Patterns of Mother-Infant Interaction and Attachment: A ... · Isabella et al., 1989; Malatesta,...

INFANT BEHAVIOR AND DEVELOPMENT 18,435-446 (1995)

Patterns of Mother-Infant Interaction and Attachment: A Cluster-Analytic Approach

MARGARET FISH Marshall University School of Medicine

CYNTHIA A. STIFTER The Pennsylvania State University

This study examined stability and change in patterns of mother-infant interaction between 5 and 10 months and their relation to attachment security at 18 months. Cluster analysis was used to identify patterns of dyadic interaction. There was significant, but not substantial, stability in cluster membership from 5 to 10 months. For females, being in the most optimal cluster at 5 months related to subsequent attachment security, regardless of the lo-month pattern of interaction. For males, who were significantly more likely to be insecure than females, insecure attachment was predicted by negative change from 5 to 10 months (moving from a more optimal to a less optimal cluster).

attachment mother-infant interaction sex differences

There is considerable evidence linking the quality of early mother-infant interaction to subsequent attachment relationships measured in the Strange Situation. Specifically, when mothers are rated as more sensitive, positive, synchronous, and contingent in their style of interaction, infants are subsequently more likely to be securely attached (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978; Cox, Owen, Henderson, & Margand, 1992; Egeland & Farber, 1984; Grossmann, Grossmann, Spangler, Suess, & Unzner, 1985; Isabella, Belsky, & von Eye, 1989; Smith & Pederson, 1988).

Conversely, less sensitive and contingently responsive interaction has been related to insecure attachment. Ainsworth et al. (1978) found mothers of infants later classified as avoidant to be most characterized by their abrupt and inter- fering manner when picking the infant up. Several other researchers have reported that mothers of avoidant infants respond to their infants at what may be an excessively high rate and/or in a noncontingent manner that seems intrusive (Belsky, Rovine, & Taylor, 1984;

This research was supported by a small grant from the National Institute of Mental Health (#MH 44324) and a grant from the Pennsylvania State University Biomedical Research Support Grant Program awarded to C.A.S. The authors wish to thank the mothers and infants who partici- pated in this study and also to thank Jude Cassidy for her assistance with the attachment data.

Correspondence and requests for reprints should be sent to Margaret Fish, Department of Family and Community Health, Marshall University School of Medicine, Huntington, WV 25755.

Isabella et al., 1989; Malatesta, Culver, Tesman, & Shepard, 1989). By contrast, Ainsworth et al. described unresponsive behavior (delay in responding to cries and doing something else while holding the infant) as most characteristic of mothers of infants later classified as resistant. Other researchers also have presented evidence that mothers of resistant infants are less responsive to and involved with their infants (Belsky et al., 1984; Isabella et al., 1989; Smith & Pederson, 1988; Wille, 1989).

Interactional behaviors of infants measured during the 1st year also have been related to subsequent attachment security. Vaughn and Waters (1990) reported that infants rated by observers as more sociable were more often classified as secure in the Strange Situation, whereas Bates, Maslin, and Frankel (1985) noted that infants rated by mothers as low in social responsiveness had less secure attachments. Blehar, Lieberman, and Ainsworth (1977) found that infants who smiled more and reacted more intensely in face-to-face interaction with their mothers and who fussed and turned away less were more likely to form secure relationships. Although such findings suggest that the interactional style of both part- ners contributes to predicting later attachment, Blehar and her colleagues stated,

it seemed to be maternal behavior that largely determined whether the baby responded positively with smiling, vocalizing, or bouncing or merely met her gaze. It also seemed to be

435

436 Fish and Stifter

maternal behavior that determined whether the face-to-face encounter led to later chains of reciprocal interaction and hence to a pro- longed episode. (p. 191)

Presumably due to general acceptance of this highly plausible belief that adults shape interactions more than infants, there has been a tendency for researchers to focus on maternal antecedents of infant-mother attachment, despite the fact that theorists view attachment classifications derived from the Strange Situation as a measure of the relatiomhip between the infant and the caregiver (Sroufe & Fleeson, 1986). In this investigation, we sought to consider both maternal and child behavior in forecasting attachment security. In order to do so in a parsimonious, multivariate manner. our approach to examining the influence of I St-year interaction on attachment relationships was to consider behavior at the level of the dyad through cluster analysis. In a previous study (Fish. Stifter, & Belsky, 1993), we used cluster analysis of mother and infant S-month interactional behaviors to group mother-infant pairs according to patterns of dyadic interaction. These dyadic clusters were significantly discriminated by neonatally measured infant. mother. and family demographic variables, as predicted by Belsky’s (1984) determinants of parenting model. The goal of this report was to extend this method of characterizing patterns of mother-infant interaction to IO months and to examine the influence of both S- and I&month interaction, as well as sttrhility and c~l~qgc in patterns of interaction. on attachment rclation- ships assessed at I8 months. Thus. this article applies a novel methodology to examining antecedents of infant-mother attachment.

