo conc. j on feed side
cjl conc. j on permeate side
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Paul Ashall, 2009
continued
Structure – permeability relationships. Membrane permeability is dependent on solute
diffusion coefficient and absorption in membrane.• Sorption coefficient, K (relates concentration in
fluid phase and membrane polymer phase)• Diffusion coefficient, D m2/s
Ref. Baker p48
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Paul Ashall, 2009
continued
Diffusion in polymers• Glass transition temperature,Tg• Molecular weight, Mr• Polymer type and chemical structure, • Membrane swelling,• Free volume correlations –pores and spaces
produced between polymer chains as a result of thermal motion of polymer molecules.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
continued
Sorption coefficients in polymers vary much less than diffusion coefficients, D.
nim = pi/pisat , where nim is mole fraction i absorbed, pi is partial pressure of gas and pisat is saturation vapour pressure at pressure and temperature of liquid.
Vi = pi/pisat , where Vi is volume fraction of gas 2.72 absorbed by an ideal polymer
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Dual sorption model
Gas sorption in a polymer occurs in two types of site - (equilibrium free volume and excess free volume (glassy polymers only where additional free volume is ‘frozen in’ during synthesis )).
Baker pp 56-58
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Paul Ashall, 2009
continued
Flux through a dense polymer is inversely proportional to membrane thickness.
Flux generally increases with temperature (J = Jo exp (-E/RT) i.e. a Arrhenius relationship – an exponential relationship with temperature.
An increase in temperature generally decreases membrane selectivity.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
PV process design
• Vacuum driven process• Condenser• Liquid feed has low conc. of more permeable
species
Ref. Baker p 370
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Applications
• Dehydration of solvents e.g. ethanol (see McCabe pp886-889, fig. 26.16/example 26.3)
• Water purification/dissolved organics e.g. low conc. volatile organic compounds (VOC)/solvents in water with limited solubility
• Organic/organic separations
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Paul Ashall, 2009
PV – hybrid processes using distillation
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Paul Ashall, 2009
continued
• Measures of selectivity• Rate (flux, membrane area)• Solution –diffusion model in polymeric
membranes (RO, PV etc)• Concentration polarisation at membrane
surface• Membrane fouling• Batch or continuous operation
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Gas separation
When a gas mixture diffuses through a porous membrane to a region of lower pressure, the gas permeating the membrane is enriched in the lower mol. wt. component(s), since they diffuse more rapidly.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Gas separation
The transport of gases through dense (non-porous) polymer membranes occurs by a solution-diffusion mechanism.The gas is absorbed in the polymer at the high pressure side of the membrane, diffuses through the polymer phase and desorbs at the low pressure side. The diffusivities in the membrane depend more strongly on the size and shape of the molecules than do gas phase diffusivities.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
continued
Gas separation processes operate with pressure differences of 1 – 20 atm., so the thin membrane must be supported by a porous structure capable of withstanding such pressures but offering little resistance to the flow of gas. Special methods of casting are used to prepare asymmetric membranes, which have a thin, dense layer or ‘skin’ on one side and a highly porous substructure over the rest of the membrane. Typical asymmetric membranes are 50 to 200 microns thick with a 0.1 to 1 micron dense layer.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Mechanisms
• Convective flow (large pore size 0.1 – 10 μm; no separation)
• Knudsen diffusion – pore diameter same size or smaller than the mean free path of gas molecules (λ). (pore size < 0.1μm; flux proportional to 1/(Mr)1/2 – Grahams law of diffusion)
• Molecular sieving (0.0005 – 0.002 μm membrane pore size)
• Solution-diffusion (dense membranes)
(See Baker fig. 8.2, p 303)
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Knudsen diffusion
Knudsen diffusion occurs when the ratio of the pore radius to the gas mean free path (λ ~ 0.1 micron) is less than 1. Diffusing gas molecules then have more collisions with the pore walls than with other gas molecules. Gases with high D permeate preferentially.
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Poiseuille flow
If the pores of a microporous membrane are 0.1 micron or larger, gas flow takes place by normal convective flow.i.e. r/λ (pore radius/mean free path) > 1
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Transport of gases through dense membranes
JA = QA (pA1 – pA2)
QA is permeability (L (stp) m-2 h-1 atm-1) – flux per unit pressure difference
pA1 partial pressure A feed
pA2 partial pressure A permeate
JA flux
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Membrane selectivityα = QA/QB = DASA/DBSB
D is diffusion coefficient
S is solubility coefficient (mol cm-3 atm-1) i.e. cA = pASA, cB = pBSB
A high selectivity can be obtained from either a favourable diffusivity ratio or a large difference in solubilities.
(Ref. McCabe ch. 26 pp 859-860)
(Ref. McCabe ch. 26 pp859 – 860)
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Diffusion coefficients in polyethyleneterephthalate
polymer (PET) (x 109 at 25oC, cm2 s-1)
Polymer O2 N2 CO2 CH4
PET 3.6 1.4 0.54 0.17
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Membrane materials
• Metal (Pd – Ag alloys/Johnson Matthey for UP hydrogen)
• Polymers (typical asymmetric membranes are 50 to 200 microns thick with a 0.1 to 1 micron skin)
• Ceramic/zeolite
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Modules
• Spiral wound
• Hollow fibre
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Flow patterns
• Counter-current
• Co-/counter
• Radial flow
• Crossflow
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Paul Ashall, 2009
System design
• Feed/permeate pressure (Δp = 1 – 20 atm.)
• Degree of separation
• Multistep operation
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Applications
• Oxygen/nitrogen separation from air (95 – 99% nitrogen)
• Dehydration of air/air drying
Ref. Baker p350
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Other membrane processes
• Ion exchange
• Electrodialysis e.g. UP water
• Liquid membranes/carrier facilitated transport e.g. metal recovery from aqueous solutions
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Paul Ashall, 2009
PV lab
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Paul Ashall, 2009
Reference texts
• Membrane Technology and Applications, R. W. Baker, 2nd edition, John Wiley, 2004
• Handbook of Industrial Membranes, Elsevier, 1995• Unit Operations in Chemical Engineering ch. 26, W.
McCabe, J. Smith and P. Harriot, McGraw-Hill, 6th edition, 2001
• Transport Processes and Unit Operations, C. J. Geankoplis, Prentice-Hall, 3rd edition, 1993
• Membrane Processes: A Technology Guide, P. T. Cardew and M. S. Le, RSC, 1998
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Paul Ashall, 2009
continued
• Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 7th edition, R. H. Perry and D. W. Green, McGraw-Hill, 1998
• Separation Process Principles, J. D. Seader and E. J. Henley, John Wiley, 1998
• Membrane Technology in the Chemical Industry, S. P. Nunes and K. V. Peinemann (Eds.), Wiley-VCH, 2001
• Chem. Eng. Progress, vol. 100 no. 12, Dec. 2004 p 22