Ba\ed on prior studies relating mother and infant variables to attachment and on our previous work clustering interactional variables. it was hypothesi/.ed that dyads who showed patterns of’ interaction in which mothers were sensitive and not overcontrolling. and in which infants were positive and responsive, would be most likely to demonstrate secure attachment relationships, as measured in the Strange Situation. Insecure infant-mother attachment was expected to be associated with patterns of interaction which included low sensitivity and/or high overcontrolling maternal behavior and low infant responsiveness and positivity.

Because prior research offers contlicting evidence regarding any particular age at which mother-infant interaction might be more pre- dictive of attachment classification (Isabella. l993), we had no hypotheses concerning the relative importance of S-month versus IO- month interaction but, rather, aimed to explore that question, as well as the effects of stability and change in interactional patterns.

METHOD

Participants

Participants wcrc 62 rnorher-infant purs. participating 111 a longitudinal study. who had complete data at S-. IO-, and

IX-month asse\\menth. The S- and IO-month age\ were selected as poinL\ in the l\t jcar clearly beyond the first

and second hiobchwioral shift\, rcqxxtively. when majot transitions in hehawor might be expected to occur. The IX- month time point was chosen a\ one when children exprc\\ intcnw alrachment behaviors nntl all can bc cxpecled to \how competent independent locomotion.

Of 101 participants recruited when the mtant\ wcrc neonater. 28 could no1 be reached or declined to participate by IX months.’ Participant\ had been recruited for a \lutty ending at IO month\. and by 18 months, a number had moved from the arca and other\ indlcaUxi that thq no longer had time to pnrllcipote. Compared lo mother\ uho completed the study. those who dropped OUI were younger (M = 26.82. SD = 3.61 \\. M = 79.35. SII = 5.86. I = 2.13. ,I < .OS) and more likely to he primipnrou\. x1( t . ,“v’ = IO I 1 = 7.15, ~7 < .Ol. There uuc nu hignificnnt dlll’erence\

brrwecn tho\e who completed the \udy and thaw vvho did not on maternal education, perwnality. rwpon\i>e attitude to infaX\. self-efficacy. marilal \tntu% or wlisfxtion. or the intct-aclional hehaviov of motherr and infant\ at S month\.

Procedures and Measures

When mlanr\ ticrc 5 and IO month\ of ape. molhcr\ and ml’ant\ came to the umvrrrity Inhoratory for videotaped VI\- its which included eleclroph! \~olo~ical rrcordinp of rutins heart rate. free play with molher. the Bayley Scale\ (If Infant Development. and \Ituation\ at each see designed IO elicit poaitivc reactivily (pcch-a-boo and approach hq mother and then a \crangc~-). rcaclion to novelty (rcmtrtc-

There wcrc an ;~ddi~~onal I I participant\ \cho con- pleted the I X-monlh aswssment hut had incomplete dola al

5 (II- IO month\, primarily due to technical dlfficultie\.

Patterns of Mother-Infant Interaction

control robot), and mild frustration (arm restraint and toy removal). The laboratory episodes of interest in this report were 5 min of unstructured free play between mother and Infant at each age.

Mothers were instructed to play with their infant as they would at home, in order to make the infant feel at ease in the lab. A basket of toys appropriate for a fairly wide age range of infants was available. Mothers were told they could use the toys if they wished, and most did.

From the videotapes, mother and infant behaviors dur- mg free play were coded independently within times and across times on the following interactional scales.

~Vorher- Smsiti~if!: and Intrusiveness. For each 30-s period, ratings were made of maternal sensitivity and intrusive/ overcontrolling behavior, based on the level, appropriate- ness, and timing of mothers’ behavior (Fish, Stifter, & Belsky, 1991, 1993). Both types of behavior were rated on 4-point scales designed to reflect none, a low level. a moderate level, or a high level during a 30-s period. Summed scores for sensitivity and intrusive/overcontrolling behavior could range from 0 to 30 for the free-play session.

Maternal behavior rated as sensitive was well timed, pro- vided an appropriate level of response/stimulation, followed the infant’s lead and signals, or facilitated the infant’s self- regulation and growth. Behavioral examples of sensitivity included contingent responses to the infant’s affect and actions, positive verbal encouragement of the infant’s efforts, providing assistance to allow the infant to achieve his/her goals, and responding to the infant’s focus by either sustain- ing interest in one toy/activity or appropriately changing to another. Interrater reliability for mother sensitivity (Cohen’s kappa) averaged .hl at 5 months and .68 at 10 months.

Maternal behavior rated as intrusive/overcontrolling was overly stimulating, poorly timed. out of synchrony with the infant’s pace and signals, or appeared to address the mother’s agenda at the expense of the infant’s, Examples of intrusive overcontrolling behaviors included continuing physical play when the infant verbally protested or averted gaze, removing a toy the infant was focused on and playing with, continuing 10 manipulate and control a toy when the infant indicated he or she wanted to do it him/herself, overloading the infant with toys, or maklng developmentally inappropriate and frustrating requests to the infant. Mean interrater reliability (Cohen’s kappa) for maternal intrusive/overcontrolling behavior was .7 I at 5 months and .72 at IO months.

frlfunr Kesponsil~~~s. During each 30 s, infants were rated on their engagement and involvement with toys and social responsiveness to mother using a S-point scale. Because mothers varied considerably in how much they structured the free play around toys versus more social interaction. these two aspects of infant responding were combined in order to allow comparisons of the general responsiveness of all infants in the situation. Ratings ranged from no evident Interest in toys or mother (rated 0) to intense interest. involvement, and animation (rated 4). A rating of I indicat- cd little interest and difficulty engaging the intant; 2 indicated IllOdemte interest; and 3 reflected a high level of interest in toys including manipulation or a high level of engagement with mother with llttle looking away. Total respon- Gveness scores for the free-play period could range from 0 to 40. Average interrater reliability for infant responsiveness (Cohen’s kappa) was .73 at 5 months and .76 at IO months.

Infun! Posifi~e rend Nqutive Affect. Finally, ratings were made of infant smiling and laughter and of negative vocal- izations using 3-point scales which reflected none, some, or extensive affect during each 30 s of free play. Total affect scores could range from 0 to 20. For the coding of positive affect, interrater reliability (Cohen’s kappa) averaged .80 at 5 months and .90 at IO months. The Kappas for negative affect were .8 I and 1 .OO.

In$m-Mother Afruc~hmenr. When infants were IX months old, mothers and infants were videotaped in the standard Strange Situation procedure (Ainsworth et al., 1978) in the laboratory. Infants were classified into insecure-avoidant (A I, A2), secure (BI, B2, B3, B4), insecure-resistant (Cl, C2), and disorganized (D) categories by two trained coders in an independent laboratory. Reliability was calculated for attachment classification in the major categories (A. B, C, D). Interrater agreement, based on 30% of the sample, was 86R.’

In this sample, 14.5% of the infants (n = 9, 7 male) were categorized as A (avoidant), 72.6% (n = 45, IX male) as B (secure). 3.2% (n = 2, 2 male) as C (resistant), and 9.7% (n = 6, 4 male) as D (disorganized). The best-fitting major category of the disorganized infants was C in 5 cases and B in I case. (See Ainsworth et al., 1978, and Main & Solomon, 1990, for detailed descriptions of the attachment behaviors of infants in each category.)

Because the method of clustering dyadic interactional behaviors had not previously been related to attachment, we were interested in exploring the effects of different patterns of interaction over time, both on attachment classification and on the comparative degree of security in relationships. Thus, attachment was considered both as a categorical variable. that is secure (9 I, 82, B3, B4) versus insecure (Al. A2, C I, C2, D), and as a continuous variable coded on the 6. point scale proposed by Crittenden (1985). On Crittenden’s scale, B3 infants are considered most secure, and infants with disorganized attachment strategies, labelled A/C by Crittenden, are considered least secure. The scale is: 83 = 6: Bl.B2=S;B4=4;A2.C1=3;Al=2;C2,D=l.

The rationale for this scaling is based on the premise that among insecure children, those whose behavior appears more organized and strategic are seen as somewhat more secure and better functioning than cliildrcn who are passive or disorganized. In defining the low end of the scale, Crittenden (1985) commented, “the lack of active coping characterizing the C2 pattern was interpreted as helplessness and. both alone and in combination with the avoidant response Idisorganized behavior], was deemed among the most anxious patterns” (p. 1305). Main’s description of the disorganization and disorientation of D infants, compared 10 the more coherent strategies employed by secure, avoidant. and resistant infants, also supports such an ordering of security (Main & Solomon. 1986). See Crittenden for additional detail regarding the ordering of various manifestations of avoidance and ambivalence on the scale.

’ The coders were trained to a level of 90% agreement by Jude Cassidy before beginning the coding. The rate of agreement with her on the 30% of the sample checked for reliability was equal to agreement reported for expert coders with Mary Ainsworth (see Carlson & Sroufe. 1993, pp. 4. 12).


RESULTS

A series of analyses was carried out to address three questions. First, what patterns of dyadic interaction are found at each age? The 5 and IO-month sets of mother and infant interactional behaviors were subjected to separate cluster analyses in order to differentiate mother-infant pairs who appeared more and less harmonious, responsive, and positively engaged with each other. Next, what degree of stability is found in dyadic interaction over the 1st year? The S- and lo-month clusters were related to each other in order to examine stability (and change) in patterns of dyadic interactive behavior. Finally, how do stability and change in patterns of dyadic interaction relate to attachment? The clusters were related to attachment classification in order to test the influence of prior patterns of interaction on attachment relationships at 18 months, In addition, repeated-measures analyses were conducted with each of the interactional variables in order to compare the information obtained by relating attachment to individual mother and infant behaviors to that obtained by relating attachment to clustered behaviors.

Preliminary Analyses

Prior to conducting the cluster analyses, the interactional variables at each age were corre- lated to determine the strength of relations among variables within time and stability of variables across time. Table 1 shows modest stability in mother sensitivity and intrusiveness and in infant negative affect over time and some intercorrelation among interactional variables within times. At 5 months, more sensitive mothers were less intrusive, and their infants

were more responsive. At 10 months, more sensitive mothers had infants who were more positive. At both ages, more negative infants were less responsive.

Paired t tests on the interactional variables at 5 and 10 months, which produce results equivalent to a main effect for time in a repeated-measures analysis of variance, showed that levels of interaction did change over time for the group as a whole. Mother sensitivity increased from 5 to 10 months (MS = 12.68 and 16.29 SDS = 5.11 and 3.92, respectively), t(61) = 5.17, p < .OOO 1. Infant positive affect increased (MS = 1.95 and 3.18, SDS = 2.53 and 3.02, respectively), r(61) = 2.71, p < .Ol, and negative affect decreased (MS = 0.90 and 0.24, SDS = 2.62 and .72, respectively), t(61) = 2.15, p < .05. Thus, clusters formed from the interactional variables at each time reflect these group developmental changes.

Preliminary analyses were also conducted to determine if infant sex affected dyadic clusters or attachment classification. Although cluster membership was independent of sex at both ages, females were more likely to be classified as secure, ~2 (I, N = 62) = 6.56, p < .Ol, and had higher security scores than males, t(60) = 2.18, p < .05. Therefore, infant sex was included in all analyses relating interactional patterns to attachment.

Patterns of Dyadic Interaction at 5 and 10 Months

Cluster analysis groups subjects according to their degree of similarity on a set of specified variables. Thus, cluster analysis permitted us to examine patterns across the five interactional

TABLE 1 Correlations Between Interactional Variables

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 M Sensitivity 5 -.66”” .31* .17 .09 .28’ p.21 .03 .24’ -.OA 2. M Intrusiveness 5 -.22 .oo -.02 -.12 .27 p.06 p.17 .02 3. I Responsiveness 5 - - .07 -.36’” -.12 -.26* p.09 .lO -.OA A. I Positive Affect 5 - - -.05 .33” -.16 .02 .19 -.17 5. I Negative Affect 5 - - .19 -.08 -.19 -.08 .A1 *** 6. M Sensitivity 10 - -.17 -.17 .26* -.OA 7. M Intrusiveness 10 - - - .20 -.16 -.03 8. I Responsiveness 10 - - - - - .03 -.34” 9. I Positive Affect 10 - - - -.lO

10. I Negative Affect 10 - - - - - -

Note. M = mother; I = infant. l p < .05. l *p < .Ol ***p < ,001. l ***p < .OOOl

Patterns of Mother-Infant Interaction 439

behaviors simultaneously and to group mother-infant dyads with similar behavioral profiles at each age. Using standardized scores on each variable and the centroid linkage method of cluster analysis, three clusters were identified at 5 months and at 10 months. Cluster analysis proceeds in a hierarchical fashion, initially con- sidering each case a separate cluster and repeat- edly combining similar cases until all are joined, analogous to many branches joining and leading to a single tree trunk. Distinct, inter- pretable clusters are identified by examining the histogram of the distances between cases and where they combine and by comparing cluster means on the component variables.

At both ages, three clusters emerged which could be rank ordered from most to least optimal interaction, based on attachment theory and research. Table 2 shows cluster means on the interactional variables at both ages.

At 5 months, Cluster 1 dyads were distin- guished by high mother sensitivity and high infant responsiveness and positive affect. An overall dyadic pattern of sensitive, nonintrusive mothers and positive, responsive infants is one which theory and research suggests relates to the development of secure infant-mother attachment. Cluster 2 dyads showed significantly diminished sensitivity and positive affect; this pattern was therefore judged less optimal than Cluster 1. Cluster 3 mothers were not only significantly less sensitive but also more intrusive than all other mothers, and their

infants were less responsive than infants in Cluster 1 (but not different than infants in Cluster 2). The interactional pattern of dyads in Cluster 3 was judged to be least optimal because mothers were both low in sensitivity and high in overcontrolling behavior.

Some validity for the ranking of the 5-month clusters can be derived from prior analyses (Fish et al., 1993) which indicated that a set of neonatal predictors discriminated dyads in Cluster 1 (dyads with the most optimal interaction pattern) from those in Clusters 2 and 3 (dyads with less optimal interaction patterns) and that the likelihood of more optimal 5- month interaction steadily increased as the number of positive antecedent conditions increased.

At 10 months, mothers in Clusters 1 and 2 showed high sensitivity and low intrusiveness compared to mothers in Cluster 3. Infants in Cluster 1 were more positive than infants in Cluster 2 or Cluster 3. Thus, mother behavior did not differ significantly between Clusters 1 and 2, but infant behavior did. Prior research suggests that low infant positive affect is a potential indicator of later insecure attachment (Blehar et al., 1977; Malatesta et al., 1989). Therefore, the Cluster 2 pattern was judged to be less optimal than Cluster 1, even though mother behavior was not significantly different. The lower sensitivity and higher intrusiveness of Cluster 3 mothers, along with infant positive affect significantly lower than infants in Cluster

TABLE 2 Comparisons of Clusters on Interactional Variable Means

Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 F(2, 59) Significant Contrastsa

5 Months M Sensitivity M Intrusiveness I Responsiveness I Positive Affect I Negative Affect

10 Months M Sensitivity M Intrusiveness I Resmnsiveness I Positive Affect I Neaative Affect

3.52 25.73 3.03 1.33

(;;,;;I

1 .A2 23.42

6.58 0.00

‘n;,=l,”

5.05 23.74 0.32 0.26

‘;;-&I

3.35 25.06

1.29 0.06

14.40 22.90

1.50 0.70

w&l

6.39 23.33

2.91 0.42

53.44”” 1 vs. 2, 1 vs. 3, 2 vs. 3 57.45”” 1 vs. 3, 2 vs. 3

3.20’ 1 vs. 3 8.99”’ 1 vs. 2 1 .OA

7.06” 1 vs. 3, 2 vs. 3 14.63”” 1 vs. 3, 2 vs. 3

1.14 16.77”” 1 vs. 2, 1 vs. 3, 2 vs. 3

241+

Note. M = mother; I = infant. aType I comparisonwise error rate controlled with Duncan’s multiple range test (a = .05). +p< .lO. l p< .05. l *p< .Ol. ***p< ,001. l ***p< .OOOl.


1, led us to rank this interactional pattern as least optimal.

Stability and Change in Patterns of Interaction

Having identified groups with distinct interactional profiles at each age, we next examined cluster membership across time. To what extent did S-month cluster predict which cluster a dyad would be in at 10 months‘? Contingency table analysis (Table 3) revealed significant, but not substantial, dependence of IO-month cluster membership on S-month cluster membership, x*(4, N = 62) = 12.33, /, < .02. Goodman and Kruskal’s (1979) tau statistic, which assesses proportional reduction in error, indicates that knowing S-month cluster significantly reduces error in predicting IO-month classification, by 12%. Table 3 shows that the greatest stability (80%) occurred in Cluster 3. defined by more intrusive, less sensitive mothers at both ages. Stability in Clusters 1 and 2 was much less. 27% and 1 l%, respectively.

However, further examination of stability in patterns of interaction, based on significant cluster differences in mother sensitivity, revealed much greater dependence of IO-month pattern on S-month pattern. Some 66.7% (22) of dyads in Cluster 1 (highest mother sensitivity) at 5 months were in Clusters 1 or 2 (highest mother sensitivity) at 10 months. Similarly, 75.9% (22) of dyads who had been ‘in Clusters 2 or 3 (lower sensitivity) at 5 months were in Cluster 3 (lower sensitivity) at 10 months, ~2 (I, N = 62) = 11.21, 17 < JOI. Goodman and Kruskal’s (1979) tau indicates significant proportional reduction in error, by 18%.

Relation of S- and IO-Month Interaction to 1 g-Month Attachment

As outlined above, two data-analytic strategies were employed in relating the S- and IO-month clusters to attachment. First, attachtnent was considered as a categorical variable (secure vs. insecure). Hierarchical log linear modelling was used to simultaneously consider the associ- ations between S-month clusters, 1 O-month clusters, infant sex, and attachment security. In the log linear model, all of these classification variables are considered independent variables. and the dependent variable is the number of cases per cell of their cross-tabulation. To

obtain a linear model, the natural logs of the cell frequencies are used. The likelihood-ratio chi-square statistic is used to evaluate the fit of a model, with small values of chi-square (and large p values) associated with good models.

The best fitting log linear model (likelihood ratio x* = 18.42, p = ,428) indicated a three- way interaction between security, S-month cluster, and sex, as well as a two-way interaction of 5 and IO-month clusters. Examination of cells showed (a) that 100% of females who had been in the most optimal Cluster 1 at 5 months were secure at 18 months, regardless of cluster membership at 10 months, and (b) that males who showed any negative change in cluster membership between 5 and 10 months (i.e., movement from Cluster I to 2, 1 to 3. or 2 to 3) were disproportionately likely to be classified as insecure (S7%).’

Second, attachment was considered as a continuous variable on the scale described earlier. A 3 (S-month cluster) by 3 (lo-month cluster) by 2 (infant sex) ANOVA was conducted with continuously scored attachment security as the dependent variable. Results similar to the categorical analysis were obtained. Main effects were found for S-month cluster, F(2.48) = 3.19, p = .OS. and IO-month cluster, F(2. 48) = 5.91, 17 < .Ol. In addition, the interaction of the two clusters and the interaction of infant sex with S- month cluster contributed to explaining variance in security, F(3, 48) = 4.70, p < .Ol, and F(2, 48) = 3.76, p < .OS. respectively. Planned comparisons of group means showed that (a) females who had been in Cluster 1 at 5 months had higher mean security scores than males who had been in Cluster 1 (4.95 vs. 3.64, respectively, t( 17.16) = 3.39, y = ,003) and tended to have higher security scores than all other females (4.95 vs. 3.92, respectively, t(12.81) = 1.98,~ = .07), and (b) males who experienced negative change in cluster membership between 5 and 10 months had lower mean security scores than other males (3.26 vs. 4.50, respectively, t(29) = 2.18, /I = .04).

Rclutim of S- aml IO-Month Clusters to Spcci- fit Puttrr-ns of Attuc~hnwnt. Although our relatively small sample size and small numbers ot

Patkrns of Mother-Infant Interaction

TABLE 3 Stability in Cluster Membership

441

1 O-Month Clusters

1 2 3 high sensitivity lower sensitivity

1 33 high sensitivity (6f)4) 6, ($5,

3 2 14 19 5-Month Clusters 2

lower sensitivity ‘367’ (5;) (ly)

10 3 (1.9) (2.7) (5.3)

12 17 33 62

infants in the three insecure categories limited our capacity to relate stability and change in cluster membership to specific partems of attachment, inspection of the distribution of A, B, C, D attachment superimposed on the contingency table of 5-month clusters by 1 O-month clusters revealed two trends. First, the insecure infants whose cluster membership changed from 1 at 5 months to 2 or 3 at 10 months (12s = 4 and 2, respectively) were all classified avoidant. A post hoc test confirmed the tendency for avoidant infants, compared to others, to be disproportionately likely to have been in Cluster 1 at 5 months and Cluster 2 or 3 at 10 months, x2(1, N = 62) = 3.46, p = .06. Thus, these infants (all male in this sample) changed from the most optimal pattern at 5 months to 1 O-month patterns suggesting greater mother overcontrol (either the highest level of mother sensitivity coupled with moderate intrusive behavior or low mother sensitivity and high intrusive/overcontrolling behavior).

The second pattern observed was that both infants classified as resistant and 5 out of the 6 infants classified as disorganized had either been in Cluster 3 at both ages (n = 3) or had changed from Cluster 2 at 5 months to Cluster 3 at 10 months (n = 4). A post hoc test confirmed that C and D infants, compared to those classified A or B, were more likely to have been in Cluster 3 at both ages or to have moved from Cluster 2 to Cluster 3, x2( 1, N = 62) = 10.86, y < .OOl. Thus, these resistant and disorganized infants had experienced less sensitive interaction at both time points than other infants.

Repeated-Measures Analyses of Individual In- teractional Variables by Attachment and Sex. To the extent that the individual interactional variables contributing to cluster membership have different distributions at 5 and 10 months, the two sets of clusters are not equivalent. Thus, although we have defined and ordered Clusters 1, 2, and 3 at each age with regard to hypothesized optimal patterns of interaction, the sets of interactional variables are clearly related to one another in somewhat different ways at each age. Therefore, a final set of analyses was carried out relating stability or change in the individual interactional variables to attachment and sex. Separate repeated-measures ANOVAs were conducted of each of the five variables by attachment classification (secure, insecure) and infant sex to test for (a) the within group (secure/insecure and male/ female) effect of time and (b) security group by sex by time interactions. (As already reported in the preliminary analyses, main effects for time were seen in mother sensitivity and infant positive and negative affect, but not in mother intrusiveness or infant responsiveness.)

Results showed, first, that within-group effects of time were significant for secure infants, F( I, 60) = 20.38, p < .OOOl, and insecure infants, F( 1, 60) = 5.99, p < .05, males, F( 1, 60) = 7.76, p < .Ol , and females, F( 1, 60) = 20.76, p < .OOOl, for mother sensitivity (all increasing in sensitivity from 5 to 10 months). However, for infant positive affect and infant negative affect, the within-group effects of time were significant only for secure infants, F( 1,

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60) = 7.34, and, F(1, 60) = 8.92, both p < .Ol, and for females, F( 1,60) = 4.41, and F( 1,60) = 6.06, both p < .05. Secure infants and female infants increased significantly in positive affect and decreased significantly in negative affect between 5 and 10 months, but insecure and male infants did not.

Second, security group by sex by time interactions were found for mother sensitivity and intrusiveness, F( 1, 58) = 7.60, p < .Ol, and F( 1, 58) = 3.87, p = .05, respectively. Follow-up paired t tests comparing subgroup means revealed that (a) all subgroups (secure males, secure females, and insecure females) except insecure males had mothers who increased significantly from 5 to 10 months, t( 17) = 3.11, p < .Ol; t(26) = 3.42, p < .Ol; t(3) = 7.14, p < .Ol; t( 12) = 0.84, respectively, and (b) only the mothers of secure males showed a significant decrease in intrusive behavior across time, r(17) = 2.94, p c .O 1. (See Table 4 for group and subgroup means.)

These results suggest that although mother sensitivity and infant positive affect increased and infant negative affect decreased in all dyads from 5 to 10 months, these changes were more evident in dyads with female infants and dyads which subsequently had secure infant-mother attachments. The sex by security group by time interactions reveal that subsequently insecure males did not enjoy the increased mother sensitivity found in all other groups, and only secure males experienced a significant reduction in intrusive interaction over time (although it should be noted that mothers of secure females had low levels of intrusiveness at both time points).

DISCUSSION

This investigation demonstrates that clustering mother and infant interactive behaviors togeth- er, a multivariate categorization of dyadic behaviors, is a useful method of distinguishing different patterns of interaction during the 1st year. By ranking clusters from most to least optimal according to attachment theory and research, we found significant relations to subsequent attachment security. Especially noteworthy were the findings which emerged with regard to the greater likelihood of insecure relationships for male infants and the “protection” afforded female infants by early optimal inter-

action with caregivers. More conventional repeated-measures analyses with the individual interactional variables at each time point pro- vided additional information about specific mechanisms linking early interaction to attachment for particular groups of infants.

Our findings confirm that both mother and infant interactive behaviors influence dyadic interaction. In addition to mother sensitivity and intrusive/overcontrolling behavior, infant responsiveness at 5 months and positive affect at both 5 and 10 months contributed significantly to distinguishing patterns of interaction. The fact that infant responsiveness did not dis- tinguish groups as well as expected, especially at 10 months, may reflect the need for a more refined coding scheme-one in which response to toys as stimuli and social response to mother are coded separately. Negative affect proved not to be useful in distinguishing clusters, because it was a very low occurrence behavior in these brief play situations. It is interesting to note, however, that at 5 months, infants in the most optimal cluster expressed somewhat more negative affect, whereas by 10 months, infants in the most optimal cluster expressed no negative affect, suggesting, perhaps, that by that age, infants in the most harmonious dyads may be better regulators of negative affect than other infants.

The stability of cluster membership, in terms of rank order position relative to hypothesized optimal interaction, was significant, primarily due to high stability among the least optimal dyads, a finding with implications for early intervention programs. The large amount of change (instability) in cluster membership may represent developmental change in mother-infant interaction. It should be noted that more than half of the dyads were in the most optimal cluster at 5 months, whereas more than half were in the least optimal cluster at 10 months. Two developmental changes are posit- ed to explain this change. First, as infants become more competent, some mothers may feel somewhat less need for sensitive, facilita- tive interaction. Second, as infants become more independent and motorically able, some mothers may increase their level of controlling, potentially intrusive behavior, relative to others, in an effort to regulate infant behavior. It may be important to observe that only those infants with consistently sensitive and low


intrusive mothers demonstrated high positive affect at both ages.

The patterns of change and their relation to attachment were particularly revealing when infant sex was taken into account. For males, any negative change in cluster membership between 5 and 10 months related to an increased likelihood of insecure attachment. The finding that males were more likely overall than females to have insecure attachment relationships and to be more affected by negative change in patterns of interaction over the 1st year was not expected. Gender differences in rates of insecurity are not usually reported, although gender differences in the correlates or consequences of insecurity are not uncommon (Cohn, 1990; Erickson, Sroufe, & Egeland, 1985; LaFreniere & Sroufe, 1985; Lewis, Feiring, McGuffog, & Jaskir, 1984; Turner, 1991). Considerable evidence does point to males being more vulnerable to the effects of environmental adversity, such as divorce (Hetherington et al., 1992) and marital conflict (Reid & Crisafulli, 1990).

There is also some evidence that male infants are more susceptible to qualitative differences in early interaction with caretakers. Egeland and Farber (1984) found, for male infants only, overall mother sensitivity during 6-month feeding and play situations discriminated secure from insecure infants at 12 months. In our sample, only mothers of subsequently insecure males failed to increase significantly in sensitivity from 5 to 10 months, and they also showed no decline in overcontrolling/intrusive behavior over that time. Thus, it appears that male infants who develop insecure attachments to their mothers may be in dyadic relationships where maternal sensitivity fails to increase at the rate of developmental group norms over time, which may reflect characteris- tics of both mother and infant.

In this sample, female infants who estab- lished harmonious styles of interaction with their mothers early in the 1st year were disproportionately likely to be securely attached in the 2nd year. Not only were females more likely than males to be in the more optimal Cluster 1 at 5 months (Fish et al., 1993), but they appeared to be “protected” from the effects of change to less optimal patterns of interaction at 10 months, whereas males were not. Although only 5 females who had been in Cluster 1 at 5

months were also in Cluster 1 at 10 months, whereas 7 changed to Cluster 2 and 7 to Cluster 3, all 19 of those female infants formed secure relationships with their mothers. In contrast, male infants who had any negative change from 5 to 10 months were more likely to be insecure, even if they had been in the more optimal Cluster 1 at 5 months.

What did change from Cluster 1 at 5 months to Cluster 2 or 3 at 10 months entail? At 5 months, mothers in Cluster 1 were significantly more sensitive than all other mothers and low- est in overcontrolling/intrusive behavior, and their infants were most responsive and positive. Both mothers and infants in Cluster 1 at 5 months showed patterns of interaction which the research of Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall (1978) suggest is related to development of secure infant-mother attachment relationships, and, for females, this early optimal interaction appeared to override subsequent changes. (Three of the 4 insecure females were in the least optimal Cluster 3 at both time points.) Being in Cluster 2 at 10 months involved slightly higher (though not significantly so) rates of mother sensitive and overcontrolling behavior than the cluster seen as most optimal, bringing to mind the tendency noted by Belsky et al. (1984), Isabella et al. (1989), and Malatesta et al. (1989) for mothers of avoidant infants to do “too much.” And, clearly, Cluster 3 at 10 months was distin- guished by high maternal overcontrolling behavior. Of males who had been in Cluster 1 at 5 months, 67% who were in Cluster 2 at 10 months and 50% who were in Cluster 3 at 10 months were insecure, and all of those infants were classified as avoidant. Thus, it may be that male infants who either experience less than the average increase in maternal sensitivity over time or who experience high rates of intrusive maternal interaction in the second half of the 1 st year-or simply a higher rate of both overcontrolling and sensitive interaction combined-are more likely to form insecure- avoidant attachments.

It is noteworthy that infants in Clusters 2 and 3 at 10 months had significantly lower positive affect than infants in Cluster 1. In two previous studies (Belsky, Fish, & Isabella, 1991; Malatesta et al., 1989) diminishing positive affect over time in infants was demonstrated to be a strong predictor of insecure attachment.


The repeated-measures analyses confirm that positive affect increased significantly over time only for secure infants. The direction of effects is unclear, however. Infants who experience less sensitive or intrusive interaction may smile and laugh less, or mothers may increase their rate of interaction and become more intrusive when infants display less positive affect.

A second relation we observed between cluster membership and attachment classification, which was not gender specific, was that both of the resistant infants and 5 of the 6 disorganized infants (4 of whom had forced classifications of C) were either consistently in Cluster 3 or moved from Cluster 2 to Cluster 3. Recall that Cluster 3 mothers were significantly more intrusive and less sensitive than other mothers at both ages. Cluster 2 mothers at 5 months were less sensitive than Cluster 1 mothers and more often seemed “under-responsive” to their infants. Thus, the majority of resistant and disorganized infants in this low-risk sample appear to have experienced interaction that was consistently lower in sensitivity and either consistently overcontrolling or became more intrusive and overcontrolling over time. These patterns of interaction, in a situation where mother is instructed to “play” with her child, suggest that mothers of resistant infants, who have been characterized as unresponsive in home observations, may be somewhat less skilled at reading the infant’s signals and more likely to respond in an over-controlling manner in the laboratory.

A number of limitations can be observed in this investigation. First, the longitudinal sample was relatively small and consisted of predomi- nantly well-educated, middle-class, married mothers. Thus, the findings need replication and may have limited generalizability. Second, although toy play interaction is a useful para- digm for eliciting individual differences in mother-infant interaction (O’Brien, Johnson, & Anderson-Goetz, 1989), our samples of interactional behavior were quite short. Longer samples, as well as repeated and aggregated samples of behavior, would be expected to increase reliability (Wachs, 1987). Finally, our behavioral rating system not only demonstrates less than perfect interrater reliability, it is also nec- essarily constructed and operationalized from an adult point of view and consequently can only approximate what an infant experiences as equivalent to sensitive or intrusive interaction.

Nevertheless, clustering mother and infant behaviors allowed us to examine patterns of dyadic interaction across time and to relate those patterns to subsequent attachment relationships, particularly in conjunction with repeated-measures analyses of the component variables. Further research is now needed to focus on the process of change in interaction over time and to examine the question of why male infants may be more affected by changes in interactional patterns over the 1 st year than females.

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07 July 1994; Revised 10 November 1994 n

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